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The transparencies in the Prentice Hall Georgia Perfomance StandardsReview Transparencies book are intended to serve as refreshers of thecharacteristics of science and science content material needed for masteryof the Georgia EOCT and GHSGT exams. Each transparency focuses onspecific Georgia Performance Standards.
The table of contents presents a list of each transparency identified byboth title and number. The correlation on the pages following the table ofcontents gives the complete text of each Georgia Performance Standardand the number of each transparency that reviews that standard’scontent.
Most of the transparencies begin with an illustration or other graphic.Next, the main points of the topic are presented in a bulleted list. Then,each transparency ends with questions for students to answer.
The art may support the information in the text, relay informationbeyond what appears in the text, or supply data that students can use tointerpret the text or answer the questions. The questions, in turn, aredesigned to take students beyond the material in the review points. Somequestions require an interpretation of the graphic; others give studentsan opportunity to exercise critical-thinking skills.
You can use these transparencies in several ways:
◆ The transparencies lend themselves to whole-class review. You canchoose an objective to focus on, project the related transparency, andhold a class discussion on the topic.
◆ You can set up the overhead projector with a transparency and leave itprojected for a period of time, allowing for independent review of a particular objective. Students can then view the transparency at theirconvenience.
◆ You can arrange for students to view those transparencies that coverobjectives of particular concern to them. You may wish to let studentsdecide for themselves which topics they need to review. Or you maychoose to guide them to particular transparencies you think would bemost helpful to them.
However you choose to present them, the transparencies are a valuabletool for reviewing the Georgia Performance Standards.
Quick Review◆ Like people in other fields, scientists have concerns
about their careers, their families, and their goals.
◆ Successful scientists have core values of honesty,curiosity, and openness that are reflected in theirwork and research.
◆ Scientists strive to make their investigations andconclusions free from bias.
Questions1. How would a farmer use scientific knowledge?
2. How would understanding scientific concepts helpa person holding a public office?
3. What is one way to avoid bias in scientificresearch?
1. To understand how plants grow, what nutrients they need, and how they reproduce2. To make political decisions about scientific topics such as resource management, storm preparation, and health services3. Collaborate with others, allow for peer review, make procedures available, provide accurate and honest results
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SCSh1.a Exhibit curiosity, honesty, openness, and skepticism in scientific activities.
SCSh8.e The ultimate goal of science is to develop an understanding of the naturaluniverse which is free of biases.
OBSERVATIONS: Flies land on meat that is left uncovered. Later, maggots appear on the meat.
HYPOTHESIS: Flies produce maggots.
Controlled Variables:jars, type of meat,location, temperature,time
Manipulated Variable:gauze covering that keepsflies away from meat
PROCEDURE
Uncovered jars Covered jars
Severaldays pass.
Maggots appear. No maggots appear.
CONCLUSION: Maggots form only when flies come in contact with meat. Spontaneous generation of maggots did not occur.
Responding Variable:whether maggots appear
Quick Review◆ Scientific questions deal only with the natural
world.◆ A scientific question must be specific and testable.◆ Scientific disciplines vary in the kinds of questions
asked and techniques used.
Questions1. Why is it important that a scientific question be
testable?2. What are the three primary scientific disciplines?3. What kind of scientist is most likely to carry out an
experiment like the one shown above?
1. Only testable questions can be answered through experimentation.2. Earth science, physical science, and life science3. A life scientist (biologist)
SCSh8.f Science disciplines and traditions differ from one another in what is studied,techniques used, and outcomes sought.
Conducting an Experiment
1. Which freezes faster—fresh water or salt water?2. Amount of water, starting temperature of the water, and temperature of the freezer; amount of salt added to the water3. Fresh water freezes faster than salt water.
SCSh3.b Develop procedures for solving scientific problems.
SCSh8.a Scientific investigators control the conditions of their experiments in order toproduce valuable data.
Quick Review◆ Scientists conduct experiments to learn about
events and processes. Although experiments differ,many follow a pattern.
◆ Scientists begin by posing questions and then forming a hypothesis, or prediction, of the outcome.All variables except one must be controlled, and the one being changed is the manipulated variable.
◆ Data is collected by observation and measurement.It must then be interpreted in order to draw a conclusion, a summary statement of what has beenlearned.
Questions1. What question could the experiment described here
be designed to answer?
2. What are the controlled variables and the manipulated variable in this experiment?
3. What conclusion are the data likely to support?
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE1. Fill 3 containers with 300 milliliters of
cold tap water.
2. Add 10 grams of salt to Container 1; stir.Add 20 grams of salt to Container 2; stir.Add no salt to Container 3.
3. Place the 3 containers in a freezer.
4. Check the containers every 15 minutes.Record your observations.
1. What hypothesis is being tested in the illustration?
2. What is another way you could test the samehypothesis?
1. Sample answer: The shape of a block of ice affects the rate at which it will melt.2. Sample answers: Use an oven to heat the blocks of ice; let the blocks melt at room temperature.
Quick Review
◆ In science, a question is answered by developing a possible explanation called a hypothesis.
◆ A hypothesis is useful if it leads to testablepredictions.
◆ A hypothesis suggests the basic idea for anexperiment.
◆ Often, hypotheses lead scientists to develop newexperiments that can test the validity of thehypothesis.
SCSh3.a Suggest reasonable hypotheses for identified problems.
SCSh7.d Hypotheses often cause scientists to develop new experiments that produceadditional data.
1. So you can be sure that any changes in the responding variable are due to changes in the manipulated variable2. Sample answers: Use a computer to generate graphs of data; a computer probe can gather data during an
experiment; a calculator can be used for statistical analysis of data.
Liquid crystalthermometer
Metal rod Wooden rod
Foam cups
Quick Review
◆ Scientific experiments have three types ofvariables: manipulated variables, respondingvariables, and controlled variables.
◆ A carefully designed experiment requires specificequipment.
◆ Technology, such as computers and calculators, can be used to gather and analyze data during anexperiment.
Questions
1. Why is it important to change only one variable at a time in an experiment?
2. Name three specific ways you could use technologyin a scientific investigation.
SCSh4.a Develop and use systematic procedures for recording and organizing information.
SCSh8.a Scientific investigators control the conditions of their experiments in order toproduce valuable data.
SCSh3.c Collect, organize and record appropriate data.
SCSh5.e Solve scientific problems by substituting quantitative values, using dimensionalanalysis and/or simple algebraic formulas as appropriate.
1. Mean: 2 cm; median: 2.2 cm; range: 0.8 cm2. Sample answer: Analysis is performed more quickly by computers; larger volumes of data can be analyzed with computers.
Quick Review
◆ The observations and measurements made duringan investigation are called data.
◆ Data can be analyzed to spot trends and makepredictions.
◆ Data analysis can involve numerical calculations,such as finding the mean, median, and range of a set of data.
◆ Scientists often use computers to perform dataanalysis.
Questions
1. During an investigation, the followingmeasurements were recorded: 1.5 cm, 2.2 cm, 2.3 cm, 1.8 cm, and 2.2 cm. What are the mean,median, and range of this data set?
2. Give two specific reasons why scientists usecomputers for data analysis.
SCSh1.c Explain that further understanding of scientific problems relies on the design andexecution of new experiments which may reinforce or weaken opposing explanations.
SCSh3.e Develop reasonable conclusions based on data collected.
1. Bubbles produced decrease as the distance from the light increases.2. Sample answer: If the plant is moved even farther from the light, the number of bubbles produced will continue to decrease.
39
22
8
5
Oxygen Production of a Water Plant
Distance FromLight (cm)
Bubbles Producedper Minute
10
20
30
40
Quick Review
◆ Scientists use data to predict trends.
◆ In science, a prediction is an inference about afuture event based on evidence, experience, orknowledge.
◆ A trend is a description of the behavior of avariable or the relationship between two variables.
◆ Hypotheses may be evaluated by how well theypredict experimental outcomes. Further testing andexperimentation will either strengthen a hypothesis(by leading to accurate predictions) or weaken it(by leading to inaccurate predictions).
Questions
1. What trend do you see in the data that aredisplayed in the table above?
2. What prediction can be made based on this trend?
SCSh1.b Recognize that different explanations often can be given for the same evidence.
SCSh8.b Scientific researchers are expected to critically assess the quality of data including possiblesources of bias in their investigations’ hypotheses, observations, data analyses, and interpretations.
1. The original hypothesis—you need to decide whether or not the data support the hypothesis. 2. No, because there would be no way to tell whether the amount of light or the amount of fertilizer or both caused one plant to
grow more than the other3. To critically assess their data and conclusions, including sources of bias or error
Quick Review
◆ A conclusion is a final statement summing up theresults of an experiment.
◆ Scientists often repeat experiments and comparetheir results with the results of other scientistsbefore they trust a conclusion.
◆ More than one conclusion may be plausible for anygiven set of results.
Questions
1. What is the main factor you need to keep in mindwhen drawing a conclusion? Explain.
2. If the two plants above received different amountsof fertilizer, would you be able to draw a validconclusion about what made one plant grow morethan the other? Explain.
3. Why do scientists repeat investigations andcompare results?
SCSh3.f Evaluate whether conclusions are reasonable by reviewing the process andchecking against other available information.
Quick Review◆ Background and historical information about
scientific topics can be explored using printed,audiovisual, or electronic reference materials.
◆ Printed materials include books, encyclopedias, scientific journals, pamphlets, and abstracts.Audiovisual references include news reports,interviews, and educational programs.
◆ The Internet, also known as the World Wide Web, is an electronic reference. Only information fromaccredited scientific organizations should be used.
Questions1. Which would be a better source for finding a
general overview of Einstein’s life—an encyclopediaor a physics journal?
2. Which Internet source would you consider morereliable for health information—the NationalInstitutes of Health Web site or a pharmaceuticalcompany Web site?
3. Which type of reference is more likely to containthe newest information—print or electronic?
1. An encyclopedia 2. The National Institutes of Health Web site 3. Electronic
SCSh7.e Testing, revising, and occasionally rejecting new and old theories never ends.
SCSh8.c Scientists use practices such as peer review and publication to reinforce theintegrity of scientific activity and reporting.
1. No; in science, finding out that two events are not related is often as important as finding out they are related. Such results contribute to a scientist’s body of knowledge.
2. Other scientists must have the opportunity to review and replicate results in order to eliminate bias and to ensure that the data is valid.
Quick Review
◆ Scientists must always keep their hypothesis inmind when drawing conclusions.
◆ Scientists compile results and make themaccessible to others through publication and peerreview.
◆ Conclusions often generate new questions that canbe tested with another experiment.
◆ A hypothesis that is supported in repeatedexperiments may develop into a scientific theory.Testing and re-testing of a theory never ends.
Questions
1. If a conclusion does not support the originalhypothesis, is it necessarily an invalid conclusion?
2. Why is it important to publish scientific results andsubject them to peer review?
SCSh5.b Consider possible effects of errors on calculations.
1. Sample answer: Inaccurate thermometers; human error reading the thermometers2. No, the data only show temperatures for two months; they are not appropriate for analyzing year-round temperatures in city A.
City A
City B
JanuaryHigh
26�C
32�C
JanuaryLow
JulyHigh
JulyLow
18�C
10�C
28�C
44�C
20�C
27�C
City Temperatures
Quick Review
◆ Scientists review their data critically, looking forpossible sources of error.
◆ In science, error refers to the differences betweenobserved results and true values.
◆ Experimental error can result from humanmistakes or problems with equipment.
◆ Appropriate data answer the questions being askedin the investigations.
Questions
1. Name two possible sources of error for the data inthe data table above.
2. Are the data in the data table appropriate foranalyzing year-round temperature variation in city A? Why or why not?
Quick Review◆ A model is a physical or mental representation of
an object, process, or event.
◆ Models are used to help people understand naturalobjects and how processes affect those objects.
◆ Mathematical models generally involve numericaldata or measurements. Scientists often use technology to build and test models.
Questions1. What conclusion can be drawn from the model of
the cell shown in the diagram?
2. Why might this model be useful?
3. How might computers make mathematical modelsmore useful?
1. As the length of a cell increases, its volume increases faster than its surface area.2. To show that the size of a cell is limited by the materials that can pass through its surface3. They can compute large amounts of data and show changes over time.
Cell Size
Surface Area(length x width x 6)
Volume(length x width x height)
Ratio of Surface Area toVolume
1 cm 3 cm2 cm
1 cm
3 cm
2 cm
1 cm
3 cm
2 cm
1 cm x 1 cm x 6 = 6 cm2
= 1 cm3
6 / 1 = 6 : 1
2 cm x 2 cm x 6 = 24 cm2
2 cm x 2 cm x 2 cm = 8 cm3
24 / 8 = 3 : 1
3 cm x 3 cm x 6 = 54 cm2
54 / 27 = 2 : 1
3 cm x 3 cm x 3 cm = 27 cm3
Ratio of Surface Area to Volume in Cells
1 cm x 1 cm x 1 cm
SCSh4.c Use technology to develop, test, and revise experimental or mathematical models.
SCSh4.b Use technology to produce tables and graphs.
SCSh4.c Use technology to develop, test, and revise experimental or mathematical models.
Quick Review◆ Some scientific investigations yield tremendous
amounts of data.
◆ Scientists use various technologies to identifytrends and relationships.
◆ Useful technologies include calculators, computerspreadsheets, databases, graphing software, andsimulations.
Questions1. How did graphing software make the data shown
above more useful?
2. What is an example of a situation in which a computer simulation might be useful?
1. It presents data over a long period of time in such a way that an obvious change in the trend can be identified.2. When an investigation is dangerous, requires expensive or rare materials, or must occur over a very long period of time
Human Population Growth
Bill
ion
s o
f P
eop
le
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
10,000BC
0 2000AD
9000BC
8000BC
7000BC
6000BC
5000BC
4000BC
3000BC
2000BC
1000BC
1000AD
Agriculturebegins
Plowingandirrigation
Bubonicplague
IndustrialRevolutionbegins
Estimates
Ab
solu
te B
rig
htn
ess
Incr
easi
ng
50,000
Surface Temperature (kelvins)20,000 10,000 6000 5000 3000
SCSh5.a Trace the source on any large disparity between estimated and calculated answersto problems.
Quick Review◆ An estimate is an approximation of a number based
on reasonable assumptions.
◆ Scientists sometimes use estimates when they cannot obtain exact numbers.
◆ As estimate is different from a guess because estimates are based on known information.
Question
1. The diagram above is based on estimates made by astronomers. Why is it necessary for theastronomers to rely on these estimates?
2. Estimate the area of your desk, then calculate itusing a ruler. How good was your estimate? If yourestimate varied significantly from the calculation,try and explain the difference.
1. Because they cannot directly measure a star’s temperature or brightness2. Students may have over- or underestimated, or they may have made a measurement error.
SCSh2.a Follow correct procedures for use of scientific apparatus.
SCSh2.b Demonstrate appropriate technique in all laboratory situations.
Quick Review◆ The microscope is an optical instrument that uses
lenses to form enlarged images of small objects.
◆ The invention of the microscope made the discovery of cells and their parts possible.
◆ Telescopes collect images of distant objects.Without telescopes, scientists were unable to studythe universe in detail.
Questions1. How can technology lead to advances in science?
2. What does a microscope’s mirror do?
1. New tools make it possible for scientists to investigate questions that may have been inaccessible.2. It reflects light upward to illuminate the specimen being viewed.
SCSh6.d Participate in group discussions of scientific investigation and current scientificissues.
1. Although it has potential benefits, it poses serious risks and may challenge personal beliefs.2. It might lead to high-speed forms of transportation that do not cause pollution.
A donor cell is taken from a sheep’s udder.
An egg cell is taken from an adult female sheep.
The nucleus of the egg cell is removed.
The two cells are fused using an electric shock.
The fused cell begins dividing normally.
The embryo is placed in the uterus of a foster mother.
The embryo develops intoa lamb Dolly.
DonorNucleus
Egg Cell
Fused Cell
Embryo
FosterMother
ClonedLamb
Quick Review◆ The focus of science changes over time according
to the needs and interests of society.
◆ Current topics of scientific research includecloning, superconductivity, micromachines, anddetermining the age of the universe.
Questions1. Why is cloning considered a controversial research
topic?
2. How might research into superconductors affectsociety?
SCSh6.d Participate in group discussions of scientific investigation and current scientificissues.
SB2.f Examine the use of DNA technology in forensics, medicine, and agriculture.
1. Answers will vary. Students should include the factors that support their position, as well as their reasons for weighing some factors more heavily than others. They should represent their position from a scientific perspective.
2. Sample answers: Economic considerations, such as the cost of health care, of fighting hunger and disease, of farmland; climate considerations, such as being able to grow food that would withstand drought or other harsh conditions
Questions
1. Do you think we should use GM plants? Whatfactor(s) most affected your decision? Explain.
2. What factors other than those mentioned heremight you consider when making your decision?
Quick Review
◆ Genetically modified (GM) plants are engineered tocontain chemicals that resist weeds or kill pests.
Advantages:
◆ More food can be grown on fewer acres of land.
◆ GM plants could be a source of medicine or fuel.
Disadvantages:
◆ GM plants used as animal feed could get into foodmeant for humans, causing health problems.
◆ Traits of GM plants could be passed on to otherplants, creating weeds strongly resistant topesticides.
SCSh6.b Write clear, coherent accounts of current scientific issues, including possiblealternative interpretations of the data.
Sample answers: Talk to family doctor, do research using reliable sources; students should note that scientific studies are more reliable than advertising claims.
Quick Review
◆ Herbal remedies are available in many stores. Theyare available without prescriptions.
◆ The Food and Drug Administration cannot requirestudies of the safety and effectiveness of herbalremedies and supplements.
◆ Advocates of herbal remedies note that herbalproducts have been used safely by many culturesfor thousands of years.
◆ It is important to carefully evaluate the advertisingclaims of any supplement.
Essay
Write a brief report in which you describe twospecific ways you could evaluate an advertising claimmade about an herbal remedy. Compare the reliabilityof advertising claims about a product to the reliabilityof scientific studies of a product’s safety andeffectiveness.
SCSh6.a Write clear, coherent laboratory reports related to scientific investigations.
SCSh6.c Use data as evidence to support scientific arguments and claims in written or oralpresentations.
Quick Review◆ Communicating results is an extremely important
skill in science.
◆ Written and oral presentations may be done individually or in groups.
◆ Laboratory reports should include descriptions ofthe question asked, the hypothesis tested, theexperiment carried out, the data collected, and theconclusion made.
◆ Conclusions should use the data collected as evidence to support or reject the original hypothesis.
Questions1. Why is communication so important in science?
2. In a written report, which comes first: the description of the experiment or the hypothesis?
1. Scientists must communicate results in order to share their work and allow for repeated trials of their experiments.2. The hypothesis
SCSh2.c Follow correct protocol for identifying and reporting safety problems andviolations.
1. Chemicals can splash or boil out of the test tube. 2. Heating would cause any enclosed air, vapors, or other gases to expand; the container could blow apart and
cause injury.
Quick Review
◆ Learn the proper way to light a Bunsen burner.Never reach across a flame. Never leave a flameunattended.
◆ Never heat a closed container. When heating a testtube or bottle, be sure the opening points awayfrom all people.
◆ Do not pick up a container that has been heatedwithout first checking for heat with the back ofyour hand. Use tongs or a clamp when handlinghot containers.
Questions
1. When heating a test tube, why should the openingbe pointed away from people?
SCSh2.c Follow correct protocol for identifying and reporting safety problems andviolations.
1. Use a wafting motion to direct the vapor toward your nose. Do not inhale the vapors directly.2. Always pour the acid into water.3. Because you could contaminate the unused chemical in the original container
Quick Review
◆ Do not put your face near the mouth of a containerof chemicals. Never taste or touch a chemical.
◆ Never mix chemicals for “the fun of it.”
◆ Take only as much of a chemical as you need. Keepa container’s lid closed when you are not using thechemical. Properly label all containers.
◆ Promptly notify your teacher of any spill. Thoroughlyrinse spills off skin or clothing with water.
Questions
1. What is the proper way to test the odor of a chemical?
2. When diluting an acid, should you pour the acidinto water or pour water into the acid?
3. Why should you never return a chemical to itsoriginal container after an experiment?
SCSh2.c Follow correct protocol for identifying and reporting safety problems andviolations.
1. It is disruptive to the animal and can unnecessarily expose you to germs present on the animal or its waste.2. The cage might be contaminated with animal waste.
Quick Review
◆ No experiments that will cause pain, discomfort, orharm to animals should be done in the classroomor at home.
◆ Animals should be handled only if necessary.Special handling is required if an animal is excited,frightened, pregnant, feeding, or with its young.
◆ Clean your hands thoroughly after handling anyorganisms, their materials, or their cages.
Questions
1. Why should you avoid handling a laboratoryanimal unnecessarily?
2. Why should you wash your hands after handling alaboratory animal’s cage?
SCSh2.c Follow correct protocol for identifying and reporting safety problems andviolations.
1. Substances on your hands might contaminate your experiment.2. Your hands might have come in contact with laboratory chemicals.3. The gas lines might be on, even if the flame is extinguished, creating a dangerous situation.
Quick Review
◆ When an experiment is completed, clean up yourwork area and return all equipment to its properplace.
◆ Wash your hands before and after everyexperiment.
◆ Turn off all burners before leaving the laboratory.
◆ Check that the gas lines leading to the burners are off before you leave the laboratory.
Questions
1. Why is it important to wash your hands before an experiment?
2. Why is it important to wash your hands after an experiment?
3. Why should you check the gas lines leading to theburners after you complete your experiment?
SPS4.b Predict properties for representative elements.
1. Sample answers: Oxygen for breathing; aluminum for packaging 2. Sample answer: Dairy foods
◆ A chemical element is a pure substance thatconsists entirely of one type of atom.
◆ Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, andphosphorus are elements essential to livingorganisms.
◆ Aluminum, carbon, and gold are elements found incommon objects.
Questions
1. Name an element you have encountered today andits use.
2. Calcium is an element essential for strong bonesand teeth. What are some foods that containcalcium?
Mixtures
Quick Review
◆ In a heterogeneous mixture, the composition is notuniform.
◆ Solutions are homogeneous mixtures.
◆ A solute will dissolve in a solvent when theintermolecular attractions among the soluteparticles (ions or molecules) and the attractionsamong the solvent particles are overcome.
◆ Concentration is a measure of how much solute isdissolved in a solvent.
◆ Density is the ratio of an object’s mass to itsvolume. (Density = Mass/Volume)
◆ If an object is less dense than the fluid it is in, itwill float. If the object is denser than the fluid it isin, it will sink.
◆ Ice is less dense than liquid water becausehydrogen bonding in ice holds the watermolecules farther apart than in liquid water.
Questions
1. What is the density of an object with a mass of 6.3 gand a volume of 4.2 cm3?
2. Why don’t fish freeze in the winter?
States of MatterSPS5.a Compare and contrast the atomic/molecular motion of solids, liquids, gases andplasmas.
Quick Review
◆ A solid has a definite shape and volume. Attractionsamong the particles in a solid keep the particlespacked close together in a rigid structure.
◆ A liquid takes the shape of its container and has adefinite volume. The particles of a liquid are closetogether and the attractions among particles affecttheir movement.
◆ A gas has neither a definite shape nor volume. Theparticles of a gas are in constant, random motionand the forces of attraction among them can beignored.
Questions
1. Compare the strengths of the attractions amongparticles in solids, liquids, and gases.
2. Which would be easier to compress, a solid, liquid,or gas?
Phase ChangesSPS5.a Compare and contrast the atomic/molecular motion of solids, liquids, gases andplasmas.
SPS7.d Explain the flow of energy in phase changes through the use of a phase diagram.
Quick Review
◆ During heating, the solid ice gains energy causingthe water molecules to vibrate more quickly. At0°C, some of the water molecules gain enoughenergy to move from their fixed positions,increasing the distance between the molecules.
◆ At the boiling point of water, the molecules haveenough kinetic energy to overcome the attractionsof neighboring molecules and the distance betweenthe molecules becomes even greater.
Questions
1. Is energy absorbed or released when a liquidfreezes?
2. Explain why the temperature of water does notincrease during boiling.
3. What is the triple point on a phase diagram (notseen here)?
1. Energy is released. 2. The energy absorbed is used to overcome the attractions between water molecules.3. The triple point describes the conditions at which all three phases of matter for a substance exist in equilibrium.
B
A
C
D E
KEYA: SolidB: MeltingC: Liquid D: VaporizationE: Gas
◆ In the modern periodic table, elements arearranged by increasing atomic number.
◆ Each row on the periodic table is called a period.Each column is called a group.
◆ Elements in the same group have similarproperties because they have the same number ofvalence electrons.
◆ Metals lie on the left side of the periodic table.Nonmetals are located on the right side of thetable. Metalloids have properties that fall betweenthose of metals and nonmetals.
Questions
1. What information is given about the elementchlorine?
BondingSPS1.b Compare and contrast ionic and covalent bonds in terms of electron movement.
SPS2.b Predict formulas for stable binary ionic compounds based on balance of charges.
SPS2.c Use IUPAC nomenclature to transition between chemical names and chemical formulas ofcompounds.
Quick Review◆ An atom is stable when its highest occupied energy
level is filled with electrons.
◆ Some elements achieve stability by transferringelectrons, forming ionic bonds. Ions are arranged inan orderly three-dimensional structure in an ionic,or crystalline compound.
◆ Some atoms obtain a stable electron configurationby sharing electrons, forming covalent bonds. Amolecule is a neutral group of covalently bondedatoms.
Questions1. What type of bond forms between calcium and
chlorine? Provide the chemical formula and namefor this compound.
2. Draw the electron dot structure for HBr. What isthe name of this molecule?
Chemical ReactionsSPS7.a Identify energy transformations within a system.
Quick Review◆ A chemical reaction is a process through which one
set of substances (reactants) are changed into different substances (products).
◆ Exothermic reactions release energy to thesurroundings. Endothermic reactions absorb energy.
◆ A chemical equation uses formulas to show the reactants and products of a chemical reaction.
◆ Chemical changes (evolution of a gas, formation ofa precipitate) and physical changes (changes intemperature, color, odor) can provide evidencethat a chemical reaction has occured.
Questions1. What are the products of the combustion of
propane?
2. Is the combustion of propane endothermic orexothermic?
◆ The law of conservation of mass applies tochemical equations.
◆ For mass to be conserved in a chemical reaction, the number of atoms of each element in the productsmust equal the number of atoms of each element inthe reactants.
Questions
1. Which of the diagrams above represents a balancedchemical reaction?
2. Write the balanced chemical equation for thereaction above.
Quick Review◆ The rate at which a chemical reaction proceeds is
known as the reaction rate.
◆ Factors that affect reaction rates include temperature, surface area, concentration, stirring,and catalysts.
◆ A catalyst is a substance that affects reaction ratebut is not used up during the reaction. Enzymes arecatalysts that speed up reactions in living things.
Questions1. How does increasing temperature affect reaction
rates?
2. How does a catalyst speed up a reaction?
1. In general, an increase in temperature increases reaction rate. 2. It lowers the activation energy.
.SPS3.a Differentiate among alpha and beta particles and gamma radiation.
Half-Life
Quick Review◆ Every radioactive isotope that emits alpha, beta, or
gamma radiation decays at a constant rate that canbe expressed as a half-life.
◆ A half-life is the length of time required for one halfof a radioisotope to decay. Half-lives can vary fromfractions of a second to billions of years.
◆ Half-lives are used in radioactive dating.
Questions1. What fraction of a radioactive sample remains after
4 half-lives?
2. The half-life of radon-222 is 3.82 days. How much ofa 64-gram sample remains after 11.46 days?
SPS3.a Differentiate among alpha and beta particles and gamma radiation.
SPS3.c Explain the process half-life as related to radioactive decay.
Nuclear Reactions
Quick Review◆ Nuclear reactions involve changes in the nucleus
of an atom. Chemical reactions involve electronssurrounding the nucleus, but do not affect thenucleus.
◆ During nuclear fission, heavy atomic nuclei are split into lighter ones. During nuclear fusion, lightatomic nuclei are joined together. Both processesrelease tremendous amounts of energy.
◆ The sun and other stars are powered by the fusionof hydrogen into helium.
Questions1. How does nuclear fission differ from radioactive
decay?
2. Why is it difficult to achieve nuclear fusion in a laboratory?
1. Nuclear fission: one nuclei splits into smaller nuclei, energy is released, reaction is controllable. Radioactive decay: transforms one type of nucleus into another, charged particle is released, cannot be controlled.
2. Extremely high temperatures and pressures are required for fusion reactions.
◆ Velocity is expressed in units of distance dividedby time, such as kilometers per hour or meters persecond.
◆ A quantity that has both magnitude and directionis called a vector.
◆ Vectors can be represented by arrows on a graph.The length and direction of the arrow shows themagnitude and direction of the vector.
Questions
1. What is the overall velocity of the boat on the left?
2. What is the overall velocity of the boat on the right?
3. Why is the overall velocity of the boat on the rightslower than the boat on the left?
1. 5 km/h + 12 km/h = 17 km/h in the direction of the current2. 13 km/h at an angle to the riverbank 3. The boat on the right is traveling in a different direction than the current.
1. The oars pushing against the water 2. The water moves the boat.
Boat moves inthis direction.
Quick Review
◆ According to Newton’s third law of motion,whenever one object exerts a force on a secondobject, the second object exerts an equal andopposite force on the first object.
◆ When equal and opposite forces act on the sameobject, they result in a net force of zero.
Questions
1. What is the action force in the figure?
2. What is the result of the reaction force shown inthe figure?
SPS8.b Apply Newton’s three laws to everyday situations.
◆ A lever is a rigid bar that is free to move around afixed point (the fulcrum).
◆ The input arm of a lever is the distance betweenthe input force and the fulcrum. The output arm isthe distance between the output force and thefulcrum.
◆ To calculate the ideal mechanical advantage of anylever, divide the input arm by the output arm.
◆ When using a lever, energy is transferred from theinput arm to the output arm.
Questions1. Which class of lever always has a mechanical
advantage less than 1?
2. Which class of lever always has a mechanicaladvantage greater than 1?
A B CFirst-Class Lever Second-Class Lever Third-Class Lever
SPS8.e Calculate amounts of work and mechanical advantage using simple machines.
◆ A wheel and axle is a simple machine that consistsof two disks or cylinders, each with a differentradius.
◆ To calculate the ideal mechanical advantage of thewheel and axle, divide the radius where the inputforce is exerted by the radius where the outputforce is exerted.
◆ When using a steering wheel, energy is transferredfrom the wheel to the shaft.
Questions1. Does a steering wheel have a mechanical advan-
tage greater or less than 1?
2. Other than the examples shown, give an example of a wheel and axle you use regularly.
SPS8.e Calculate amounts of work and mechanical advantage using simple machines.
1. Fixed 2. By combining the movable pulley with one or more fixed or movable pulleys
Quick Review
◆ A pulley is a simple machine consisting of a ropethat fits into a groove in a wheel.
◆ A fixed pulley changes only the direction of theinput force. A movable pulley can change both thesize and direction of the input force.
◆ Mechanical advantage of a pulley is the number ofrope sections supporting the load being lifted.
◆ Pulleys convert kinetic energy into potential energy.
Questions1. Which type of pulley would you use to raise a flag
on a flagpole?
2. How can you increase the mechanical advantage ofa movable pulley?
Fixed pulleyI.M.A. = 1
Movable pulleyI.M.A. = 2
Pulley systemI.M.A. = 2
Pulley systemI.M.A. = 3
SPS8.e Calculate amounts of work and mechanical advantage using simple machines.
EnergySPS7.a Identify energy transformations within a system.
Quick Review◆ Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. The kinetic
energy of a moving object depends on its mass andspeed (KE = 1/2mv2).
◆ Potential energy is energy that is stored as a result of position or shape. Gravitational potentialenergy depends on an object’s mass, height, and theacceleration due to gravity (PE = mgh).
◆ Energy exists in several different forms: mechanicalenergy, thermal energy, chemical energy, electricalenergy, electromagnetic energy, and nuclear energy.
◆ Each form of energy can be converted into another.No energy is created or destroyed in the process.
Questions
1. At what point does the roller coaster car have thegreatest potential energy?
2. At what point does the roller coaster car have thegreatest kinetic energy?
3. How can you increase the gravitational potentialenergy of a bird’s nest?
1. At the top of the highest hill 2. At the bottom of the first hill 3. Lift it higher
1. Chemical energy is converted into thermal energy. 2. At the bottom of its swing
Maximum potential energyMaximum potential energy
Maximum kinetic energy
Quick Review
◆ Energy can be converted from one form to another.Energy can not be created or destroyed. In everyenergy conversion, energy is conserved.
◆ Mechanical energy is equal to the sum of thekinetic and potential energy of an object. If frictioncan be neglected, mechanical energy remainsconstant.
Questions
1. What energy conversion takes place when woodburns?
2. At what point in its swing does a pendulum havethe least potential energy?
SPS7.a Identify energy transformations within a system.
thermal energy from awarmer object to a coolerobject.
◆ Temperature is a measureof how hot or cold matteris, and is related to therandom motion ofthe atoms and moleculesin matter. As matter isheated, the atoms andmolecules move faster,resulting in an increasein temperature.
0.90 J/(g.°C) ; 2 .25J/ °C
ThermometerStirrer
Lid
Water
Aluminumsample
Calorimeter
◆ A calorimeter is an instrument that measureschanges in thermal energy.
◆ Specific heat is the amount of heat needed to raisethe temperature of one gram of material by onedegree Celsius. Heat capacity is the specific heat ofa material multiplied by its mass.
Question
It takes 7.2 joules of heat to raise the temperatureof a 2.5 g sample of aluminum by 3.2°C. What is thespecific heat of aluminum? What is the heatcapacity of the sample?
compressions and rarefactions that travel througha medium.
◆ At a temperature of 21°C (70°F) the speed of soundin air is 344 m/s. Sound waves travel fastestthrough solids, slower in liquids, and slowest ingases.
Questions1. Why is there no sound in space?
2. How are frequency and pitch related?
1. Sound needs a medium to travel. 2. Pitch is the frequency of a sound as you perceive it.
The Doppler EffectSPS9.a Recognize that all waves transfer energy.
SPS9.f Explain the Doppler Effect in terms of everyday interactions.
. Quick Review◆ The Doppler effect is the apparent change in sound
frequency as the source, observer, or both move.
◆ Radar devices use the Doppler effect to determinethe speed of moving objects such as cars.
◆ The Doppler effect is also used to study weatherand the expansion of the universe.
Questions
1. Why does each observer in the diagram hear asound with a different pitch?
2. How can the Doppler effect be used to measure thespeed of a thunderstorm?
Observer A(decreasedfrequency)
Observer B(increasedfrequency)
1. The ambulance is moving away from Observer A and toward Observer B.2. Waves are sent toward the storm. They bounce off particles of precipitation. The frequency of the returning waves
changes as the storm moves.
Electromagnetic WavesSPS9.a Recognize that all waves transfer energy.
SPS9.c Compare and contrast the characteristics of electromagnetic and mechanical waves.
Quick Review◆ Radio waves are electromagnetic waves with the
longest wavelengths and lowest frequencies.
◆ Radio waves carry signals for radio and televisionprogramming. Information is coded by modulatingeither the amplitude or frequency of carrier waves.
Questions1. How is the speed of electromagnetic waves
important to communication technologies?
2. What is the difference between AM and FM radiowaves?
3. A radio is tuned to 1200 kHz AM. What is thewavelength of the waves being broadcast by thestation?
1. Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light so information can be sent almost instantaneously.2. AM waves have a varying amplitude. FM waves have a varying frequency. 3. 250 m
A BAmplitude modulation Frequency modulation
ReflectionSPS9.a Recognize that all waves transfer energy.
SPS9.d Investigate the phenomena of reflection, refraction, interference, and diffraction.
1. Objects underwater appear closer and larger than they actually are. 2. A wave will diffract more when the wavelength is large compared with the size of the opening.
Quick Review
◆ Refraction is the bending of light that occurs whenlight passes from one medium into another.
◆ Diffraction is the bending of light when it passesthrough a narrow opening.
Questions1. How does refraction change the appearance of
objects underwater?
2. How does wavelength affect the diffraction oflight?
LightAir
Water
Glass
Air
Polarization of LightSPS9.a Recognize that all waves transfer energy.
Quick Review◆ Electric charge is a property that causes subatomic
particles to attract or repel each other. Electricforce is the force of attraction or repulsion amongelectrically charged objects.
◆ Electric charge can be transferred by friction,contact, or induction.
◆ Charging by friction and charging by contactrequire contact between two objects. There is nocontact between materials when they are chargedby induction.
Questions1. Which subatomic particles have electric charges?
2. Provide an example of charging by friction.
1. Protons and electrons 2. Sample answers: Rubbing a balloon on your hair, walking across a carpet
SPS10.b Explain the flow of electrons in terms of the relationship among voltage, resistance andcurrent.
Quick Review◆ Electric current is the flow of charge through a
conductor.
◆ Charge flows easily through electrical conductors.Charge does not flow easily through electrical insulators.
◆ Voltage is a difference in electric potential energybetween two places in an electric field. Resistanceis opposition to the flow of charges in a material.
◆ According to Ohm’s law, V = IR.
Questions
1. What effect does increasing voltage have oncurrent?
2. If voltage does not change, what happens to currentwhen resistance increases?
1. It also increases. 2. It decreases.
atom
electron
Electric CircuitsSPS10.b Explain the flow of electrons in terms of simple series and parallel circuits.
Quick Review◆ An electric circuit is a complete path through
which charge can flow. Circuit diagrams use symbols to represent parts of a circuit.
◆ Charge has only one path to flow in a series circuit.In a parallel circuit, electric charges can flowthrough two or more paths.
◆ In devices that use direct current (DC), chargeflows in only one direction. In devices that usealternating current (AC), the flow of electric chargeregularly reverses its direction.
Questions1. Suppose a series circuit has a battery and three
glowing light bulbs. How many of the bulbs wouldcontinue to glow after one burned out? Why?
2. Is the circuit formed by all the lights and appliances in a home a series or parallel circuit?
1. None; there is only one path for the current to take, and the burned-out bulb has broken the circuit.2. Parallel
Series Circuit Parallel Circuit
Electric CurrentSPS7.a Identify energy transformations within a system.
SPS10.b Explain the flow of electrons in terms of the relationship among voltage, resistance andcurrent.
1. Sample answers: Solar cells, fuel cells, generators 2. Toxic materials might leach into groundwater from a landfill or be released into the air during incineration.
Quick Review
◆ Voltage sources do work to increase the potentialenergy of electric charges.
◆ Batteries convert chemical energy to electricalenergy.
◆ Car batteries use lead plates in combination withsulfuric acid to produce electricity.
Questions1. Provide another example of a voltage source.
2. Why do communities ask people not to discarddisposable batteries in the trash?
Electricity andMagnetismSPS7.a Identify energy transformations within a system.
SPS10.c Investigate applications of magnetism and/or its relationship to the movement ofelectrical charge as it relates to electromagnets, simple motors, and permanent magnets.
Calories and OrganicMoleculesSB1.c Identify the function of the four major macromolecules.
Quick Review◆ The energy in food is converted by the body’s cells
into ATP. Energy is released when molecules infood react with oxygen (O2).
◆ Fats contain 9 Calories per gram. Proteins andcarbohydrates contain 4 Calories per gram.
◆ 1 gram of fat contains more energy than either 1 gram of protein or carbohydrate because eachmolecule of fat can combine with more oxygen thancan either a molecule of protein or carbohydrate.
Questions1. What is the difference between a calorie and a
Calorie?
2. Which contains more oxygen: a molecule of fat or amolecule of protein?
1. 1 Calorie = 1,000 calories 2. A molecule of protein
1. Animals produce carbon dioxide that plants need.2. Less carbon dioxide is absorbed. Increased levels of CO2 in the atmosphere contribute to global warming.3. Oxygen and carbon
Plant produces oxygen
Plant usescarbon to makesugar moleculesPlant takes in
carbondioxide
Animal releasescarbon dioxide
Animal takes
in oxygen
Animal breaksdown sugarmolecules
Quick Review◆ Matter, such as water, carbon, nitrogen, and
phosphorus, recycles within and between ecosystems.
◆ Nutrients are passed between organisms and theenvironment through biogeochemical cycles.
Questions1. In the carbon cycle, how do animals benefit plants?
2. What is one major effect of deforestation on theatmosphere?
3. Which nutrients are being recycled in the diagramabove?
Ecological SuccessionSB4.c Relate environmental conditions to successional changes in ecosystems.
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Quick Review◆ An ecosystem is a complex collection of organisms
that live in a particular place along with theirphysical environment.
◆ Ecosystems are constantly changing in response tonatural and human disturbances.
◆ The series of predictable changes that occurs overtime in a community is called ecological succession.
Questions1. The diagram shows a volcanic eruption that has
exposed a new surface. What type of successionoccurs on newly exposed surfaces?
Aquatic EcosystemsSB4.a Investigate the relationships among organisms, populations, communities,ecosystems, and biomes.
Quick Review◆ Aquatic ecosystems include freshwater rivers and
lakes, freshwater marshes and swamps, saltwateroceans, and estuaries, where freshwater meets saltwater.
◆ Marine ecosystems are divided into vertical zonesbased on their depth and distance from the shore.
◆ The intertidal zone is between low and high tide,while the neritic zone is along the continental shelf. The surface zone and the deep zone arelayers of open ocean.
Questions1. What factor differentiates the two types of
freshwater biomes?
2. What challenges do organisms that live in the intertidal zone need to overcome?
3. In which marine zones can photosynthesis occur?
1. Whether the water is flowing or standing 2. Pounding of the waves, sudden changes in temperature, and being exposed to air 3. Intertidal zone, neritic zone, and the surface zone of the open ocean
Population GrowthSB4.a Investigate the relationships among organisms, populations, communities,ecosystems, and biomes.
Quick Review◆ Organisms obtain resources, such as energy, water,
oxygen, and nutrients, from their environment.
◆ A limiting factor is a resource that causes population growth to decrease.
◆ The largest number of individuals that a givenenvironment can support is known as the carryingcapacity.
Questions1. What happened to the growth of the population
once it reached its carrying capacity?
2. What are some examples of limiting factors?
3. How is competition related to population size?
1. The logistic growth curve leveled off. 2. Competition, predation, parasitism, disease, weather conditions, human disturbances 3. Crowded organisms compete for resources, thereby limiting the number of organisms that can survive.
DiffusionSB1.d Explain the impact of water on life processes.
Quick Review◆ Diffusion is the process by which molecules of a
substance move from areas of higher concentrationto areas of lower concentration.
◆ Diffusion does not require the cell to use energy.
◆ When the concentration of a solute is the samethroughout a system, the system has reached equilibrium.
Questions
1. Why can some substances pass through a cellmembrane and others cannot?
2. How do solutes move once equilibrium is reached?
1. Because a cell membrane is selectively permeable, meaning it allows only some substances to pass through it.2. Solutes continue to diffuse in both directions across the membrane.
◆ The cell membrane controls the internal environmentof a cell in order to maintain homeostasis. Materialscan move through it by diffusion, osmosis, or activetransport.
◆ Molecules move by diffusion from an area of higherconcentration to an area of lower concentration.
◆ Osmosis is the diffusion of water across aselectively permeable membrane.
◆ Water moves in or out of a cell by osmosis based onconcentration differences across a cell membrane.
Questions
1. What happens to an animal cell when it is placed in a hypotonic solution of distilled water?
2. What type of solution has a solute concentrationthat is the same as the inside of a cell?
SolutionAnimal Cell Plant Cell
Before
The Effects of Osmosis on Cells
Isotonic
Hypotonic
Hypertonic
Before AfterAfter
1. It swells and will eventually rupture. 2. An isotonic solution
Photosynthesisand RespirationSB3.a Explain the cycling of energy through the processes of photosynthesis andrespiration.
Quick Review
◆ During photosynthesis, plants and some otherorganisms use energy from the sun to convert carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and sugars,including glucose.
◆ During cellular respiration, cells break downglucose molecules and release the energy theycontain.
◆ Photosynthesis and respiration can be thought ofas opposite processes.
Questions
1. What is the cycle that produces high-energy sugarsduring photosynthesis?
2. What is the aerobic cycle that breaks down high-energy sugars during respiration?
3. Why are photosynthesis and respiration consideredto be opposite processes?
1. The Calvin cycle 2. The Krebs cycle 3. The products of each reaction are the reactants of the other reaction.
ATP and ADPSB3.a Explain the cycling of energy through the processes of photosynthesis andrespiration.
Quick Review
◆ The activities of cells are powered by energy storedin chemical compounds. When cells break downthese chemicals, the energy in them is captured asadenosine triphosphate (ATP).
◆ When ATP molecules are converted into adenosinediphosphate (ADP) and a phosphate group, energyis released.
◆ ADP can be “recharged” during cellular respirationby using energy to reattach a third phosphategroup to form ATP.
Questions
1. What components make up an ATP molecule?
2. What is the difference between ATP and ADP?
3. What happens when a phosphate group is removedfrom ATP?
◆ The cell cycle consists of three main stages: interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis. Mitosis is further divided into prophase, metaphase,anaphase, and telophase.
◆ Mitosis results in two identical daughter cells.
◆ Most unicellular organisms reproduce asexually by a form of mitosis called binary fission. Binaryfission is rapid, but does not increase the geneticvariability of a population.
Questions
1. What is DNA replication? During which stage of thecell cycle does it occur?
2. During which phase of mitosis do the chromosomesline up across the center of the cell?
1. The process of copying the cell’s DNA; interphase 2. Metaphase
INTERPHASE MITOSIS: Prophase
MITOSIS: Metaphase
MITOSIS: AnaphaseMITOSIS: Telophase
CYTOKINESIS3
2 A
2 B
2 C2 D
1
Regulating theCell Cycle
Quick Review
◆ Proteins called cyclins regulate the timing of thecell cycle in eukaryotic cells.
◆ External regulators, such as growth factors, directcells to speed up or slow down the cell cycle.
◆ Cancer cells do not respond to signals that regulatethe growth of most cells.
Questions
1. How do cells respond to contact with other cells?
2. What are masses of uncontrolled and dividing cellscalled?
◆ Genes control an organism’s traits. Genes have alleles, which may be dominant or recessive.
◆ During sexual reproduction, offspring receive oneallele from each parent. If the alleles are the same,the offspring has a homozygous genotype. If theyare different, it has a heterozygous genotype.
◆ The phenotype, or the visible traits of an individual,depends on its genotype and the inheritancepattern of the alleles that control each trait.
Questions
1. How many alleles control each of the traits thatGregor Mendel studied in his pea plants?
2. Is the wrinkled seed shape controlled by a dominant allele or a recessive allele?
3. What is the phenotype of a pea plant that has onegreen pod allele and one yellow pod allele?
Adenine (DNA and RNA)Cytosine (DNA and RNA)Guanine (DNA and RNA)Thymine (DNA only)Uracil (RNA only)
Nuclearenvelope
Quick Review
◆ During transcription, RNA polymerase binds toDNA and separates the DNA strands.
◆ RNA polymerase then uses one strand of DNA as a template from which nucleotides are assembledinto a strand of RNA.
◆ There are three main differences between RNAand DNA: the sugar in RNA is ribose instead ofdeoxyribose, RNA is generally single-stranded, andRNA contains uracil in place of thymine.
Questions
1. Where in the cell does transcription occur?
2. What RNA nucleotide sequence would betranscribed from the DNA sequence ACG?
.SB2.d Describe the relationships between changes in DNA and potential appearance ofnew traits including alterations during replication.
Significance of MutationsSB2.d Describe the relationships between changes in DNA and potential appearance of newtraits including alterations during replication and mutagenic factors that can alter DNA.
◆ Most human traits have multiple phenotypesbecause they are controlled by many genes,(polygenic) and some genes have multiple alleles.
◆ Genetic disorders, such as sickle cell disease and cystic fibrosis, can be caused by mutations tosingle genes.
◆ Pedigrees can be used to trace the inheritance ofa trait in a family and to predict the probabilitythat a child will be born with a genetic disorder.
Questions
1. What are two causes of mutation?
2. Is the trait traced by the pedigree autosomal or sex-linked? Is it dominant or recessive?
3. What is the probability that a child of the coupleon the left above will be a female who has this trait?
A circle represents a female.
Indicates that the person is a carrier of the trait.
Indicates that a person has the trait. Indicates that a person neither has the trait nor is a carrier of the trait.
A square represents a male.
1. Alterations during DNA replication and mutagenic factors. 2. Sex-linked; recessive 3. 0%
Natural SelectionSB5.a Trace the history of evolutionary theory.
SB5.d Relate natural selection to changes in organisms.
◆ An adaptation is any inherited characteristic in anorganism that helps it survive in its environment.
◆ Natural selection favors more helpful traits in away that increases the species’ fitness over time.
◆ The Galápagos finches likely descended from onepopulation that became geographically isolated.
Questions
1. What is fitness?
2. What would likely happen to the population size ofthe vegetarian tree finch if trees on their island didnot fruit one year?
3. What did each of the following individualscontribute to Darwin’s theory of evolution bynatural selection: James Hutton, Charles Lyell,Thomas Malthus?
1. The ability to survive and reproduce in a specific environment. 2. The population size would probably decrease.3. Hutton proposed that geologic process happen slowly and Earth is older than a few thousand years; Lyell wrote Principles of
Geology and explained how the Earth changes over time; Malthus explained that populations have limiting resources.
CommonName of Finch Species
Vegetariantree finch
Large insectivoroustree finch
Woodpeckerfinch
Cactus groundfinch
Sharp-beakedground finch
Large groundfinch
Main Food Fruit Insects Insects Cactus Seeds Seeds
FeedingAdaptation
Parrotlikebeak
Graspingbeak
Uses cactusspines
Large crushingbeak
Pointedcrushing beak
Largecrushing beak
Habitat Trees Trees Trees Ground Ground Ground
Shape of HeadandBeak
Galápagos Islands Finches
Homologous StructuresSB3.c Examine the evolutionary basis of modern classification systems.
SB5.d Relate natural selection to changes in organisms.
1. Lengthen 2. Similar arrangement and number 3. Alligator
Turtle Alligator Bird Mammals
Ancient, lobe-finned fish
Quick Review
◆ Limbs of different vertebrates are homologous.That is, they have different functions but arestructurally similar and develop from the sameembryonic tissues.
◆ Homologous structures provide evidence that allfour-limbed vertebrates share a common ancestor.
Questions
1. Over time, did the bones shown above generallylengthen or shorten?
2. How are the bones similar across the four groups?
3. Which animal shown is most closely related tobirds?
Genetic VariationSB2.f Examine the use of DNA technology in forensics, medicine, and agriculture.
SB5.d Relate natural selection to changes in organisms.
1. Sample answer: If average temperatures in an area increase over time, plants with greater heat tolerance will be more likely to survive and reproduce.
2. Sample answer: Resistance to pests
Quick Review
◆ The two main sources of genetic variation aremutations and the genetic shuffling that resultsfrom sexual reproduction.
◆ Variation within a species can increase chances ofsurvival. The more variation a population has, thegreater its chance of being able to adapt in achanging environment.
◆ Plant breeders use several methods to increasegenetic variation in plants and to produce newtypes of plants.
Questions
1. Describe one way in which natural selection couldact on a plant characteristic.
2. Name one characteristic that plant breeders mightselect for.
Mosses and their relatives15,600 species
Ferns and their relatives11,000 species
Cone-bearing plants760 species
Flowering plants235,000 species
Plant Species
Origin ofLife on EarthSB5.b Explain the history of life in terms of biodiversity, ancestry, and the rates of evolution.
SB5.c Explain how fossil and biochemical evidence support the theory of evolution bymeans of natural selection.
1. Through surface proteins on the virus and T cell 2. Because the shape of the viral proteins makes viruses highly specific to the cells they infect.3. Viruses are not alive and need a host cell to reproduce.
Cell’s surface protein
Viral protein
Virus particle
Host cell
Quick Review
◆ Viruses cause a wide range of human diseasesincluding yellow fever, the common cold, polio,mumps, and AIDS.
◆ The proteins on the surface of a virus specificallyfit the proteins on the surface of the cell it infects.
Questions
1. How is HIV able to attach to its target T cell?
2. Why don’t plant viruses, such as the tobaccomosaic virus, infect animal cells?
3. Why do viruses need to infect a host cell?
ProtistsSB3.b Compare how structures and function vary between the six kingdoms.
SB3.b Compare how structures and function vary between the six kingdoms.
Quick Review
◆ Spore-producing plants can be nonvascular or vascular.
◆ Nonvascular plants in the phylum Bryophytainclude mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. Theseplants transport water from cell to cell.
◆ Vascular spore-producing plants belong to the phyla Lycophyta, Arthrophyta, and Pterophyta (club mosses, horsetails, and ferns). Vascular tissuetransports water and nutrients throughout the plants.
Questions1. What characteristic do all spore-producing plants
share?
2. What structure anchors nonvascular plants into the soil?
3. What structures do vascular plants have thatnonvascular plants do not?
1. They use spores, instead of seeds, to reproduce. 2. Rhizoid 3. True stems, roots, and leaves
SB3.b Compare how structures and function vary between the six kingdoms.
Quick Review
◆ The life cycle of mosses and ferns includes thesporophyte stage and the gametophyte stage.
◆ The sporophyte releases spores that develop intothe gametophyte stage. The gametophyte producestwo kinds of gametes—sperm cells and egg cells.
◆ Gametophytes need a thin layer of water to allowthe sperm to swim to and fertilize the egg to produce a zygote. The zygote develops into a sporophyte to begin the cycle again.
Questions1. Where does a moss sporophyte grow and how does
it look?
2. Which stage of development is predominant in ferns?
3. Which stage of the life cycle of mosses and fernsinvolves sexual reproduction?
1. It grows out of the gametophyte and consists of a slender stalk with a capsule at the end. 2. Sporophyte 3. Gametophyte stage
Producesspores
Producesegg cells
GametophyteEgg cells
Gametophyte
Fertilizationproducesa zygote
Producessperm cells
Sporophyte
Plant StomataSB4.e Relate plant adaptations to the ability to survive stressful environmental conditions.
SB3.b Compare how structures and function vary between the six kingdoms.
Quick Review
◆ Seed plants reproduce sexually when male pollengrains are transferred to female ovules. Most individual seed plants contain both male andfemale reproductive structures.
◆ After fertilization, most gymnosperm seeds are dispersed by air or water.
◆ Many angiosperm seeds are dispersed by animalsthat eat the fruit that surrounds the seeds.
Questions1. What are the two main ways that pollen is carried
from one plant to another?
2. Why do seeds that are dispersed far away from theparent plant have a better chance of survival?
3. Why do seeds contain stored food?
CornBean
PineSeed coat
Cotyledon
CotyledonEmbryo
Stored foodStored foodCotyledon
EmbryoSeed coat
Seed coatStored food
Embryo
Stored food
1. By wind or by animals that feed on flower nectar 2. They do not need to compete with the parent plant for light, water, and nutrients. 3. To nourish the growing embryo until the plant can produce its own food
SB4.a Investigate the relationships among organisms, populations, communities,ecosystems, and biomes.
1. The parasite obtains all or part of its nutritional needs from the host.2. Sample answer: A predator kills its prey; a parasite does not usually kill its host.
Primary host(human)
Intermediate host(snail)
AdultflukeHuman
intestine
Tailedlarva
Ciliatedlarva
Embryo
Quick Review
◆ Parasitism is a form of interaction betweenorganisms in which one organism lives on or inside another organism and harms it.
◆ The life cycle of a fluke involves two hosts: humansand snails.
Questions
1. What benefit do parasites receive from the hostorganism?
2. Describe one difference between parasitism andpredation.
SB3.b Compare how structures and function vary between the six kingdoms.
SB3.c Examine the evolutionary basis of modern classification systems.
Quick Review◆ Vertebrates, a subgroup in the phylum Chordata,
are animals that have a strong supportive backbone.
◆ The classes of vertebrates range from Agnatha (jawless fishes) to Mammalia (mammals).
◆ Some evolutionary adaptations of vertebratesinclude cartilaginous skeleton, jaws, bony skeleton,lungs, four limbs, amniotic eggs, and endothermy.
Questions1. Which class of vertebrates is most closely related
to birds and mammals?
2. What are the functions of a vertebrate’s skeleton?
3. What advantage does endothermy give to birds andmammals?
1. Reptiles 2. Provides protection for internal organs, forms an internal frame for support, allows movement3. Endotherms can live in cooler climates than ectotherms.
SB1.a Explain the role of cell organelles for both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, includingthe cell membrane, in maintaining homeostasis.
1. They secrete enzymes that break down food into nutrients required for the body to function.2. Organ systems are specialized, and each performs only a fraction of the functions required for maintenance of homeostasis in the
body as a whole.
Digestive system Stomach Smooth muscle tissue Muscle cell
Quick Review◆ The levels of organization in a multicellular
organism include cells, tissues, organs, and organsystems.
◆ Cellular differentiation is the process by whichcells gain specialized functions.
◆ Each level, from cells to organ systems, works tomaintain homeostasis in the body as a whole.
Questions1. How do the cells of the human digestive system
contribute to homeostasis in the body?
2. How does the phrase division of labor apply to the organ systems of the bodies of multicellularorganisms?
SB3.b Compare how structures and function vary between the six kingdoms.
1. Gas exchange surfaces are constantly in contact with fresh, oxygenated air.2. Alveoli greatly increase the surface area of the lungs. Mammals need a lot of oxygen due to their endothermic metabolisms.
◆ Some chordates use accessory organs forrespiration, such as air sacs or the skin.
Questions
1. Air flows in only one direction through a bird’srespiratory organs. What is the advantage to thiskind of system?
2. Mammalian lungs are full of alveoli that greatlyincrease the lung’s surface area. What is theadvantage to having more surface area in therespiratory organs?
SB3.b Compare how structures and function vary between the six kingdoms.
Quick Review◆ Circulatory systems maintain homeostasis by
transporting materials throughout animals’ bodies.
◆ Fishes have a single-loop circulatory system, whilevertebrates with lungs have a double-loop system.Only crocodilians, birds, and mammals have a “double-pump” heart.
Questions1. Where does the blood in a single-loop system pick
up oxygen?
2. Why is it important that oxygenated andunoxygenated blood do not mix in mammals andbirds?
Double-Loop Circulatory SystemSingle-Loop Circulatory System
MOST REPTILESFISHES CROCODILIANS, BIRDS, MAMMALS
Heart
Heart Heart
1. In the gills2. Endothermic birds and mammals have a higher metabolic rate and need more oxygen for cellular respiration.3. Live-bearing
SB3.b Compare how structures and function vary between the six kingdoms.
1. The cerebrum 2. Birds and mammals because they have the largest cerebellums.
Cerebellum
Optic lobe
Cerebrum
Olfactory bulb
Medulla oblongata
Spinal cord
Bony Fish Amphibian Reptile Bird Mammal
Quick Review
◆ Nonvertebrate chordates have a relatively simplenervous system with a mass of nerve cells that forma brain.
◆ Vertebrates have a much more complex brain withdistinct regions, each with a different function. Forexample, the cerebellum coordinates movementand controls balance.
Questions
1. Which part of the vertebrate brain houses the“thinking” region?
2. Which animals shown here probably have the bestsenses of movement and balance? Why?
SB4.f Relate animal adaptations, including behaviors, to the ability to survive stressfulenvironmental conditions.
SB5.d Relate natural selection to changes in organisms.
1. By keeping close to their mother, they are more likely to get food and avoid predators.2. Natural selection will favor swans that show this behavior. Therefore, more swans that show this behavior will survive to reproduce
and pass the genes that influence this behavior to their offspring.
Quick Review
◆ Many behaviors are influenced by genes and can beinherited by an organism’s offspring.
◆ Behaviors, like physical characteristics, may evolveunder the influence of natural selection.
Questions
1. How could the behavior shown above help youngswans survive?
2. How could natural selection act on the behaviorshown here?