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Australia has become increasingly conscious of its

role as aglobal citizen in the half century since

World War II and, at the same time, has become

committed to making a positive contribution in the

international arena. Australia plays an active role

in the United Nations (UN) which, since World

War II, has been the centre of most international

initiatives to promote peace and security and

improve the lives of the worlds peoples. Australia

has signed, ratified and incorporated into its

laws a number of UN conventions and treaties

and has also been party to agreements promoting

security, economic growth and equality among the

nations of the Asia-Pacific region. Since 1999,

Australia has led the UN-backed peacekeeping

and humanitarian effort in East Timor while

that nation has struggled to emerge as a viable

independent state.

AUSTRALIA

AS A GLOBALCITIZEN

What role has Australia played in international

affairs in the postwar period?

What have been some important political

developments in postwar Australian history?

How have significant individuals and groups

exercised their democratic rights in the postwar

period?

INQUIRY

Chapter 9

Photograph taken in East Timor, July 2001, showingAustralian peacekeeper Corporal Anthony Griffiths treatinga gash on a childs foot

A student:

5.1 explains social, political and cultural

developments and events and evaluates their

impact on Australian life

5.2 assesses the impact of international events and

relationships on Australias history5.3 explains the changing rights and freedoms of

Aboriginal peoples and other groups in Australia

5.7 explains different contexts, perspectives and

interpretations of the past

5.8 locates, selects and organises relevant historical

information from a number of sources, including

ICT, to undertake historical inquiry

5.10 selects and uses appropriate oral, written and

other forms, including ICT, to communicate

effectively about the past for different audiences.

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229

annex: to take control and use of territory claimed byanotherarchipelago: a group of islands in a large body of water

autonomous:self-governing, independentconstituent assembly: a group with the power to makeor alter a political constitution or lawcontainment: prevention of the expansion ofcommunism, especially by means of military pacts whosemembers act to keep communism within existing bordersforward defence: the policy of fighting to prevent theexpansion of communism into ones country bycontaining its expansion elsewhereglobal citizen: a nation that is actively involved in theworld community and that identifies itself as part of thatcommunity

globalisation: the processes that make it easier forfinance, trade and investment to operate on aninternational levelhumanitarian:concerning the interests and needs ofhuman beingsmandate: area of responsibilitymandatory detention: the policy of imprisoningasylum seekers who dont have a valid visa until it isdecided whether or not to allow them entry into

Australia. The term also refers to laws in WesternAustralia and the Northern Territory in the late 1990swhereby judges had to impose minimum periods ofimprisonment for people found guilty of certain crimes.

militia: a group of soldiers called out periodically fordrill and exerciseratify: toconfirm an agreement made by someonerepresenting the governmentsubsistence farming: farming in which the produce isconsumed by the farmer and his or her family, leavinglittle or no surplus for marketing

subversion: the act of overthrowing or underminingsomethingsustainable development: development thatmaintains high economic growth while making carefuluse of environmental resources in the interests of bothcurrent and future generations

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AUSTRALIAS POST-WAR ROLE

WITHIN THE UN

9.1

The United Nations (UN) came into being in 1945as an organisation dedicated to the maintenance ofworld peace and security. Since then, the UN hasbeen the focus of global initiatives for dealing witharmed conflict. Australia was one of its foundingmembers, and Doc Evatt, the leader of Australiasfirst delegation to the UN, made a significantcontribution to the UN in its early years.

FROM THE BEGINNING . . .Dr Herbert Vere Evatt (18941965) served in manyimportant roles in Australian law and politics asa High Court judge, Attorney-General, Minister forExternal Affairs and as leader of the Labor Party.He led Australias delegation to the meetings toestablish the UNs mandate and draw up itscharter. The United Nations Charter, signed on26 June 1945, created the UNs key organs theGeneral Assembly, the Security Council, theEconomic and Social Council (ECOSOC), theTrusteeship Council, the International Court of

Justice (ICJ) and the Secretariat. In 1947, DocEvatt chaired the United Nations PalestineCommission. He served as first President of theGeneral Assembly from 1948 to 1949, was the firstchairperson of its Atomic Energy Commission andcontributed to the drafting of the UNs 1948Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

DOC EVATT

Photograph of Doc Evatt signing the UN Charter in 1945

Source 9.1.1

Photograph showing the United Nations flag being raised forthe first time in 1947

Source 9.1.2

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231CHAPTER 9: AUSTRALIA AS A GLOBAL CITIZEN

Australia contributes to the UN primarily throughthe UN General Assembly in New York and specialistUN bodies such as the World Health Organization(WHO), the International Atomic Energy Agency(IAEA), the International Labour Organization (ILO)

and the United Nations Educational, Scientific andCultural Organization (UNESCO).Australia promotes its national concerns through

UN discussions on disarmament, internationalsecurity, refugee issues, environmental protection,aid programs and health. Australia supported theUNs Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty and contri-butes generally to encouraging international actionon global issues affecting the Australian nation.

By becoming a member of the UN, Australia sig-nified a commitment to working to avoid militaryconflict among and within nations. On threeoccasions the Korean War (195053), the Suezcrisis (1956) and the Gulf War (1991) the UN has

exercised military force to resolve a conflict.Australian military personnel served in the KoreanWar and the Gulf War.

Australias military forces have contributed to over20 UN peacekeeping operations.

This role began in 1947 when Australia sent fourmen to act as observers at the UN Commission forIndonesia during Indonesias fight for independence

from Dutch rule. In the years since, Australias forceshave provided both peacekeeping and humanitarianaid in Afghanistan, Cambodia, Iran, Iraq, the MiddleEast, Namibia, Papua New Guinea, Rwanda, theSolomon Islands, Somalia and Zimbabwe. During histime as Foreign Minister, Gareth Evans promotedthe expansion of the UNs peacekeeping role.

In 1999, Australia responded to the UNs requestfor it to establish and lead INTERFET, a multi-national peacekeeping force in East Timor (see sec-tion 9.3). Australia sent more than 5000 militarypersonnel, and 21 other countries contributed to theremainder of the 10 000-strong coalition force. Thishas now given way to the United Nations Mission ofSupport in East Timor (UNMISET), which is main-taining the UNs peacekeeping role in East Timor aswell as assisting with the establishment of a civiladministration system.

The genocide of Jews during World War II and thecivil rights movement in the United States in the

AUSTRALIAS ROLE IN THE UN

AUSTRALIAS UNPEACEKEEPING ROLE

AUSTRALIA AND UNCONVENTIONS

1950s and 1960s increased global consciousness ofhuman rights issues. The 1948 Universal Declar-ation of Human Rights was a statement of rights.Over the next half century, the UN incorporatedthese rights into international law through anumber of conventions and treaties by which signa-tories agree to uphold principles protecting peopleshuman rights. Australia has ratified the two most

important of these the International Covenanton Civil and Political Rights and the InternationalCovenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.

Australia has also included treaty and conventionprinciples in Australian laws.Australian family law enshrines the principle ofthe best interest of the child a reflection of

Australias support for the UN Declaration of theRights of the Child.

A number of UN conventions are attached to theHuman Rights and Equal Opportunity Act 1986(Cwlth). These incorporate principles related tocivil and political rights, the rights of the child, therights of the mentally retarded and disabled, andnon-discrimination in employment. The Intern-ational Convention on the Elimination of all Formsof Racial Discrimination is attached as a scheduleto the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cwlth) andthe Convention on the Elimination of all Forms ofDiscrimination against Women is attached as aschedule to the Sex Discrimination Act 1984(Cwlth). Australias states and territories all haveadditional laws prohibiting discrimination andsupporting human rights principles.

Image from the website of the Human Rights and EqualOpportunity Commission (HREOC)

Source 9.1.3

C I V I C S A N D C I T I Z E N S H I P F O C U S

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UNESCO stands for the United Nations Educa-tional, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sinceits inception in November 1945, UNESCO hasworked to promote shared international respect,understanding and valuing of different civilisations

and cultures. It communicates information aboutscientific breakthroughs, facilitates discussion ofethical issues, works to end poverty and encouragessustainable development. At the heart ofUNESCOs efforts is a focus on internationalcooperation on the basis of mutual respect.UNESCOs headquarters are in Paris and it has 60offices and 190 members throughout the world.

Former Australian Prime Minister Gough Whitlamserved as Australias Ambassador to UNESCO from1983 to the end of 1986. During this time he was amember of both the Independent Commission onInternational Humanitarian Issues and the World

Heritage Committee. He was a strong advocate ofAustralia fulfilling its commitment to supporting UNinitiatives in human rights, the environment and thepreservation of our heritage. Whitlam also providedsupport to UNESCO when the United States, Britainand Singapore withdrew from the organisationbecause, they said, it was badly managed and anti-western. Australias Prime Minister at that time, BobHawke, also supported UNESCO.

The Memory of the World (MOW) program

Australia has been involved in a broad range ofUNESCO programs over the past 60 years. An

AUSTRALIA AND UNESCOimportant recent UNESCO initiative is theMemory of the World (MOW) program, which

Australia has adopted to ensure the preservation ofimportant documents that might otherwise havebeen destroyed with the passing of time.

Australian governments vary in the extent of theirsupport for the United Nations. Labor governmentshave tended to be more supportive than those of theLiberal/National coalition. While Labor governmentshave tended to embrace the international spirit ofthe UN, Liberal governments have been moreconcerned with trying to limit their commitment toit.

In 2003, Australia joined the United Statesledmilitary action to topple Saddam Husseins regimein Iraq. The UN did not support this action.

Australias involvement reflected the Common-wealth Governments changing attitude towardsthe UN. The government seeks reform of the UNand is wary of the obligations imposed by some ofthe conventions and treaties that Australia has rat-ified. Australia has also been the subject of criti-cism in relation to its policies on mandatorydetention, indigenous rights and the treatment ofasylum seekers, with critics expressing concernthat these policies contradict the human rightsprinciples the UN has championed.

The Howard government has been reluctant toaccept the criticisms that UN committees have

AUSTRALIA AND THE UNTODAY

An extract from Ross Harveys article UNESCOs Memory of the World Program and Australias lost and missingdocumentary heritage

Source 9.1.4

The principal statement about UNESCOs Memory of theWorld Programme is found on the UNESCO website:

Documentary heritage reflects the diversity oflanguages, peoples and cultures. It is the mirror of theworld and its memory. But this memory is fragile. Everyday, irreplaceable parts of this memory disappear forever. UNESCO has launched the Memory of the World

Programme to guard against collective amnesia callingupon the preservation of the valuable archive holdingsand library collections all over the world ensuring theirwide dissemination. (Memory of the World 2003)

The term collective amnesia refers to thevulnerability of documentary cultural heritage throughlosses caused by natural decay, damage through war,natural disasters, deliberate destruction and a host ofother causes. The nature and magnitude of such lossesare readily demonstrated. UNESCO commissioned a

report, published in 1996, as part of the Memory of theWorld Programme (van der Hoeven and van Albada1996) which contains two extensive listings of lost andmissing documentary heritage. The first listing,developed from a survey of the literature, lists librariesand collections damaged or destroyed in the twentiethcentury; and the second, based on a survey of archives,

is of lost or damaged archives from 1900 to 1994.These lists indicate that natural disasters and wars areprobably the most frequent causes of damage anddestruction. The report is not limited to paper-baseddocumentary heritage, noting that the mostendangered carriers are not necessarily the oldest andbringing to our attention the examples of acetate discsand polymer film (Van der Hoeven and van Albada1996, p. 3).

The Australian Library Journal, March 2003.

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233CHAPTER 9: AUSTRALIA AS A GLOBAL CITIZEN

A 2002 photograph showing children protesting against their mandatory detention on the island of Nauru. This resulted fromthe government policy of imprisoning asylum seekers who do not have entry visas. Asylum seekers had to remain in detention

until the government decided whether or not to allow them entry into Australia.

Source 9.1.5

made of its policies. It has responded with fourmain complaints about UN committees:1. The criticisms they have made of Australia lie out-

side the areas that Australia, through its treatycommitments, has agreed to support.

2. UN committees have placed undue emphasis onnon-government organisations (NGOs) reportscriticising the Australian government.

3. Committee members have been biased against theAustralian government.

4. Committees spend too much time criticising coun-tries with good human rights records.

Check your understanding1. List the main types of involvement Australia has had

with the UN.

2. What UN values has Australia shown support for in itslegislation?

Using sources1. Use the image shown in source 9.1.1 as the

centrepiece of a mind map on the theme Doc Evattand the UN.

2. What is the significance of the photograph in source 9.1.2?3. Use source 9.1.3 to answer the following questions.

(a) What is the origin of the image shown in source 9.1.3?(b) With which international convention is it linked?(c) What does it suggest about Australias response to

that convention?(d) What message does the figure convey about the

issues important to women in and beyond Australia?4. What problem is identified in source 9.1.4 and what

action is being taken to address it?5. In what ways does the photograph in source 9.1.5

indicate that the Australian government in the earlytwenty-first century was implementing policies thatconflicted with those of the UN?

Researching and communicatingTo find out more about the work of the United Nations, goto www.jaconline.com.au/retroactive/retroactive2 andclick on the United Nations weblink.

C I V I C S A N D C I T I Z E N S H I P F O C U S

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AUSTRALIAS POST-WAR

REGIONAL AGREEMENTS

9.2

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Photograph of US President George W. Bush and AustralianPrime Minister John Howard inspecting a naval guard inWashington DC in 2001 at the time of the fiftiethanniversary of the ANZUS alliance

Source 9.2.1

In the 60 years since World War II, Australia hassought to enhance its security and economic pros-perity through a range of agreements in the Asia-Pacific region. In recent years this focus hasexpanded to include consideration of issues relatedto illegal migration, refugees, transnational crime,environmental and health threats, drug traffickingand counter-terrorism.

In 1951 Australia and New Zealand joined with theUnited States to sign the ANZUS Treaty. Under the

terms of the treaty, the nations each viewed anattack on any one of them as a threat to thesecurity of them all. If such a threat eventuated,they would meet to discuss a response. At the sametime, each nation had to develop its own defencecapabilities. Australia welcomed the ANZUS Treatyas a means of strengthening its alliance with the

ANZUS

United States, even though the treaty did notcommit the United States to providing militarysupport to Australia.

In 1986 the treaty relationship changed whenNew Zealand banned the entry of US ships itbelieved to be nuclear powered and to have nuclearweapons capability. The United States suspendedits ANZUS commitment to New Zealand. Sincethen, Australia has maintained a bilateral agree-ment with the United States, and armed forcesfrom the two nations regularly hold joint militaryexercises. Australia and the United States alsoshare joint defence facilities on Australian soil.

The United States organised the formation ofSEATO, the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, inSeptember 1954. SEATO united its members

Australia, Britain, France, New Zealand, Pakistan,the Philippines, Thailand and the United States in an alliance to protect countries in South-East

Asia and the Pacific that felt threatened by commu-nism. Membership of SEATO was an expression of

Australias forward defence strategy and of itsdesire to ensure the containment of communism.

SEATO was dissolved in 1977.

Photograph of Australian Prime Minister Robert Menzies(centre) at the SEATO conference in Canberra in 1957

SEATO

Source 9.2.2

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235CHAPTER 9: AUSTRALIA AS A GLOBAL CITIZEN

The Colombo Plan for Cooperative Economic Devel-opment in South and South-East Asia began as aresult of an Australian suggestion at the Common-wealth Conference on Foreign Affairs at Colombo,Sri Lanka, in 1950. The idea was to focus inter-national cooperative efforts and attention on identi-fying and providing what the less developedcountries in the region needed to improve theireconomies and living standards.

In 1977 the name changed to the Colombo Plan forCooperative Economic and Social Develop-ment in Asia and the Pacific. The name changeoccurred after some of the original membersleft when their governments became com-munist. Today, there are 25 members and oneprovisional member. Members come from thePacific as well as Asia, from inside and outsidethe Commonwealth and include countries withmany differing political systems, including

communist. The goal is to promote friendshipamong nations in the Asia-Pacific region andencourage international economic cooperation.

The Colombo Plan provides support for theeconomic and social development of the leastdeveloped areas in the Asia-Pacific region. Thisinvolves the more advanced member statesproviding and sharing their knowledge of technologyand industrial and technical expertise with their lessadvanced neighbours. The Colombo Plan providesprograms to develop skills in public administration,private development, drug advice, publications andthe use of databank systems. Underpinning all these

programs is a focus on the development of humanresources. Australias involvement demonstrates acommitment to reducing the economic inequalitythat characterises some of the nations in the region.

The original intention was for the plan to concen-trate on Commonwealth countries within Asia. Thissoon changed to address the needs of all countries inthe region. To begin with, Commonwealth countriescreated six-year programs to assist economic devel-opment in the area and encouraged other countriesto take similar action. The organising committeeextended the plan at five-year intervals, and in 1980it extended it indefinitely. In 1998, the Consultative

Committee developed the Manila Colombo PlanAgenda (MACOPA 21) to guide the work of theColombo Plan into the twenty-first century.

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, or APEC as it isusually known, came into being in 1989. APEC is anorganisation that aims to promote economic develop-ment, trade and investment among its membernations. Australia is one of its 21 member economies

THE COLOMBO PLAN

APEC

who together make up over one-third of the worldspopulation and contribute nearly half of the worldstrade. APEC members act on consensus decisions andare not linked by treaty commitments. Members vol-unteer the nature of the commitment they want tomake on specific projects. APEC has worked to reducetariffs and promote free, open and secure trade andinvestment throughout the Asia-Pacific region. In

addition to these goals, APEC is also focusing onpolicies to help countries come to terms with global-isation and to improve security within the region.

Photograph of leaders and representatives from the21-member APEC group at the 2003 conference in Thailand

Check your understandingCopy and complete this table on Australias regionalagreements.

Using sources1. What does source 9.2.1 indicate about the changednature of the ANZUS alliance at the time of its fiftiethanniversary?

2. What types of information could a historian find outfrom looking at source 9.2.3?

Researching and communicatingFind out more about Australias involvement in APEC andwrite a brief newspaper article on one aspect of thisinvolvement. Choose an appropriate headline and image,and use desktop publishing to present your story.

YearName of

agreementTerms of

agreement

1950

ANZUS

SEATO

1989

Source 9.2.3

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EAST TIMOR

KEEPING THE PEACE

9.3

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After 450 years of continuous occupation, the Demo-

cratic Republic of East Timor became the worlds

newest nation at midnight on 19 May 2002. World

leaders such as the United Nations Secretary-

General, Kofi Annan, and the Australian Prime

Minister, John Howard, joined the East Timoresepeople in celebrating their independence. On 27 Sep-tember 2002, East Timor officially joined the UnitedNations (UN). This was a great victory for the EastTimorese after their decades-long struggle for self-rule. Armed resistance and international diplomacyhad finally given East Timor the chance to choose itsown destiny.

WORLDS NEWEST NATION

East Timor and the United Nations timeline

1913 The island of Timor is divided into East and West. Portugal retains possession of East Timor.

1960 Timor and dependencies are included on the United Nations list of non-self-governing territories.

1974 The Portuguese recognise East Timors right to self-government and declare their

intention to withdraw after more than 400 years of rule.

1975 Conflict between East Timorese groups favouring independence and those

supporting integration with Indonesia. Portugal withdraws and Indonesia

invades.

1976 Indonesia declares East Timor its 27th province.

1977 War between Indonesian forces and the pro-independence group

Fretilin.

1979 Xanana Gusmao emerges as the East Timorese independence leader.

1991 Massacre of East Timorese independence supporters at Dilis Santa

Cruz cemetery.

1992 Xanana Gusmao captured by Indonesian troops and jailed for life

for subversion.

1996 Nobel Peace Prize awarded to the leaders of the East Timorese

independence movement, Bishop Carlos Belo and Jose Ramos

Horta.

1998 Indonesias President B. J. Habibie proposes a special

autonomous status for East Timor.

1999 May UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan and foreign ministers

of Portugal and Indonesia agree on a political settlement for East

Timor. East Timorese to vote for either complete independencefrom Indonesia, or autonomy within Indonesia.

August 98.6% of voters in East Timor cast ballots in the referendum.

78.5% choose independence.

September Militia groups supporting Indonesia attack pro-

independence supporters.

October Indonesian government agrees to recognise the vote for East

Timorese independence. The UN Transitional Administration in East Timor

(UNTAET) is established to help East Timor prepare for self-government.

November Last Indonesian forces leave East Timor. The UN begins efforts to return

200 000 refugees to their homes in East Timor.

December Jose Ramos Horta, Nobel Laureate, returns to East Timor after 24 years in exile .

2001 First democratic parliamentary elections are held to elect the members of East Timors first Constituent Assembly.

Pro-independence party Fretilin is declared the winner.

2002 Xanana Gusmao is announced the President-elect of East Timor, the worlds newest nation.

Source 9.3.1

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237CHAPTER 9: AUSTRALIA AS A GLOBAL CITIZEN

East Timor occupies an area of 24000 square kilo-metres on the eastern half of an island located inthe Timor Sea, between Indonesia and Australia.It has a population of approximately 800000people. The island is a member of the MalayArchipelago and is divided into two parts; mostof the west remains a part of Indonesia whereasthe east is the independent nation of East Timor.

A small area in the west, around the town ofOecussi, and the island of Atauro are also EastTimorese territory.

Map showing East Timor and its location between Australiaand Indonesia

In the early sixteenth century, the Portuguesearrived on the island of Timor and occupied theeastern half. Timor provided the Europeans withresources such as sandalwood, coffee and rubber.The Dutch occupied the west and included it inthe Dutch East Indies. When the Dutch finallywithdrew from Indonesia in 1949, the territory ofWest Timor became a province of the new nationof Indonesia. The Japanese invaded the regionduring World War II, but with their defeat in1945 Portugal regained possession of its EastTimorese territory. Portugal remained in control

of East Timor until 1975 when a new Portuguesegovernment decided to relinquish all colonies.During its years of government, Portugal haddone little to assist the East Timorese. Mostpeople lived as subsistence farmers, infant mor-tality was 50 per cent, only one high school hadbeen built and only one in 50 Timorese childrenhad the opportunity to attend primary school.Following Portugals withdrawal, East Timor wasleft with a literacy rate under ten per cent andno effective system of government.

THE CONQUEST OF EASTTIMOR

Source 9.3.2

TIMOR SEA

Civil war broke out when the Revolutionary Frontof Independent East Timor (Fretilin) occupied thecapital and called for independence, while Indonesiaargued that East Timor was too small to exist as anindependent nation and should join Indonesia.

Indonesia feared a threat to its security from asmall independent country on its eastern borderand was prepared to use force to take the territory.Indonesia claimed that quick action was necessaryto prevent a communist takeover of the region andset out to destabilise and invade East Timor. TheEast Timorese had experienced only a few days ofindependence when, in December 1975, Indonesia

moved 3000 troops into EastTimor. The capital, Dili, fellquickly to Indonesian forcesand the country was annexedas Indonesias twenty-seventhprovince.

The report of five Australianjournalists killed in the Timoresetown of Balibo during the Indo-nesian invasion alarmed the

Australian public and strainedinternational relations. The UNdid not recognise the Indonesianclaim to East Timor. Neverthe-less, by 1976 about 40000 Indo-nesian troops occupied EastTimor, and the Australian gov-ernment largely accepted theinvasion and reality of Indo-

nesian control. Vigorous public protest against theinvasion took place in Australia, but maintaininggood diplomatic relations with Indonesia remainedthe Australian governments main priority. (See page241 for more on this issue.)

The United Nations General Assembly passed aresolution condemning the invasion and calling onthe Indonesian forces to withdraw without delay.On 31 May 1976, a Timorese Peoples Assembly,

selected by Indonesia, endorsed an Act of Inte-gration with the Republic of Indonesia. Fretilinhad originally been formed to fight the Portuguese.With Indonesian invasion the conflict was now witha new and more brutal occupying force. By the endof February, an estimated 60 000 Timorese had losttheir lives. Military violence combined with foodshortages and disease to kill another 120000 EastTimorese by 1979. Attempts by the UN to investi-gate reports of human rights abuses wereobstructed by the Indonesian military.

INVASION

HUMAN RIGHTS

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Events in the late 1980s put humanitarian issuesin East Timor under the international spotlight ofthe United Nations Commission on Human Rights.The Australian government continued to expressregret that the East Timorese had no choice in theirdestiny. In November 1991 the brutality of theIndonesian control of East Timor was broadcast ontelevision screens around the world. Indonesian

troops were filmed shooting unarmed demonstratorsin a cemetery in Dili (see source 9.3.3). Between 200and 300 Timorese were killed, with many moreinjured. The Indonesian government stated thatrioting had provoked the soldiers. After an inter-national outcry, the Indonesian government held anofficial inquiry into the Dili massacre. The trials thatfollowed resulted in the short imprisonment ofseveral junior Indonesian officers and life sentencesfor the Timorese found guilty of organising theprotest march.

The future of the independence movement appearedbleak with the 1992 capture of Fretilins leader,

Xanana Gusmao. International criticism and theEast Timorese resistance movement continued tokeep the dream of independence alive. In 1997 a crisisin the Indonesian economy led to instability withinIndonesia and the removal of Indonesian PresidentSuharto from office. Suharto was replaced by Presi-dent B. J. Habibie. In December 1998, the new leadermade the sudden announcement that a referendum

INDEPENDENCE

would be held in East Timor. Voters would be offeredthe choice between autonomy (but remaining part ofIndonesia) and complete independence. At a UN-supervised referendum on 30 August 1999, the450000 registered voters of East Timor used thepower of the polling booth to decide their future, andvoted for independence. It was a dangerous and his-toric moment in East Timorese history. In the weeks

following the referendum, thousands of EastTimorese lost their homes and their lives, as the Indo-nesian army and their militias took revenge on apopulation that had rejected Indonesian rule.

Photograph of pro-independence East Timoresedemonstrating in the weeks before the referendum on30 August 1999, in which they could vote for the future of

their country

Source 9.3.4

The 1991 student demonstration at the Santa Cruz Cemetery in Dili

Source 9.3.3

Despite the overwhelming vote forindependence in the 1999 refer-endum, an Australian-led UNpeacekeeping force was needed tobring an end to the violence andto administer the territory during

the period of transition to self-government. The UN also began alarge-scale humanitarian reliefprogram to provide emergencyassistance. The transitionaladministration (UNTAET) wasestablished to support East Timorin developing the resources neces-sary for a democratically electedgovernment to deliver the dreamof independence.

THE UNITEDNATIONS INEAST TIMOR

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239CHAPTER 9: AUSTRALIA AS A GLOBAL CITIZEN

Xanana Gusmao described 1999 as a year ofextremes for his people. It was a year of great joyon the day of the ballot proclaiming independence,and a time of grief at the loss of life that followed.

In 2004 the United Nations Secretary-General KofiAnnan recommended a one-year extension of thepeacekeeping force in East Timor. The United Nationsforce was scheduled to leave East Timor on 20 May

2004. The fear of a return to the militia-led violencekept Australians in East Timor as members of a UNforce protecting the fledgling nation.

In 2002 Jose Ramos Horta unveiled a stone monument,inscribed as follows, in East Timors International Peoples Park.

Photograph of Xanana Gusmao, the first President of anindependent East Timor, 2002

Source 9.3.5

This site honours the historic contribution, personalcommitment and achievements of the thousands ofinternational peacekeepers, UN Police, UN civilian staff,UN volunteers, humanitarian workers, and theinternational community at large who have assisted the

people of East Timor on its journey to Independence.We shall never forget you, our international friends . . .This site inspired and dedicated on May 9th, 2002 by

Dr. Jose Ramos-Horta Nobel Peace Prize Laureate.This site was fully sponsored by the United Nations

Volunteers on the occasion of East Timors Independenceand the official visit of the United Nations Secretary-General, Kofi Annan and the UNV ExecutiveCoordinator, Sharon Capeling-Alakija.

Source 9.3.6

Check your understanding

1. Explain where East Timor is located and why war brokeout there in 1975.

2. Why and when did events in East Timor draw theattention of the United Nations?

3. Imagine you are East Timorese. Explain why 1999 wassuch a significant year in the history of your country.

4. When did East Timor officially become an independentnation?

Using sources

1. Use source 9.3.1 as background to write a newspaperarticle celebrating East Timorese independence.

2. Examine source 9.3.2 to suggest why Indonesia regardedEast Timor as a potential threat to its security in 1975.

3. Source 9.3.3 is a photograph of the demonstration that

resulted in a massacre. How useful are photographs ashistorical sources? What evidence does this sourceprovide about the independence movement in EastTimor in the 1980s and 1990s?

4. How would you describe the people shown insource 9.3.4? What clues are there about their degreeof wealth and their ethnic origin? Using sources 9.3.3and 9.3.4 as evidence, explain where support forindependence came from in East Timor.

5. Design a memorial in which the words from the plaquein source 9.3.5 would appear. Your memorial shouldreflect the achievements of the East Timorese peopleand the ideals of the United Nations.

Researching and communicating1. Imagine you are either Bishop Carlos Belo, Xanana

Gusmao or Jose Ramos Horta. Write a letter to theeditor of an Australian newspaper explaining what yourhopes are for your peoples future and what Australiasrole should be.

2. Write a report on the recent political developments thathave taken place in East Timor and in Indonesia. Beginyour research on the Internet by going towww.jaconline.com.au/retroactive/retroactive2 andclicking on the East Timor weblinks.

3. Design a pamphlet to inform the Australian publicabout our role as a member of the United Nations

peacekeeping force. Your pamphlet should highlightthe history of the force in East Timor and the ongoingAustralian commitment. If you require maps to showinternational locations, go to www.jaconline.com.au/retroactive/retroactive2 and click on the Maps weblink.Complete your pamphlet with graphics and thendesktop publish your work.

Worksheets

9.1 East Timor This is your life

9.2 Global Citizenship crossword

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Review & exam practice

SCHOOL CERTIFICATE

PRACTICE

Multiple choice

Choose the letter that provides the most correct answer.1. The UN came into being in:

(A) 1945(B) 1946(C) 1947(D) 1948.

2. Doc Evatt was the United Nations first:(A) Secretary-General(B) President of the General Assembly(C) security adviser(D) arms controller.

3. Australia has contributed to the UN through:(A) membership of the General Assembly

(B) peacekeeping(C) support for human rights conventions(D) all of the above.

4. Australias relationship with the UN has beenstrained over:(A) policies on asylum seekers and mandatory

detention(B) indigenous rights and support for UNESCO(C) UN conventions(D) the outbreak of war in Iraq.

5. The correct sequence of the regional agreementsthat Australia joined is:(A) SEATO, ANZUS, APEC, the Colombo Plan(B) the Colombo Plan, SEATO, ANZUS, APEC(C) the Colombo Plan, ANZUS, SEATO, APEC(D) SEATO, the Colombo Plan, ANZUS, APEC.

6. The regional agreement that focuses on improvingtrade and investment is:(A) APEC(B) SEATO(C) the Colombo Plan(D) ANZUS.

7. The agreement Australia entered into as part of itscontainment concerns was:(A) APEC(B) the Colombo Plan(C) SEATO

(D) the United Nations.8. Consider the following two statements about East

Timor.Statement X: East Timor was a colony of Portugal for

over 400 years.Statement Y: Xanana Gusmao became the first

President of East Timor in 2002.(A) Both statements are true.(B) Both statements are false.(C) Statement X is true and statement Y is false.(D) Statement X is false and statement Y is true.

9. The reason an Australian-led peacekeeping forcewent to East Timor in 1999 was because:(A) East Timor had been hit by a natural disaster.(B) East Timor required assistance in restoring law,

order and government during the period of

transition to self-government.(C) East Timor was at war with Indonesia.(D) The United Nations was unable to provide a

peacekeeping force.10. What was Fretilin?

(A) A town in East Timor(B) A militia group in East Timor(C) A group of East Timorese freedom fighters(D) A United Nations peacekeeping force

Extended response

Explain Australias role in post-war international andregional agreements. Your response to this question

should be about 25 lines long.

INVESTIGATE FURTHER

1. To find out more about Australias regional andinternational role in the postWorld War II era, go towww.jaconline.com.au/retroactive/retroactive2 andclick on the APEC, Colombo Plan, UNESCO, Memoryof the World and United Nations weblinks.

2. Using the timeline from source 9.3.1, create a collagethat visually expresses the events and experiences of theEast Timorese on their journey from Portuguese colony

to independent nation.3. The beginning of the United Nations charter of 1945states the aim to practise tolerance and live together inpeace with one another as good neighbours, and tounite our strength to maintain international peace.Present a speech expressing your views on Australiasrole in East Timor and responsibilities to our region.

VIRTUAL TOUR OF

THE UN

Using the Internet, you can take a virtual tour of the

United Nations main buildings and learn more about itshistory and operations.(a) Go to www.jaconline.com.au/retroactive/retroactive2

and click on the UN Tour weblink to undertake thetour.

(b) When you have viewed the images and read theinformation provided, do a search on the site forinformation about Australia, for example on refugeesor indigenous issues.

(c) Complete the tour by carrying out the United NationsTour Quiz to see how much you have learned.

Australia as aglobal citizen

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EXTEND YOUR SKILLS

Comment from Richard Woolcott, Australian Ambassador toIndonesia

1. Use source 9.4.1 to answer the following questions.(a) In your own words, explain what Richard

Woolcott saw as the choice Australia had tomake regarding East Timor.

(b) What points did he put forward in favour of eachchoice?

(c) What point did Woolcott want to make by sayingWe do not think we can have it both ways?

Source 9.4.1

On the Timor issue . . . we face one of those broadforeign-policy decisions which face most countries at onetime or another. The government is confronted by achoice between a moral stance, based on condemnationof Indonesia for the invasion of East Timor and on theassertion of the inalienable right of the people of EastTimor to the right of self-determination, on the one hand,and a pragmatic and realistic acceptance of the longer-term inevitabilities of the situation on the other hand . . .

The former is more proper and principled but thelonger-term national interest may well be served by thelatter. We do not think we can have it both ways.

Quoted in M. Jardine, 1995, East Timor: Genocide in Paradise,Odonian Press, Arizona, pp. 434.

An extract from the official Indonesian view of East Timor

3. Use source 9.4.3 to answer the following questions.(a) Where does this source come from?(b) What is the subject matter?(c) What message does the writer want to convey to

the audience?(d) What has motivated him or her to do this?(e) What would you need to do in order to check the

reliability of this source?

Source 9.4.3

Every part of the archipelago that is the Republic ofIndonesia has been an integral and self-determining partof this strong and unified nation. It has been andremains a goal of Indonesia to ensure that the benefitsof development reach every part of our vast country,

proportionate to the needs. Indeed, that is the singlereason why East Timor receives the largest amount ofdevelopment funds on a per capita basis, an investmentthat has produced hospitals, schools, roads andcommerce when little to none had existed underPortuguese rule . . .

Since East Timor was integrated into the Republic ofIndonesia, the Government has worked carefully toensure that cultural traditions are maintained, locallanguages are preserved and religious practices arerespected . . .

This protection and nurturing in East Timor cannot bedenied.

Extracts from East Timor: Building for the Future, July 1992,Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of Indonesia,pp. ii, iv and vi.

2. Use source 9.4.2 toanswer the followingquestions.(a) What message does

the cartoonist want toconvey to hisaudience?

(b) What techniques doeshe use to help get his

message across?Consider the wordsused and all details ofthe drawing.

(c) What is Nicholsonspurpose and howeffective do you thinkthis cartoon wouldhave been inachieving thatpurpose?

A cartoon by Peter Nicholson, 2 November 1979. The man

depicted on the right is Australias Foreign Minister from 1975 to 1980, Andrew Peacock.The man shown at the rubbish bin is Indonesias president from 1967 to 1998, Suharto.

Source 9.4.2