Questions

Important QuestionsMBA-II SEM

Organisational Behaviour

1. What is organizational behaviour? discuss various challenges and opportunities available in this field? Organizational Behavior is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behavior within the organizations and its effective use for the purpose of such knowledge towards improving its performance. Similar to the evolution of man and its environment there has been a substantial change in the approach for better productivity within an organization through the brainstorming efforts applied by a good manager. Understanding organizational behavior within a corporation and particularly the factors influencing the organizational behavior of a single entity has become the key to the success of any manager. There is no one single approach to organizational behavior which is best for all organizations; instead, companies must evolve the system which works best for them with the help of effective planning and technological support which changes over time as their environment and the individuals within that environment change.Challenges and opportunities for OB

1. The creation of a global village2. Workforce diversity3. Improving quality and productivity4. Improving People skills5. Management control to empowerment6. Stability and flexibility7. Improving ethical behavior.There are a lot of challenges and opportunities today for managers to use Organizational behavior concepts. The critical issues for which Organization behavior offers solutions are:The creation of a global villageThe world has truly become global village. As multinational companies develop operations world-wide, as workers chase job opportunities across national borders, managers have to become capable of working with people from different cultures.Workforce diversityWork force diversity addresses differences among people within given countries. It means that Organizations are becoming more heterogeneous in terms of gender, race and ethnicity. When diversity is not managed properly, there is potential for higher turnover, more difficult communication and more interpersonal conflicts. So workforce diversity has important implications for management practice.Improving quality and productivityToward Improving quality and productivity, managers are implementing programs such as TQM (Total Quality Management) and Reengineering programs that require extensive employee involvement. The Organizational behavior offers important insights into helping managers work through those programs.Improving people skillsOrganizational behavior represents relevant concepts and theories that can help a manager to predict and explain the behavior of people at work. In addition, it also provides insights into specific people skills that can be used on the job. Organizational Behavior also helps at improving a manager's interpersonal skills.Management control to empowermentIn the 1980s, managers were encouraged to get their employees to participate in work related decisions. But now managers are going considerably further by allowing employees full control of their work. In so doing, managers have to learn how to give up control and employees have to learn how to take responsibility for their work and make appropriate decisions.Improving ethical behaviorToday's manager needs to create an ethically healthy climate for his or her employees where they can do their work productively and confront a minimal degree of ambiguity regarding what constitutes right and wrong behavior

2. Discuss how O.B. is an interdisciplinary subject?Behavioural Science or Organisational Behaviour is not an elemental subject, rather than it is like a compound subject, with integrated weaving of various disciplines. In modern terminology, OrganisationalBehaviour is an interdisciplinary approach to the study of human behaviour in organisations. The study of behaviour can be viewed in terms of various main disciplines. All disciplines have made an important contribution to the field of Organisational Behaviour. These disciplines are:Psychology: Psychology is broadly speaking concerned with the study of human behaviour, with traits of the individual and membership of small social groups. The main focus of attention is on the individual as a whole person. Organisational Behaviour learns a great deal in issues like personality, perception, emotions, attitude, learning, values, motivation, and job satisfaction etc. from the field of psychology.Sociology: Sociologists are more concerned with the study of social behaviour, relationships among social groups and societies, and the maintenance of order. The main focus of attention is on the social system.Organisational Behaviour has developed by taking many issues from sociology. Some of them are: group dynamics, communication, leadership, organisational structures, formal and informal organisations, organisational change and development etc.Social Psychology: Social Psychology examines interpersonal behaviour. The social psychologists are concerned with intergroup collaboration, group decision making, effect of change on individual, individual’s responsiveness to change, and integration of individual needs with group activities.Anthropology: Anthropologists are more concerned with the science of mankind and the study of human behaviour as a whole. Issues like, individual culture, organisational culture, organisational environment, comparative values, comparative attitudes, cross-cultural analysis, are common to the fields of anthropology and OB. As far as OB is concerned, one of the main issues demanding attention is the cultural system, the beliefs, customs, ideas and values within a group or society, and the comparison of behaviour among different cultures. People learn to depend on their culture to give them security and stability, and they can suffer adverse reactions to unfamiliar environments.Political Science: Political Science as a subject has many ingredients, which directly affect human behaviour in organisations since politics dominates every organisation to some extent. Many themes of interest directly related to OB are, power and politics, networking, political manipulation, conflict resolution, coalition, and self-interest enhancement.Economics: Economic environment influences organisational climate. OB has learned a great deal from such economic factors as labour market dynamics, cost-benefit analysis, marginal utility analysis, human resource planning, forecasting, and decision making.Engineering: Industrial Engineering area has contributed a great deal in the area of man-machine relationship through time and motion study, work measurement, work flow analysis, job design, and compensation management. Each of these areas has some impact on OB.Medicines: Medicines is one of the newest fields which is now being related to the field of OB. Issues like work related stress, tension and depression are common to both: the area of medicine, and OB.Semantics: Semantics helps in the study of communications within the organisation. Misunderstood communication and lack of communication lead to many behaviour related problems in the organisation.Accordingly, adequate and effective communication is very important for organisational effectiveness.

3. Explain individual perspective, group perspective, and organisational perspective of OB.According to modern thoughts on OB, it is necessary to understand the interrelationships between human behaviour and other variables, which together comprise the total organisation. These variables provide parameters within which a number of interrelated dimensions can be identified - the individual, the group, the organisation, and the environment- which collectively influence behaviour in work organisations. In the next four sections, we shall deal in these four issues. INDIVIDUAL PERSPECTIVEOB deals with individual behaviours in organisations, apart from dealing with group behaviours andbehaviours in organisations. An organisation is as good as its people. For organisations to grow continuously, there is need for keeping its individuals growing through following measures:· Continuous Learning: There are many ways through which an individual learns. Learning is any permanent change in behaviour, or behaviour potential, resulting from experience. In order to be effective organisations need to promote that behaviour, which are functional and need to discourage that behaviour, which are detrimental to effective organisation.

· Creating Right Perception: Perception is the process through which we select, organise, and interpret input from our sensory receptors. Your five senses (eyes through sight, ears through audition, nose through smell, mouth or tongue through taste, and skin through touch) are continuously gathering information from your surroundings. Now, it is your perception, which gives meaning to various combinations of information those you gather. · Building Positive Attitudes and Values: Attitudes are lasting evaluations of people, groups, objects, or issues- in fact, of virtually any aspect of the social or physical world. Positive attitudes are important ingredient of effective relationship. Values are the basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or adverse mode of conduct or end-state of existence. Values are at the base of attitudes and behaviour, hence it is important to learn values in OB. · Having Personality and Emotions Compatible at Work Place: Personality is an individual’s unique and relatively stable patterns of behaviour, thoughts, and feelings. There is need in organisations to create a right combination of person and job, so that full potential of an individual can be utilized. According to the requirements of the work, personality can be also developed.Emotions are reactions consisting of subjective cognitive states, physiological reactions, and expressive behaviours. Cognition is the mental activities associated with thought, knowledge, and memory. An Understanding about emotions help for self-development of individuals.· Maintaining Stress-free Individuals and Environment: Stress is a dynamic condition in which an individual is confronted with an opportunity, constraint, or demand related to what he or she desires and for which the outcome is perceived to be both uncertain and important. With growing competition and survival, and excellence becoming tougher, stress is the managerial discomfort of modern era. Unit 10 shall help you to know the causes and remedies of stress.

GROUP PERSPECTIVEIn an organisation, an individual does not exist alone. Plurality of people is the essential ingredient of an organisation. An organisation makes continuous effort to create synergy in the group or team, in order to make the team more productive and more effective. Some of the important measures those OB suggests at group level interventions are:· Group Formation and Structure: Group explains the situation where two or more individuals are interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives. It deals with issues like, how groups are formed, how groups develop, when groups become more effective, what are the undercurrents of group dynamics, and how group decisions are taken.· Communication: Communication deals with transference and understanding of meaning.Organisations make effort through formal structure as well as through informal interaction to establish sound communication system within and outside organisation. Team Building and Leadership: These two are highly sought after issues of OB. Team building leads to high interaction among team members to increase trust and openness. For team building effective leadership styles are required. Leadership is the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals. · Power and Politics: Some amount of pushes and pulls are inevitable where more than two persons exist. Individual tends to exercise power to influence behaviour of others, so that others act in accordance with the wishes of the individual. Political behaviour deals with use of informal networking to make an attempt to influence others. When others are influenced for narrow gains, politics is dysfunctional, when influence is used for achieving overall goals in larger interest, political behaviour is functional, and also desirable for organisation. You shall enjoy learning more about power and politics through Unit 16.ORGANISATIONAL PERSPECTIVEOrganisational perspective of OB deals with larger issues of the organisations. Such issues influence an organisation in broader ways. Organisational perspective of OB deal with following issues:· Organisational Culture and Climate: Organisational culture explains a common perception held by the organisation’s members. It depicts a system of shared meaning. A sound culture leads to conducive organisational climate. For long term effectiveness organisations need to investigate into, as well as need to take measures for improving organisational climate and culture. · Organisational Change: This is an age of change. It is said that only thing that is permanent is change. In earlier decades there used to be longer duration of stability with off and on shorter duration of change in the organisations. Now the mantra itself has changed. We are passing through an age, where there is longer duration of change interventions in organisations with off and on shorter duration of stability.

· Organisational Development : Organisational Development explains collection of planned-change interventions, built on humanistic-democratic values, that seek to improve organisational effectiveness and employee well being. Such interventions may be applied at individual level, group level as well as organisational level. Through Unit 19, you would gain insight about managing the process of organisational development.

4. Explain Cognitive, behaviourstic and social cognitive framework of OB

 Cognitive Framework Cognitive approach emphasizes the positive and freewill aspects of human behavior and uses concepts such as expectancy, demand, and intention.  Cognition can be simply defined as the act of knowing an item of information.  In cognitive framework, cognitions precede behavior and constitute input into the person’s thinking, perception, problem solving, and information processing. In the subject of organizational behavior, cognitive approach dominates the units of analysis such as perception, personality and attitudes, motivation, behavioral decision making and goal setting.The cognitive approach emphasizes more on people compared to other approaches. It is based on the expectancy, demand and incentive concepts. Cognition is a psychological process of recollecting information and past experiences. Cognition generally precedes behavior and serves as an input for a person's thoughts, perception, problem solving and information processing. Cognitive maps are concepts that can be used as pictures or visual aids to comprehend a person's understanding of a particular, and selective, elements of the thoughts (rather than thinking) of an individual, group or organization. Over the years, there have been controversies regarding the contributions of cognitive and behaviorist frameworks to the behavioral sciences. Cognition gained considerable significance after the rapid progress made in the field of psychology. Cognitive approach is also widely applied in the field of OB and is mostly used in the analysis of perception, personality and attitude, motivation and goal setting. The role of cognition is found to be significant in decision-making.Behavioristic FrameworkPioneer behaviorists Ivan Pavlov and Jon B. Watson stressed the importance of studying observable behaviors instead of the elusive mind. They advocated that behavior could be best understood in terms of stimulus and response (S-R). They examined the impact of stimulus and felt that learning occurred when the S-R connection was made. Modern behaviorism, that marks its beginning with B.F. Skinner, advocates that behavior in response to a stimulus is contingent on environmental consequences.  Thus, it is important to note that behaviortistic approach is based on observable behavior and environmental variables (which are also observable).Social Cognitive FrameworkSocial learning theory takes the position that behavior can best be explained in terms of a continuous reciprocal interaction among cognitive, behavioral, and environmental determinants. The person and the environmental situation do not function as independent units but, in conjunction with behavior itself, reciprocally interact to determine behavior.  It means that cognitive variables and environmental variables are relevant, but the experiences generated by previous behavior also partly determine what a person becomes and can do, which, in turn, affects subsequently behavior. A persons cognition or understanding changes according to the experience of consequences of past behavior.Bandura developed social learning theory into the more comprehensive social cognitive theory (SCT).  Stajkovic and Luthans have translated this SCT into the theoretical framework for organizational behavior. Social cognitive theory recognizes the importance of behaviorism’s contingent environmental consequences, but also includes cognitive processes of self regulation. The social part acknowledges the social origins of much of human thought and action (what individual learns from society), whereas the cognitive portion recognizes the influential contribution of thought processes to human motivation, attitudes, and action.  In social cognitive theoretical framework, organizational participants are at the same time both products and producers of their personality, respective environments, and behaviors.

5. What is perception? Discuss factors influencing perception.

Kolasa defines perception as the “selection and organization of material, which stems from the outside environment at one time or the other to provide the meaningful entity we experience”.Factors that are in the situation are called “external attention factors” and those within the individual are called “internal set factors”.

EXTERNAL ATTENTION FACTORS

Intensity-It implies that more intense the stimulus audio or visual, the more is the likelihood it will be perceived.Size-Any odd size attracts attention. A great tall man attracts attention at the same time small size man also attracts attention. Although the increase in attention may not be directly proportional to the increase in size.Contrast-Which stand out against the background or which, are not the people expect will receive attention. Any change in accustomed atmosphere attracts the attention.Repetition-Repeated external stimulus attracts more attention than the one that occurs at one time alone.Motion-It implies that individual attracts to changing objects in their vision that to static objects. Because of this advertisers involve signs, which include moving objects in their campaigns.Novelty and familiarity-New thing in familiar place or familiar thing in new place tends to attract attention. Job rotation is an example of this principle.

INTERNAL SET FACTORSHabit-A Hindu will bow and do Namaskar when he sees a temple on his way. Likely soldier will throw himself on ground when he hears sudden burst of car tyre.Motivation and Interest-Motivation increases individual sensitivity to the satisfaction of his needs in view of his past experience with them.Learning-Learning plays a crucial role in primitive organization. It can play the single biggest role in developing perpetual set.Organizational role or the specialization- The modern organization value specialization. Consequently the specialty of a person that casts hum in a particular organizational role predisposes him to select certain stimuli and to disregard others.

6. Write Short Notes onAttitudes & ValuesValue is defined as a “concept of the desirable, an internalized criterion or standard of evaluation a person possesses.” Such concepts and standards are relatively few and determine our guide an individual’s evaluations of the many objects encountered in everyday life.Values are tinged with moral flavour, involving an individual’s judgment of what is right, good or desirable. Thus values-Provide standards of competence and morality.Are fewer in number than attitudes.Transcend specific objects, situations or persons.Are relatively permanent & resistant to change.Are most central to the core of a person.

There are differences between values & attitudes. Attitudes essentially represent predisposition to respond. Values focus on the judgment of what ought to be. This judgment can represent the specific manifestation of a determining tendency below the surface of the behaviour. Attitudes represent several beliefs focused on a specific object or situation. Value, on the other hand, represents a single belief that transcendentally guides actions and judgments across objects and situations. Finally, a value stands in relation to some social or cultural standards or norms while attitudes are mostly personal experiences.There are similarities between values & attitudes. Both are powerful instruments influencing cognitive process and behaviour of people. Both are learned and acquired from the same source – experiences with people and objects. Values & attitudes are relatively permanent and resistant to change. Finally, values and attitudes influence each, other and are, more often than not, used interchangeable.

The Id & EgoIt is the original and the most basic system of human personality. At the base of the Freudian theory lies the id that is primitive, instinctual and governed by the principles of greed and pleasure. Id represents a storehouse of all instincts, containing in its dark depths all wishes, and desires that unconsciously direct and determines our behaviour. Id is largely childish, irrational, never satisfied, demanding and destructive of others. But id is the foundation upon which all other parts of personality are erected. Like a newly born baby id has no perception of reality. It is primitive, immortal, insistent and rash. Id is the reservoir of the “psychic energy” which Freud calls

“Libido”. According to Freud id is totally oriented towards increasing pleasure and avoiding pain, and it strives for immediate satisfaction of desires.One notable characteristic of id is that it cannot tolerate uncomfortable levels of tension within it and seeks to release the tension as soon as it develops. The methods for dealing with tension id are primary process & reflex actions. The former attempts to discharge a tension by forming a mental image of desirable means of releasing the tension. But this kind of tension release is temporary & mental, and would not satisfy the real need. For instance, if a person is hungry the id deals with situation by creating a mental image of desirable & good food that is palatable. The later method (reflex action) of tension release is reflected in the behaviour of individuals such as blinking of eyes, raising eyebrows, rubbing the cheeks etc. Id, in fact, is capable of resolving the tension in reality. Id basically represents an individual’s natural urges & feelings.As an individual learns to separate the unreality from reality in childhood, the ego develops. The ego is reality-oriented part of thinking; it is largely practical and works in an executive capacity. Ego is rational & logical, and in essence

7. What do you understand by Personality? Discuss in a nutshell some theories of personality.Answer : Personality means, “What an individual only appears to be not what he really is”. Personality factors are extremely important in organizational settings. Wrong kind of personality proves disastrous and causes undesirable tensions and worries in organizations. Personality characteristics tend to produce different emotional reactions to stress. Some people tolerate severely stressful situations, tensions and anxieties.Some theories of personality

Sheldon’s Physiognomy TheorySheldon presented a link between anatomic and psychological traits and characteristics of an individual with his behavior. He identifies three body types: Emorphic, Mesomorphic and Ectomorphic

Carl Jung’s Extrovert-Introvert TheoryExtroverts are optimistic, outgoing, gregarious and sociable. They are basically objective, a reality oriented individual who is much more doer than thinker.Introverts are quite, retiring, enjoying solitude, etc. These two types show extreme situations.Few people are completely introvert or extrovert. But the mixture of these two determines the kind of overall personality on an individual.

Trait theoriesIt views personality from the standpoint of understanding traits. These theories included Allport, Cattell and Sheldon.Allport emphasizes on uniqueness of personality.Cattell developed factor concepts such as tender-mindedness, somatic anxiety, dominance etc.Sheldon extending physical structuring that consists of endomorphs, mesomorphs and ectomorphs.

Self TheoryCarl Rogers has developed this theory that places emphasis on the individual as an initiating, creating, influential determinant of behavior within the environmental framework.

8. How the attitudes are formed? Discuss the various theories of attitude formation.An attitude describes a person’s relatively consistent evaluations, feelings, and tendencies toward an object or an idea.Attitudes put people into a frame of mind for liking or disliking things and moving toward or away from them. Attitudes are very difficult to change. A person’s attitudes fit into a pattern, and changing one attitude may require making many difficult adjustmentsAttitudes are defined as a mental predisposition to act that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor.

Attitudes are not the same as values because values are convictions about what is important, but the two are interrelated. In organizations, attitudes are important because they affect job behaviour. Employees may believe, for example, that supervisors, auditors, managers, and time-and-motion engineers are all conspiring to make

employees work harder for the same or less money. This may then lead to a negative attitude toward management when an employee is asked to stay late and help on a special project.

In Social Psychology attitudes are defined as positive or negative evaluations of objects of thought. Attitudes typically have three components. The cognitive component is made up of the thoughts and beliefs people hold about the object of the attitude. The affective component consists of the emotional feelings stimulated by the object of the attitude. The behavioral component consists of predispositions to act in certain ways toward an attitude object.We examine attitude formation by dividing into three areas: how attitudes are learned, the sources of influence on attitude formation, and the impact of personality on attitude formation.

1. How attitudes are learned: The shift from having no attitude toward a given object to having an attitude is learned. The learning may come from information exposure, individuals own cognition (knowledge or belief), or experience. Individuals may form an attitude before or after interaction to an object.2. Sources of influence on attitude formation: personal experience, friends and family, 3. Personality factors: such as high/low need for cognition (information seeking), and social status consciousness

Learning of AttitudesBy formation of attitude, we mean a situation, where there is a shift from having no attitude towards a given object to having some attitude toward it. This shift from no attitude to an attitude or the formation of attitude is a result of learning.Attitudes are generally formed through:· Repeated exposure to novel social objects,· Classical conditioning,· Operant conditioning and· Exposure to live and symbolic models.

Sources of Influence on Attitude FormationThe formation of consumer attitudes is strongly influenced by personal experience, the influence of family and friends,

Personality FactorsWe know that the personality of each individual is different and it plays a very crucial role in formation of attitude. Say for example, if you have a high need for cognition, i.e., you crave for information and enjoy thinking. Then you are likely to form a positive attitude in response

Psychological factors involved in Attitude Formation and Attitude Change1. Direct Instruction involves being told what attitudes to have by parents, schools, community organizations, religious doctrine, friends, etc.2. Operant Conditioning is a simple form of learning. It is based on the “Law of Effect” and involves voluntary responses. Behaviors (including verbal behaviors and maybe even thoughts) tend to be repeated if they are reinforced (i.e., followed by a positive experience). Conversely, behaviors tend to be stopped when they are punished (i.e., followed by an unpleasant experience). Thus, if one expresses, or acts out an attitude toward some group, and this is reinforced by one’s peers, the attitude is strengthened and is likely to be expressed again. The reinforcement can be as subtle as a smile or as obvious as a raise in salary. Operant conditioning is especially involved with the behavioral component of attitudes.3. Classical conditioning is another simple form of learning. It involves involuntary responses and is acquired through the pairing of two stimuli. Two events that repeatedly occur close together in time become fused and before long the person responds in the same way to both events. Originally studied by Pavlov, the process requires an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that produces an involuntary (reflexive) response (UCR). If a neutral stimulus (NS) is paired, either very dramatically on one occasion, or repeatedly for several acquisition trials, the neutral stimulus will lead to the same response elicited by the unconditioned stimulus. At this point the stimulus is no longer neutral and so is referred to as a conditioned stimulus (CS) and the response has now become a learned response and so is referred to as a conditioned response (CR). In Pavlov’s research the UCS

was meat powder which led to an UCR of salivation. The NS was a bell. At first the bell elicited no response from the dog, but eventually the bell alone caused the dog to salivate. Advertisers create positive attitudes towards their products by presenting attractive models in their ads. In this case the model is the UCS and our reaction to him, or her, is an automatic positive response. The product is the original NS which through pairing comes to elicit a positive conditioned response. In a similar fashion, pleasant or unpleasant experiences with members of a particular group could lead to positive or negative attitudes toward that group. Classical conditioning is especially involved with the emotional, or affective, component of attitudes.4. Social (Observational) Learning is based on modeling. We observe others. If they are getting reinforced for certain behaviors or the expression of certain attitudes, this serves as vicarious reinforcement and makes it more likely that we, too, will behave in this manner or express this attitude. Classical conditioning can also occur vicariously through observation of others.5. Cognitive Dissonance exists when related cognitions, feelings or behaviors are inconsistent or contradictory. Cognitive dissonance creates an unpleasant state of tension that motivates people to reduce their dissonance by changing their cognitions, feeling, or behaviors. For example, a person who starts out with a negative attitude toward marijuana will experience cognitive dissonance if they start smoking marijuana and find themselves enjoying the experience. The dissonance they experience is thus likely to motivate them to either change their attitude toward marijuana, or to stop using marijuana. This process can be conscious, but often occurs without conscious awareness.6. Rational Analysis involves the careful weighing of evidence for, and against, a particular attitude. For example, a person may carefully listen to the presidential debates and read opinions of political experts in order to decide which candidate to vote for in an election.

9. Define personality. What are the major factors which shape the personality of an individual?

When we talk of personality we don’t mean that a person has charm, a positive attitude toward life, a smiling face, or is a finalist for “Miss Congeniality.” When psychologists talk of personality, they mean a dynamic concept describing the growth and development of a person’s whole psychological system. Rather than looking at parts of the person, personality looks at the whole person.Gordon Allport produced the most frequently used definition of personality more than 60 years ago. He said personality is “the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment.” For our purposes, you should think of personality as the stable patterns of behaviour and consistent internal states that determine how an individual reacts to and interacts with others. It is most often described in terms of measurable traits that a person exhibits. Personality DeterminantsAn early argument in personality research centred on whether an individual’s personality was predetermined at birth, or the result of the individual’s interaction with his or her environment. Clearly, there is no simple answer. Personality appears to be a result of both influences. In addition, today we recognize a third factor—the situation. Thus, an adult’s personality is now generally considered to be made up of both hereditary and environmental factors, moderated by situational conditions.HeredityHeredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception. Physical stature, facial attractiveness, gender, temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level, and biological rhythms are characteristics that are generally considered to be either completely or largely influenced by your parents’ biological, physiological, and inherent psychological makeup. The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual’s personality is genetic. If personality characteristics were completely dictated by heredity, they would be fixed at birth and no amount of experience could alter them. If genetics resulted in your being tense and irritable as a child, for example, it would not be possible for you to change those characteristics as you grew into an adult. But personality characteristics are not completely dictated by heredity.Environmental FactorsAmong the factors that exert pressures on our personality formation are the culture in which we are raised; our early conditioning; the norms among our family, friends, and social groups; and other influences that we experience. The environment we are exposed to plays a substantial role in shaping our personalities. For instance, North Americans have had the themes of industriousness, success, competition, independence, and the Protestant work ethic constantly drilled into them through books, the school system, family, and friends. North Americans, as a result,

tend to be ambitious and aggressive compared with individuals raised in cultures that have emphasized getting along with others, cooperation, and the priority of family over work and career.If we carefully consider the arguments favoring either heredity or environment as the main determinant of personality, we are forced to conclude that both are important. Heredity sets the parameters, or outer limits, but an individual’s full potential will be determined by how well he or she adjusts to the demands and requirements of the environment. Situational ConditionsA third factor, the situation, influences the effects of heredity and environment on personality. An individual’s personality, although generally stable and consistent, does change in different situations. More specifically, the demands of different situations call forth different aspects of an individual’s personality. We should not, therefore, look at personality patterns in isolation.

10. What do you mean by Learning? Discuss the theories of Learning?

Learning brings relatively permanent change in human behaviour that occurs as a result of experience. All complex behaviour is a learned behaviour. If we want to predict and explain behaviour, we must understand how people learn. Learning involves change in behaviour. It is continuous process, which occurs all the time. We cannot see learning but we can see changed behaviour as a consequence of learning. Learning changes attitude of individuals to a large extent. An individual reacts to any situation or responds to instructions in particular fashion, that fashion or style is caused due to learning.

Theories of LearningClassical Conditioning – behaviourist theory“Classical conditioning can be defined as a process in which a formerly neutral stimulus when paired with an unconditional stimulus, becomes a conditioned stimulus that illicit a conditioned response. (Luthans 1995)1Ivan Pavlov a psychologist who won Nobel prize introduced classical conditioning theory. The experiment envisaged dog as a subject. Pavlov carried out this experiment in three sequential stages. In stage one, he presented meat (unconditional stimulus) to the dog. He noticed a great deal of salivation (unconditional response). In stage two he only rang up the bell (neutral stimulus), the dog had no salivation. In stage three, Pavlov was to accompany the offering of meat to the dog along with ringing up of bell. After doing this several times, Pavlov rang up only bell (without offering of meat to the dog). This time the dog salivated to the ringing up of bell alone. Pavlov concluded that the dog has become classically conditioned to salivate (response) to the sound of the bell (stimulus). It will be seen that the learning can take place amongst animals based on stimulus – response (SR) connections. The study was undoubtedly single most famous study ever conducted in behavioural sciences. It was a major break through and had a lasting impact on understanding of learning.Operant ConditioningOperant conditioning deals with Response—Stimulus (R-S) connection. The concept was originated by B.F. Skinner. He felt that more complex behaviour couldn’t be explained by Classical Conditioning concept. He states that most human behaviour operates based on the environment. Operant Conditioning is concerned primarily with learning as a consequence of behaviour (R-S). In Operant Conditioning particular response occurs as a consequence of many stimulus situations. Stimulus typically serves as a cue for a particular response. In his concept a “response” is first evaluated out of many stimulus, which is environmental in nature. Behaviour is a function of consequences. It is voluntary in nature. Re-inforcement increases the probability of occurrence. Behaviour is learned and is not a matter of reflects. If we create learning consequences, the probability of specific forms of behaviour increases. For example an individual will take a long trek (Response) to library because he knows he would be able to get a desired book (Stimulus), (R-S connections).Individual would work hard(R) because he knows that he would be able to get praise, or even promotion (S). Operant Conditioning has greater impact on learning as compared to Classical Conditioning.Cognitive Theory –Edward Tolman was recognized as pioneer of Cognitive Theory. The theory consists of relationship between environmental (cognitive) cues and expectations. He used white rat in his psychological experiment of Cognitive theory. He found that the rat could run through critical path with particular intention of getting food (goal/objective). In the experiment, Tolman established certain choice points where expectations were established. The rat learned cognitive cues at various choice points, which would raise its expectation to move forward to the objective (food).

Thus the rat turned to acquire food, based on relationship of Cues and Reward or expectations. This theory was later applied on human resources where incentives were related to higher performance.Social Learning – behavioural approachSocial learning approach is a behavioural approach. The approach basically deals with learning process based on direct observation and the experience. It is achieved while interacting with individuals. In social learning people observe, alter and even construct a particular environment to fit in the social behavioural pattern. Individuals learn a great deal from watching attractive models and they copy their behaviour and display the same. Children copy the behaviour of their parents, adults, and copy cinema actors/actresses in various styles. Social learning is practiced in organizations by observing various cultural, and social practices. This phenomenon is distinctly visible in defence services where cadets opt for a particular regiment based on the performance of their instructors (role model). In industrial organizations leader must display a role model so that subordinates copy the style of functioning. An appropriate behaviour can be predicted that would contribute towards achieving higher individual satisfaction level and organizational goals. The influence of model is central to the theory of Social Learning.

11. “Human needs that spark off on activity can be arranged in hierarchy of prepotency and probability of occurrence”. – Discuss.

Answer :Physiological Needs:The fulfillment of physiological needs such as thirst, hunger, sex, etc. and takes precedence over all others needs. Unlike other needs these needs have tendency of recurrence. One may postpone the fulfillment of these needs and adapt his need satisfying to suit the culture and the situation.Safety Needs:Once physiological needs are met these needs become important. Unlike physiological needs it looks into future. As need for food, clothing, etc. are satisfied today but what about tomorrow. Till the man is earning he can satisfy his physiological needs but what will happen when he gets old. He must have reasonable safety at that time. Pension plans, gratuity, PF, etc go basically to ensure security for the man in his old age.Social and belongingness needs:Man is a social being and has a need to belong and be accepted by various groups. When social needs become dominant, a person will strive for meaningful relationships. Some relationship assures that one is part of society. This needs manifests itself in three forms (1) the need for status (2) the need for power and (3) the need for recognition.Self-actualization needs:These needs means “what a man can be should be”. A self- actualized person has a cause, an ideology to fight for the goal set for him. He concentrated on the feedback, which is task oriented and is not taken in by the personal criticism or praise.Criticism:In a normal human being all the needs are not always satisfied entirely. There remains an unsatisfied corner of every need in spite of which the person seeks fulfillment of the higher need.

12. What is the meaning of Group? Explain its types.

Organizations are defined as group of people, who come together, to achieve some common objectives. They work

in a structured fashion and utilize resources to reach predetermined goals and targets.

Therefore, groups are an integral part of any organization. They influence individuals and therefore, have an impact on organization

behavior.

A group is 'any number of people who share goals, often communicate with one another over a period of time, and

are few enough so that each individual may communicate with all the others, person - to - person'.

Two or more people interacting to achieve a common objective is also called a group.

There are many possible ways of defining what is meant by a group. The essential feature of a group is that its

members regard themselves as belonging to the group.

Although there is no single, accepted definition, most people will readily understand what constitutes a group. A

popular definition defines the group in psychological terms as:

Any number of people who (1) interact with one another; (2) are psychologically aware of one another; and

(3) perceive themselves to be a group.

Another useful way of defining a work group is a collection of people who share most, if not all, of the following

characteristics:

■ a definable membership;

■ group consciousness;

■ a sense of shared purpose;

■ interdependence;

■ interaction; and

■ ability to act in a unitary manner.

CLASSIFICATION / TYPES OF GROUPS Most individuals belong to various types of groups, which can be classified in many ways. Classification according to evaluation of primary goals:Friendship group: It evolves informally to meet its members' personal security, esteem and belonging needs.Task group: It is created by the management to accomplish certain organizational goals.Groups can further be classified as under:Formal groups: They are established by an organization to facilitate the achievement of the organizational goals.Informal groups: It is one that develops out of the day - to - day activities, interactions, and sentiments of the members for the purpose of meeting their social needs.Effective group: An effective group is one which has the following characteristics:Its members know why the group exists; they have shared goals.Its members support agreed upon guidelines or procedures for making decisions.Its members communicate freely among themselves.Its members have learned to receive help from one another and to give help to one another.Its members have learned to deal with conflict within the group.Its members have learned to diagnose individual and group processes and improve their own and the group's functioning.

13. Explain different stages of group developmentSTAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENTFORMINGIn the ‘Forming’ stage of a group, personal relations are characterised by dependence. Group members rely on safe, patterned behaviour and look to the group leader for guidance and direction. Group members have a desire for acceptance by the group and a need to know that the group is safe. They set about gathering impressions and data about the similarities and differences among them and forming preferences for future sub-grouping. Rules of behaviour seem to be to keep things simple and to avoid controversy. Serious topics and feelings are avoided.The major task functions also concern orientation. Members attempt to become orientated to the tasks as well as to one another. Discussion centres around defining the scope of the task, how to approach it, and similar concerns. To grow from this stage to the next, each member must relinquish the comfort of non-threatening topics and risk the possibility of conflict.

STORMINGThe ‘Storming’ stage is characterised by competition and conflict in personal relations and the task functions of the team. As the group members attempt to get organised to perform the task, conflict inevitably results in their personal relations.Individuals have to bend and mold their feelings, ideas, attitudes, and beliefs to suit the group organisation. Because of fear of exposure or fear of failure, there will be an increased desire for structural clarification and commitment. Although conflicts may or may not surface as group issues, they do exist. Questions will arise about who is going to be responsible for what; what the rules are; what the reward system is and criteria for evaluation.

In order to progress to the next stage, group members must move from a ‘testing and proving’ mentality to a problem-solving mentality. The most important trait in helping groups to move on to the next stage seems to be the ability to listen.NORMINGIn Tuckman’s Norming stage interpersonal relations are characterised by cohesion. Group members are engaged in active acknowledgment of all members’ contributions, community building and maintenance and solving of group issues. Members are willing to change their preconceived ideas or opinions on the basis of facts presented by other members and they actively ask questions of one another. Leadership is shared and cliques dissolve.

When members begin to know and identify with one another, the level of trust in their personal relations contributes to the development of group cohesion. It is during this stage of development (assuming the group gets this far) that people begin to experience a sense of group belonging and a feeling of relief as a result of resolving interpersonal conflicts.The major task function of stage three is the data flow between group members: They share feelings and ideas, solicit and give feedback to one another and explore actions related to the task. Creativity is high. If this stage of data flow and cohesion is attained by the group members, their interactions are characterised by openness and sharing of information on both a personal and task level. They feel good about being part of an effective group.The major drawback of the ‘Norming’ stage is that members may begin to fear the inevitable future breakup of the group; they may resist change of any sort.PERFORMINGThe Performing stage is not reached by all groups. If group members are able to evolve to stage four, their capacity, range, and depth of personal relations expand to true interdependence. In this stage, people can work independently, in subgroups, or as a total unit with equal facility. Their roles and authorities dynamically adjust to the changing needs of the group and individuals.

Stage four is marked by interdependence in personal relations and problem solving in the realm of task functions. By now, the group should be most productive. Individual members have become self-assuring, and the need for group approval is past. Members are both highly task oriented and highly people oriented.

There is unity: group identity is complete, group morale is high, and group loyalty is intense. The task function becomes genuine problem solving, leading toward optimal solutions and optimum group development. There is support for experimentation in solving problems and an emphasis on achievement. The overall goal is productivity through problem solving and work.ADJOURNINGTuckman’s final stage ‘Adjourning’ involves the termination of task behaviours and disengagement from relationships. A planned conclusion usually includes recognition for participation and achievement and an opportunity for members to say personal goodbyes.

Concluding a group can create some apprehension - in effect, a minor crisis. The termination of the group is a regressive movement from giving up control to giving up inclusion in the group. The most effective interventions in this stage are those that facilitate task termination and the disengagement process.Sr.no Stage Interpersonal Characteristics Task Characteristics

1 Forming Individuals become familiar with each other What the task is and how to doit

2 Storming Tension between group members and leader Resistance arises to task and Method

3 Norming Harmony develops, norms are established Task co-operation prevalent

4 Performing Relationships are stabilized and performance Orientation : product

5 Adjourning Contact decreases, emotional dependency reduced

Task is complete roles are completed

14. What do you mean by Group decision making? Explain different techniques of group decision

making.Group decision making is a type of participatory process in which multiple individuals acting collectively, analyze problems or situations, consider and evaluate alternative courses of action, and select from among the alternatives a solution or solutions. The number of people involved in group decision-making varies greatly, but often ranges from two to seven. The individuals in a group may be demographically similar or quite diverse. Decision-making groups may be relatively informal in nature, or formally designated and charged with a specific goal. The process used to arrive at decisions may be unstructured or structured. The nature and composition of groups, their size, demographic makeup, structure, and purpose, all affect their functioning to some degree. The external contingencies faced by groups (time pressure and conflicting goals) impact the development and effectiveness of decision-making groups as well. In organizations many decisions of consequence are made after some form of group decision-making process is undertaken. However, groups are not the only form of collective work arrangement. Group decision-making should be distinguished from the concepts of teams, teamwork, and self managed teams. Although the words teams and groups are often used interchangeably, scholars increasingly differentiate between the two. The basis for the distinction seems to be that teams act more collectively and achieve greater synergy of effort. Katzenback and Smith spell out specific differences between decision making groups and teams:

The group has a definite leader, but the team has shared leadership roles Members of a group have individual accountability; the team has both individual and collective

accountability. The group measures effectiveness indirectly, but the team measures performance directly through their

collective work product. The group discusses, decides, and delegates, but the team discusses, decides, and does real work.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF GROUP DECISION MAKING ADVANTAGES. Group decision-making, ideally, takes advantage of the diverse strengths and expertise of its members. By tapping the unique qualities of group members, it is possible that the group can generate a greater number of alternatives that are of higher quality than the individual. If a greater number of higher quality alternatives are generated, then it is likely that the group will eventually reach a superior problem solution than the individual.

Group decision-making may also lead to a greater collective understanding of the eventual course of action chosen, since it is possible that many affected by the decision implementation actually had input into the decision. This may promote a sense of "ownership" of the decision, which is likely to contribute to a greater acceptance of the course of action selected and greater commitment on the part of the affected individuals to make the course of action successful. DISADVANTAGES. There are many potential disadvantages to group decision-making. Groups are generally slower to arrive at decisions than individuals, so sometimes it is difficult to utilize them in situations where decisions must be made very quickly. One of the most often cited problems is groupthink. Irving Janis, in his 1972 book Victims of Groupthink, defined the phenomenon as the "deterioration of mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgment resulting from in-group pressure." Groupthink occurs when individuals in a group feel pressure to conform to what seems to be the dominant view in the group. Dissenting views of the majority opinion are suppressed and alternative courses of action are not fully explored.GROUP DECISION MAKING METHODS There are many methods or procedures that can be used by groups. Each is designed to improve the decision-making process in some way. Some of the more common group decision-making methods are brainstorming, dialetical inquiry, nominal group technique, and the delphi technique. BRAINSTORMING. Brainstorming involves group members verbally suggesting ideas or alternative courses of action. The "brainstorming session" is usually relatively unstructured. The situation at hand is described in as much detail as necessary so that group members have a complete understanding of the issue or problem. The group leader or facilitator then solicits ideas from all members of the group. Usually, the group leader or facilitator will record the ideas presented on a flip chart or marker board. The "generation of alternatives" stage is clearly differentiated from the "alternative evaluation" stage, as group members are not allowed to evaluate suggestions until all ideas have been presented. Once the ideas of the group members have been exhausted, the group members then begin the process of evaluating the utility of the different suggestions presented. Brainstorming is a useful means by which to generate alternatives, but does not offer much in the way of process for the evaluation of alternatives or the selection of a proposed course of action. One of the difficulties with brainstorming is that despite the prohibition against judging ideas until all group members have had their say, some individuals are hesitant to propose ideas because they fear the judgment or ridicule of other group members. In recent years, some decision-making groups have utilized electronic brainstorming, which allows group members to propose alternatives by means of e-mail or another electronic means, such as an online posting board or discussion room. Members could conceivably offer their ideas anonymously, which should increase the likelihood that individuals will offer unique and creative ideas without fear of the harsh judgment of others. DIALETICAL INQUIRY. Dialetical inquiry is a group decision-making technique that focuses on ensuring full consideration of alternatives. Essentially, it involves dividing the group into opposing sides, which debate the advantages and disadvantages of proposed solutions or decisions. A similar group decision-making method, devil's advocacy, requires that one member of the group highlight the potential problems with a proposed decision. Both of these techniques are designed to try and make sure that the group considers all possible ramifications of its decision. NOMINAL GROUP TECHNIQUE. The nominal group technique is a structured decision making process in which group members are required to compose a comprehensive list of their ideas or proposed alternatives in writing. The group members usually record their ideas privately. Once finished, each group member is asked, in turn, to provide one item from their list until all ideas or alternatives have been publicly recorded on a flip chart or marker board. Usually, at this stage of the process verbal exchanges are limited to requests for clarification—no evaluation or criticism of listed ideas is permitted. Once all proposals are listed publicly, the group engages in a discussion of the listed alternatives, which ends in some form of ranking or rating in order of preference. As with brainstorming, the prohibition against criticizing proposals as they are presented is designed to overcome individuals' reluctance to share their ideas. Empirical research conducted on group decision making offers some evidence that the nominal group technique succeeds in generating a greater number of decision alternatives that are of relatively high quality. DELPHI TECHNIQUE. The Delphi technique is a group decision-making process that can be used by decision-making groups when the individual members are in different physical locations. The technique was developed at the Rand Corporation. The

individuals in the Delphi "group" are usually selected because of the specific knowledge or expertise of the problem they possess. In the Delphi technique, each group member is asked to independently provide ideas, input, and/or alternative solutions to the decision problem in successive stages. These inputs may be provided in a variety of ways, such as e-mail, fax, or online in a discussion room or electronic bulletin board. After each stage in the process, other group members ask questions and alternatives are ranked or rated in some fashion. After an indefinite number of rounds, the group eventually arrives at a consensus decision on the best course of action. 15. What do you understand by POWER? Explain different sources of Power.Power is the ability that a person may use to get others to do what he/she wants to be done. The nature of power is control over other people.Power is the capacity that one has to influence the behaviour of a person so that the person acts in accordance with his/her wishes.

Dependency – B’s relationship to A when A possesses something that B requiresResources – A has some resourcesImportance – Resources controlled by A are perceived to be important by BScarcity – Resources possessed by A have to be perceived as scarce by BNonsubstitutability – The more that a resource has no viable substitutes, the more power that control over that resource provides.In the organization, power of a person can be derived from interpersonal, structural and situational bases. Basically, interpersonal power is vested in a person as prescribed by the organization (ie; legitimate, reward and coercive) and by the person’s qualities (ie; expert and referent). While structural and situational powers (ie; resource, decision making and information powers) normally go by the hierarchy of the organization’s structure, that is, the higher the position of a person as structured by the organization, the greater is his/her power in accessing to resources, making decisions and having access to important information.One reality of power in the organization is that people are having the need for it. The differences are in the degree and intention; whether someone is having a high or low need for power, and whether the need for power is directed towards personal or organizational purposes. The issue of the reality of power in the organization is important to be closely studied because it affects the effectiveness of the organization.Sources of PowerWithin an organisation, leadership influence will be dependent upon the type of power that the leader can exercise over the followers. The exercise of power is a social process which helps to explain how different people can influence the behaviour/ actions of others. Five main sources of power upon which the influence of the leader is based have been identified by French and Raven as reward power, coercive power, legitimate power, referent power, and expert power.65 We shall consider these in terms of the manager (as a leader) and subordinate relationship.■ Reward power is based on the subordinate’s perception that the leader has the ability and resources to obtain rewards for those who comply with directives; for example, pay, promotion, praise, recognition, increased responsibilities, allocation and arrangement of work, granting of privileges.■ Coercive power is based on fear and the subordinate’s perception that the leader has the ability to punish or to bring about undesirable outcomes for those who do not comply with directives; for example, withholding pay rises, promotion or privileges; allocation of undesirable duties or responsibilities; withdrawal of friendship or support; formal reprimands or possibly dismissal. This is in effect the opposite of reward power.■ Legitimate power is based on the subordinate’s perception that the leader has a right to exercise influence because of the leader’s role or position in the organisation. Legitimate power is based on authority, for example that of managers and supervisors within the hierarchical structure of an organisation. Legitimate power is therefore ‘position’ power because it is based on the role of the leader in the organisation, and not on the nature of the personal relationship with others.■ Referent power is based on the subordinate’s identification with the leader. The leader exercises influence because of perceived attractiveness, personal characteristics, reputation or what is called ‘charisma’. For example, a particular manager may not be in a position to reward or punish certain subordinates, but may still exercise power over the subordinates because the manager commands their respect or esteem.■ Expert power is based on the subordinate’s perception of the leader as someone who is competent and who has some special knowledge or expertise in a given area. Expert power is based on credibility and clear evidence of knowledge or expertise; for example, the expert knowledge of ‘functional’ specialists such as the personnel manager, management accountant or systems analyst. The expert power is usually limited to narrow, well-defined areas or specialisms.

16.Differentiate between Power and Authority.Difference between power and AuthoriyPower and authority are separate but related concepts. A manager in an organization has authority if that person has the right to direct the activities of others and expect them to respond with appropriate actions to attain organizational purposes. Sources of authority can come from a position (such as duties and responsibilities) delegated to a position holder in a bureaucratic structure. A company president can order a product design change, for instance, or a police officer has the authority to arrest an offender of the law. Power is the possession of authority, control, or influence by which a person influences the actions of others, either by direct authority or by some other, more intangible means. A prime source of power is the possession of knowledge. A person with knowledge is oftentimes able to use that knowledge to directly or indirectly influence the actions of others. The authority of knowledge is often independent of levels or positions.Power can reinforce authority, and authority is one of the primary sources of power.

17. What is Motivation? Explain its nature and process.The willingness to exert high level of effort to reach organizational goals, conditioned by the efforts ability to satisfy some individual need. Robert Dubin defines Motivation as “the complex forces starting and keeping a person at work in an organization. Motivation is something that moves the person to action. and continues him in the course of action of action already initiated”Nature of Motivation:On the basis of the above description, the following characteristics of motivation can be identified1.Motivation is a psychological concept. It is based on human needs which generate within an individual. Needs are feelings influence the behaviour and activities of the individual. 2.Motivation is total, not piece-meal. A person cannot be motivated in parts. An employee is an indivisible unite and he needs are interrelated. He cannot be motivated by fulfilling some of his needs partly. 3.Motivation is a continuous process. It is not a time bound programme or a touch-and-go affair. Human needs are infinite. A soon as one need is satisfied new ones arise. 4.Motivation causes goal-directed behaviour. A person behaves in such a way that he can satisfy his goals or needs.5.Motivation may be financial or non-financial. The form of motivation depends upon the type of needs. Financial incentives include pay, allowance, bonus and prerequisites. Non-financial incentives consist of recognition, praise, responsibility, participation in decision-making, challenging job, etc., 6.Motivation is a complex process. There is no universal theory or approach to motivation. Moreover, individuals differ in what motivates them. Therefore, a manager has to analyse and understand variety of needs and has to use variety of rewards to satisfy them. He should not expect overnight results.The Process of Motivation

The basic inputs of a simple motivational model are: Needs or expectations Behaviour or action Goals or incentives Some form of feedback that would modify the inner state of an individual or his behaviour.

A simple model of motivation is shown in Figure 1-1.

Figure 1-1: Process of MotivationBasically, this model suggests that individuals possess a multitude of needs, desires or expectations in varying intensity. The emergence of such a need generally creates some sort of imbalance within the individuals which in turn gives rise to certain actions which the individual may believe would restore the equilibrium. The initiation of such actions then sets up a series of reactions, either within the individuals or from the environment providing feedback concerning the impact of behaviour. Such feedback may enable one to modify the present behaviour or pursue the present course of action.

18. Explain different theories of motivation in detailTheories of Motivation: Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory:There is a hierarchy of five needs – physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization – and as each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.1.Physiological:These needs relate to the survival and maintenance of human life. Therefore, these are the most primary or basic needs and must be satisfied before all other needs. It includes the needs of air, water, food, sex, rest, clothing, shelter, etc.,2.Safety or Security Needs:Once Physiological needs are satisfied to be reasonable level, safety needs emerge and become dominant. These needs imply the need for self-preservation and economic independence. People want bodily safety, job security, provision for old age, insurance against risk etc.3.Social Needs:Man is a social animal. He therefore, wants association, belonging, friendship, love and affection. These are the need to seek affiliation and affection of one’s fellow beings. People form informal groups to seek meaningful associations companionship.4.Self Esteem or Ego Needs:These are concerned with awareness of self importance and recognition from others. Esteem needs consist of such things as self – confidence, self – respect, independence, power, prestige, achievement, praise and status.5.Self – Actualization Needs:This implies “the desire to become more and more of what one is, to become everything that on is capable of becoming”. It involves self fulfillment or achieving what one considers to be his mission in life.

B. Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory:Frederick Herzberg and his associates conducted research wherein they interviewed 20 engineers and accountants from nine different companies in Pittsburg area of U.S.A. These executives were asked to recall specific incidents in their experience which made them feel either exceptionally good or exceptionally bad about their jobs. On the basis of their study, Herzberg concluded that there are some job conditions which operate primarily to dissatisfy employees while other job conditions operate primarily to build strong motivation and high job satisfaction. He called these factors hygiene factors and motivating factors respectively.Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory Job DissatisfactionHygiene FactorsMonitory in Nature Seeks Money, Avoids working work Interpersonal relations with peers Job Context Extrinsic in Nature Maintenance Maslow’s Two Lower end Needs Possibilities of Growth Job Content Intrinsic in Nature Motivational Maslow’s Three Higher end Needs NeutralJob SatisfactionMotivational FactorsNon – Monitory in Nature Seeks Responsibilities, and likes to1.Hygiene Factor:These factors provide no motivation to employees but the absence of these factors serves as dissatisfies. Many of these factors are traditionally perceived by management as motivators but these are really more potent as dissatisfies. These are called ‘Hygiene Factors’ because they support the mental health of employees. Some of the Hygiene Factors are, Wages, salary and other types of employee benefits. Company policies and administrative rules that govern the working environment. Interpersonal relation with peers, supervisors and subordinates. Cordial relation will prevent frustration and dissatisfaction. Working conditions and job security. The job security may be in the form of tenure or it could be supported by a strong union.2.Motivational Factor:These factors help to build strong motivation and high job satisfaction. They are also known as satisfiers. These are related with the job content. Their absence or decrease will affect the level of job satisfaction. These factors are achievement, advancement, work itself, possibility of growth and responsibility. Some of these Motivational Factor’s are: The Job itself Recognition Achievement Responsibility Growth and advancement.

C. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y:Prof. Douglas McGregor has introduced two theories in his famous book, “The Human side of Enterprise.” They are called ‘X’ theory and ‘Y’ theory.1.Theory X:The theory is based on ‘papa knows best.’ In other words, a manager has thorough knowledge and excludes workers from decisionmaking process. A manager has authority or power to take decisions. The workers should follow whatever decisions are taken by the manager.Assumptions of theory Workers have an aversion to work inherently. Workers may find a way to postpone the work completion in laziness. Workers may do the job half-heartedly.Fear of punishment can motivate the workers into action. The worker may know the hazards of non-performance of a work. No worker is ready to accept any responsibility.2.Theory Y:Y-theory is just opposite to X-theory. So, X-theory is considered as traditional theory and Y-theory is considered as modern theory. Y-theory emphasis the importance of workers in the accomplishment of enterprise objectives.Assumptions of theory

The average human being has the tendency to work. A job is as natural just like a play. Once the worker understands the purpose of job, he may extend his co-operation for job completion. Worker can put in his best efforts for the accomplishment of enterprise objectives early. Worker has self-direction, self-motivation, self-discipline and selfcontrol. If right motivation scheme is prepared by the management, the worker is ready to accept extra responsibility. The existing worker has competence to work and can take right decision.

D. Theory Z:Prof. William G.Ouchi has developed theory Z. This theory is based on comparative study of Japanese and American management practices. Theory Z describes how Japanese management practices can be adopted to the environment of other countries especially in the United States. Theory Z can be treated as a model for motivation. This theory believes in the philosophy of management. Both major and minor decisions are taken through consensus in the truly democratic and dynamic management. Besides, family relationship prevails between the employer and employees.E. Alderfer’s ERG Theory:Alderfer has provided an extension of the Maslow’s need hierarchy and Herzberg’s two – factor theory of motivation, particularly the former. Like the previous theories, Alderfer believes that there is a value in categorizing needs and that there is a basic distinction between lower – order needs and higher – order needs. Based on the empirical evidences, he has found that there seems to be some overlapping between physiological, security, and social needs. Also, the lines of demarcation between social, esteem, and achievement needs are not clear. Based on these observations, Alderfer has categorized the various needs into three categories: existence needs, relatedness needs, and growth needs.Need Hierarchy ERG TheoryGrowthRelatednessExistence1. Existence Needs:Existence needs include all needs related to physiological and safety aspects of an individual. Thus, existence needs group physiological and safety needs of Maslow into one category as these have similar impact on the behaviour of the individual.2. Relatedness Needs:Relatedness needs include all those needs that involve relationship with other people whom the individual cares. Relatedness needs cover Maslow’s social needs and that part of esteem needs which is derived from the relationship with other people.3. Growth needs:Growth needs involve the individual making creative efforts to achieve full potential in the existing environment. These include Maslow’s self – actualization need as wellas that part of the esteem need which is internal to the individual like feeling of being unique, felling of personal growth, etc.

F.Vroom’s Expectancy Theory:Vroom’s expectancy theory has its roots in the cognitive concepts in the choice behaviour utility concepts of classical economic theory. According to Vroom, people will be motivated to do things to achieve some goals to the extent that they expect that certain action on their part will help them to achieve the goal. Vroom’s model is built around the concepts of value, expectancy, and force; its basic assumption is that the choice made by a person among alternative courses of action is lawfully related to psychological events occurring contemporaneously with the behaviour. Vroom’s concept of force is basically equivalent to motivation and may be shown to be the algebraic sum of products of valences multiplied by expectations. Thus Motivation (force) = ∑ Valence X Expectancy

1.Valence:According to Vroom, valence means the strength of an individual’s preference to a particular outcome. Other terms equivalent to valence used in various theories of motivation are incentive, attitude, and expected utility.2.Instrumentality:Another major input into the valence is the instrumentality of the first – level outcome in obtaining a derived second – level outcome. Hunt and Hill have exemplified it by promotion motive. The superior performance (first – level outcome) is being instrumental in obtaining promotion (second – level outcome).3.Expectancy:Another factor in determining the motivation is expectancy, that is, the probability that a particular action will lead to the out come. Expectancy is different from instrumentality input into valence. Expectancy differs from instrumentality in that it relates efforts to first – level outcomes whereas instrumentality relates first – and second – level outcomes to each other.

19. Explain Porter-Lawler Model of Motivation:Porter-Lawler have derived a substantially more complete model of motivation and have applied it in their study primarily of managers. They propose a multivariate model to explain the complex relationship that exists between job attitudes and job performance. Their model encounters some of the simplistic traditional assumptions made about the positive relationship between satisfaction and performance.Value of reward Ability and traitsPerceived equitable rewards Intrinsic rewards Satis faction EffortPerformance accomplishmentPerceived effort – reward ProbabilityRole perceptionExtrinsic rewardsPorter – Lawler Motivation Model1.Effort:Effort refers to the amount of energy exerted by an employee on a given task. Perceived reward probability refers to the individual’s perception of the probability that differential rewards depend upon differential amounts of effort. These two factors – value of reward and perception of effort – reward probability – determine the amount of effort that the employee will put in.2.Performance: Effort leads to performance but both these may not be equal; rather, performance is determined by the amount f effort and the ability and role perception of the individual. Thus, if an individual has little ability and/or inaccurate role perception, his performance may be ineffective in spite of his putting in great efforts.3.Rewards:Performance is seen as leading to intrinsic rewards and extrinsic rewards. However, the intrinsic rewards are much more likely to produce attitudes about satisfaction that are related to performance.4.Satisfaction:Satisfaction is derived from the extent to which actual rewards fall short, meet or exceed the individual’s perceived level of equitable rewards. If actual rewards meet or exceed perceived equitable rewards, the individual will feel satisfied; if these are less than equitable rewards , he will be dissatisfied.Conclusion:Various theories of Motivation, discussed above, have various applications in management practices. In applying motivation theories, managers should take into consideration how an individual reacts to his work which is a function of fit among;1.individual’s personality characteristics, need patterns, values, and ability;2.characteristics of job such as nature of challenge it offers, the autonomy in performing the job, and the use of skills in performing the job. Thus, in applying motivation theories at workplace, both intrinsic and extrinsic aspects of the job must be considered. Intrinsic factors are directly related to the contents of a job while extrinsic factors are related

to the context or environment in which the job is performed. Thus, motivation theories help in designing reward system, empowering employees, improving quality of work life, and work design.

20. Explain five personality traits as per BIG FIVE factor of personality.

Answer- Openness to experience – (inventive/curious vs. consistent / cautious). Appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, curiosity, and variety of experience.

Conscientiousness – (efficient/organized vs. easy-going/careless). A tendency to show selfdiscipline, act dutifully, and aim for achievement; planned rather than spontaneous behavior.

Extraversion – (outgoing/energetic vs. solitary/reserved). Energy, positive emotions, surgency, and the tendency to seek stimulation in the company of others.

Agreeableness – (friendly/compassionate vs. cold/unkind). A tendency to be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others.

Emotionality– (sensitive/nervous vs. secure/confident). A tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily, such as anger, anxiety, depression, or vulnerability.

21. Explain different types of conflict?Answer: TYPES OF CONFLICTThe levels of group conflict are as follows:

Personal conflict: Are the conflicts that arise among employees, individuals because of their competitive roles.

Group conflict: Are the conflicts arising within two or more groups due to difference in their attitudes and behavior.

Infra-organizational conflict: Are the conflict arising betweenlevels of an organization, which are of two types. Vertical conflict arises between higher and lower level of management. Horizontal conflict arises among the employees at same level.Following is the sequence in which a conflict can arise:

Latent conflict: Is a situation when the conditions for conflict arise. For example, two groups competing for scarce resources.

Perceived conflict: Is a situation when both the groups realize that there exists conflict between them. Felt conflict: Is a situation when members involved in the conflict feel tense or anxious.

Manifest conflict: Is a situation when both the group try to frustrate each other. Conflict outcome: Is a situation or consequence arising after the conflict is eliminated

22. What is Organizational Behaviour?Organizational Behavior (OB) is the study and application of knowledge about how people, individuals, and groups act in organizations. It does this by taking a system approach. That is, it interprets people-organization relationships in terms of the whole person, whole group, whole organization, and whole social system.

23. What are the elements of Organizational Behaviour?The organization’s base rests on management’s philosophy, values, vision and goals. This in turn drives the organizational culture which is composed of the formal organization, informal organization, and the social environment.

24. What is the purpose of the study of Organizational Behaviour?Its purpose is to build better relationships by achieving human objectives, organizational objectives, and social objectives.

25. What are social systems?A social system is a complex set of human relationships interacting in many ways. Within an organization, the social system includes all the people in it and their relationships to each other and to the outside world. The behavior of one member can have an impact, either directly or indirectly, on the behavior of others. Also, the social system does not have boundaries… it exchanges goods, ideas, culture, etc. with the environment around it.

26. What is Organizational Development?

Organization Development (OD) is the systematic application of behavioral science knowledge at various levels, such as group, inter-group, organization, etc., to bring about planned change. Its objectives is a higher quality of work-life, productivity, adaptability, and effectiveness.

27. What is Organizational learning?Learning is a characteristic of an adaptive organization, i.e., an organization that is able to sense changes in signals from its environment (both internal and external) and adapt accordingly

28. Give the formula for Organizational learning?Action Learning can be viewed as a formula: [L = P + Q]:Learning (L) occurs through a combination of programmed knowledge (P) and the ability to ask insightful questions (Q).

29. What is power distance and cognitive dissonance?Power distance: A national culture attribute describing the extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed equally.Cognitive dissonance: Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behaviour and attitudes.

30. Define extroversion and conscientiousness?Extroversion: A personality dimension describing someone who is sociable, gregarious, and assertive.Conscientiousness: A personality dimension that describes someone who is responsible, dependable, persistent, and organized.

31. What is locus of control?The degree to which people believe they are masters of their own fate.Internals: Individuals who believe that they control what happens to them.Externals: Individuals who believe that what happens to them is controlled by outside forces such as luck or chance.

32. What is type-A personality?Are always moving, walking, and eating rapidlyfeel impatient with the rate at which most events take placestrive to think or do two or more things at oncecannot cope with leisure timeare obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of how many or how much of everything they acquire.

33. What is type-B personality?Never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying impatiencefeel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or accomplishments unless such exposure is demanded by the situationplay for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit their superiority at any costcan relax without guilt

34. What is perception?A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.

35. What is attribution theory?When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused.

36. Explain distinctiveness, consensus, and consistency?Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situationsConsensus: Response is the same as others to same situationConsistency: Response in the same way over time

37. What is fundamental attribution error?The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behaviour of others.

38. What is Halo effect?Drawing a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic.

39. Explain Job rotation, job enlargement, and job enrichment?Job rotation: The periodic shifting of a worker from one task to another.Job enlargement: The horizontal expansion of jobsJob enrichment: The vertical expansion of jobs

40. How to motivate employees in the organizations?

Recognize individual differencesUse goals and feedbackAllow employees to participate in decisions that affect themLink rewards to performanceCheck the system for equity

41. What is leadership?Leadership is the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals.

42. Differentiate trait theory and behavioral theory?Trait theory: Leaders are born, not made.Behavioral theory: Leadership traits can be taught.Differentiate employee-oriented leader and production-oriented leader?Employee oriented leader: Emphasizing interpersonal relations, taking a personal interest in the needs of employees and accepting individual differences among membersProduction oriented leader: One who emphasizes technical or task aspects of the job.

43. Who is a development oriented leader?One who values experimentation, seeking new ideas, and generating and implementing change.

44. What is groupthink & groupshift ? Why people join groups?Groupthink is a phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action.Groupshift is a change in decision risk between the group’s decision and the individual decision that members within the group would make; can be either toward conservatism or greater risk.People join groups for following reasonsSecurityStatusSelf-esteemAffiliationPowerGoal achievement

45. What is power and what are power tactics?A capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B so that B acts in accordance with A’s wishes.Power tactics are ways in which individuals translate power bases into specific actions. Different types of influence tactics are: Legitimacy, rational, inspirational appeals, consultation, exchange, personal appeals, ingratiation, pressure, coalitions.

46. What is political behaviour?Activities that are not required as part of one’s formal role in the organization, but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages or disadvantages within the organization.

47. Distinguish legitimate and illegitimate political behaviour?Legitimate political behaviour: Normal everyday politicsIllegitimate political behaviour: Extreme political behaviour that violates the implied rules of the game.

48. What are the various employee reactions to organizational politics?Decreased job satisfactionIncreased anxiety and stressIncreased turnoverReduced performance

49. How is conflict defined? What are the types of conflict?Conflict is the process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about.Types of conflict:Task conflict: Conflict over content and goals of workRelationship conflict: Conflict based on interpersonal relationshipsProcess conflict: Conflict over how work gets done

50. Distinguish between perceived conflict and felt conflict?Perceived conflict: Awareness by one or more parties of the existence of conditions that create opportunities for conflict to arise.Felt conflict: Emotional involvement in a conflict creating anxiety, tenseness, frustration, or hostility.

51. What is conflict management?

The use of resolution and stimulation techniques to achieve the desired level of conflict is called conflict management.

52. What are the various conflict management techniques?Problem solvingSuperordinate goalsExpansion of resourcesAvoidanceSmoothingCompromiseAuthoritative commandAltering the human variableAltering the structural variableCommunicationBringing in outsidersRestructuring the organizationAppointing a devil’s advocate

53. Define work stress? What are the potential sources of stressA dynamic condition in which an individual is confronted with an opportunity, constraint (or demand) related to what he or she desires and for which the outcome is perceived to be both uncertain and important.Potential sources of stressEnvironmental factorsOrganizational factorsIndividual factorsIndividual differences

54. What are the consequences of stress?Physiological symptomsPsychological symptomsBehavioral symptoms

55. How to manage stress?Individual approaches: relaxation, expanding social support network, etcEmployee counsellingOrganizational approaches: realistic goal setting, increased employee involvement, etc

56. What is team building? What are the various team building activities?High interaction among team members to increase trust and openness.Various team building activities?Goal and priority settingDeveloping interpersonal relationsRole analysis to each member’s role and responsibilitiesTeam process analysis