Quarantine of aquatic animals in Australia

Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 1996, 1 5 (2), 659-673

Quarantine of aquatic animals in Australia K.A. DOYLE, P.T. BEERS and D.W. WILSON *

Summary: Australia is free from many significant diseases of aquatic animals. Quarantine policies for aquatic animals and aquatic animal products are designed to meet the international trade obligations of Australia, while preventing the entry of pests and diseases. These policies are supported by measures to prevent the introduction of aquatic species which would have deleterious effects on the environment.

The Australian approach to quarantine - utilising objective risk analysis, where possible - is more difficult to apply to aquatic species than to terrestrial animals, as it is hard to identify and quantify risks when much of the relevant disease and epidemiological information is unavailable.

Other than ornamental fish, for which stringent quarantine restrictions apply, involving isolation in quarantine premises, there have been no commercial importations of live aquatic species into Australia over the past decade. The onerous requirements for detailed analysis of disease risks and environmental implications have tended to deter potential importers.

For many years, specific controls - based on risk analysis - have also been placed on the importation of products such as oysters in the shell, salmonid products, and feeds and meals of aquatic animal origin.

A major review of quarantine requirements has been commissioned.

K E Y W O R D S : Aquat ic animals - Australia - Diseases - Quarantine - Risk analysis.

INTRODUCTION

Since the se t t l ement of E u r o p e a n s in Aus t ra l i a in the 18th century, the re h a s b e e n recognit ion wi th in the Aus t r a l i an c o m m u n i t y of the i m p o r t a n c e of exc lud ing d i seases of an imals , p lan t s and h u m a n s . Aus t r a l i a con t inues to re ly on agr icul tura l , fishery and resource indus t r ies and the u n i q u e flora, fauna and eco logy of the coun t ry h a v e m e a n t that its hea l th s ta tus has b e e n kep t u n d e r c lose scrut iny. A c c e s s to expor t m a r k e t s is vital, due to the re la t ive ly smal l popu la t ion (18 mi l l ion) and the m a g n i t u d e of agricultural p roduc t ion from, for e x a m p l e , 2 5 mi l l ion catt le and 165 mi l l ion sheep . T h e remoteness and ex tens ive na tu re of m a n y indus t r ies , t oge the r w i t h the p r e s e n c e of large n u m b e r s of m a n y spec ies of feral an ima l s and poten t ia l insect vec to rs , m a k e the eradicat ion and cont ro l of d i s ea se difficult and expens ive , thus c rea t ing a d e m a n d within the c o m m u n i t y for qua ran t ine m e a s u r e s w h i c h p rov ide the neces sa ry level of protection (1) .

* Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service, GPO Box 858, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia.

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T h e in ternat ional spread of se r ious p a t h o g e n s of aqua t ic an ima l s has been well d o c u m e n t e d (12) , and has c rea ted e c o n o m i c loss th rough mortal i ty , r e d u c e d growth ra tes and loss of des i rab le p roduc t features (23) . Aga ins t this b a c k g r o u n d Aus t ra l i a has in t roduced quaran t ine m e a s u r e s based on cur rent scientif ic k n o w l e d g e to pro tec t its fishery and aquacul tu re indus t r ies . T h e impl ica t ions of in te rna t ional m o v e m e n t of aqua t ic an ima l s and their p roduc t s , toge ther wi th the poten t ia l a c c o m p a n y i n g spread of fish d i seases , w e r e r ecogn i sed b y the Office In te rna t iona l des Ep izoo t i e s (OIE) th rough the inc lus ion of fish d i seases in the O I E International Animal Health Code and, m o r e recent ly, the International Aquatic Animal Health Code (21) .

T h e ma in t enance , in Aus t ra l i an wa te r s , of popu la t ions of w i ld and fa rmed aquat ic an ima l s w h i c h are free f rom the major d iseases p r o v i d e s an e c o n o m i c advan tage (or, at least, e c o n o m i c viabi l i ty) to fishers and p roduce r s in their explo i ta t ion of domest ic and expor t marke t s . Th i s f reedom from the major d i seases is a lso a signif icant factor in recrea t ional fishing (one of the largest par t ic ipa tory spor ts in Aus t ra l i a ) , in the viabi l i ty of t rade in o rnamen ta l and f a rmed spec ies and their gene t i c mate r ia l , and in the ma in t enance of the sensi t ive ecosys t em in the count ry (22) .

T h e miss ion of the Aus t ra l i an Quaran t ine and Inspec t ion Serv ice ( A Q I S ) is to del iver quaran t ine and inspect ion serv ices w h i c h ensu re m a x i m u m pract ica l protect ion against the entry and spread of u n w a n t e d pes t s and d i seases of an ima l s and plants, w h i l e facil i tat ing the impor t and expor t of an ima l s and p lan ts and their p roduc t s . A Q I S also has responsibi l i ty for ensur ing that impor ted feedstuffs are free f rom agents of concern to h u m a n heal th . A Q I S recogn ises the in te rna t ional ob l iga t ions of Austra l ia under the Wor ld T rade Organisa t ion A g r e e m e n t on the App l i ca t i on of Sani ta ry and Phytosani ta ry M e a s u r e s ( S P S A g r e e m e n t ) (25) .

A Q I S e m p l o y s quaran t ine m e a s u r e s at each poin t of entry (air or seapor t ) and post -ar r ival quarant ine , especial ly for l iv ing an imals , b a s e d on a r isk ana lys i s approach (25) . A Q I S c o m m i s s i o n e d the B u r e a u of R e s o u r c e Sc iences ( B R S ) to conduc t a comprehens ive r ev iew of Aus t ra l i an quaran t ine r equ i r emen t s for aqua t ic an ima l s , their p roduc ts and associa ted mater ia ls , to ensure that prac t ices and pol ic ies are consistent wi th internat ional s tandards (12) . R e a s o n s for such a r e v i e w are descr ibed by Lehane (16) .

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

A q u a t i c an imals have been in t roduced into Aus t ra l i a in a spo rad ic m a n n e r for more than 100 years , for commerc i a l , recrea t ion or social p u rp o s e s (e .g. fauna f rom the h o m e l a n d s of E u r o p e a n set t lers) . E x a m p l e s inc lude the b r o w n trout (Salmo trutta) in t roduced into Tasmania in 1864 and the Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas) in the 1940s (22) .

H u m p h r e y (12) descr ibes s o m e other in t roduct ions m a d e over the s a m e period, inc lud ing b r o w n trout, r a i nbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), A t l an t i c s a l m o n (Salmo salar) and ch inook s a lmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha). H u m p h r e y refers to four mar ine fish species w h i c h appear to h a v e been accidenta l ly in t roduced in the ballast wa te r of sh ips , n a m e l y Acanthogobias flavimanus and Tridentiger trigonoegphalus, from Japan; the Japanese sea bass (Lateolabrax japonicus), and sea b ream (Sparidentax hasta) f rom the A r a b i a n sea. F reshwa te r spec ies w h i c h h a v e been intent ionally and successful ly impor t ed inc lude t ench (Tinca tinca), redfin perch

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(Perca fluviatilis), m o s q u i t o fish (Gambusia affinis) and carp (Cyprinus carpio). T h e s e species w e r e impor t ed for socia l and rec rea t iona l p u r p o s e s . Twen ty o r n a m e n t a l species, i nc lud ing goldfish (Carassius auratus), h a v e b e c o m e es tab l i shed in Aus t r a l i an waters (18) . Fo r ty - seven spec ies of m a r i n e inver tebra tes w e r e apparen t ly i n t roduced through bal las t wa t e r of sh ips , hu l l foul ing or o ther m e a n s (12) . A p p a r e n t l y n o pathogens h a v e b e e n assoc ia ted wi th these impor t s , bu t their pes t po ten t ia l is significant. T h e J a p a n e s e starfish (Asterias amurensis) has p r o v e d a p r o b l e m for fisheries in Tasman ia . Other in t roduced inver tebra tes inc lude the E u r o p e a n shore c rab (Carcinus maenas), J a p a n e s e sh r imp (Palaemon macrodactylus), Pacif ic oys ter (22) and A s i a n m u s s e l (Masculista senhousia) (12) .

A ser ious conce rn has b e e n the in te rcep t ion of exo t i c snail spec ies in s h i p m e n t s of imported fish. T h e s e are capab le of i n t roduc ing an ima l and h u m a n d i seases , as we l l as hav ing pes t po ten t ia l .

HEALTH STATUS OF AUSTRALIAN AQUATIC ANIMALS

A q u a t i c an ima l s are poten t ia l hos t s for a w i d e r ange of p a t h o g e n s w h i c h m a y cause diseases of m i n o r or ma jo r social , e c o n o m i c or env i ronmen ta l s ignif icance. S o m e cause d i sease only u n d e r specif ic c i r cums tances , e.g. o v e r c r o w d i n g or w h e n the animals are u n d e r s o m e o ther form of env i ronmen ta l s t ress . Severa l p a t h o g e n s appear to be u n i q u e to Aus t r a l i a wh i l e , impor tant ly , m a n y d iseases of in ternat ional significance are exo t ic to Aus t r a l i a (6, 13 , 14, 15 , 20) .

Recur ren t e p i d e m i c fish dea ths in Q u e e n s l a n d in 1892 (12) p rov ide an early ins tance of inves t iga t ion , research and c o m m u n i t y conce rn w i t h fish d isease . Major changes were m a d e to m e t h o d s of h u s b a n d r y for the S y d n e y rock oys te r (Saccostrea commercialis), at the end of the 19th century, to offset the effects of po lychae t e w o r m s and main ta in the viabi l i ty of the indus t ry (24) .

Resea rch efforts for m u c h of the 20 th cen tury identif ied the m e t a z o a n , p ro tozoan , parasit ic and mic rob io log ica l fauna of the Aus t r a l i an aqua t ic spec ies . A s wi th terrestrial spec ies , m a n y of these o rgan i sms appea r n o n - p a t h o g e n i c u n d e r Aus t r a l i an condi t ions bu t h a v e p a t h o g e n i c exo t i c coun te rpar t s , further confus ing the interpretat ion of their p r e s e n c e . O r g a n i s m s in this ca tegory inc lude l y m p h o c y s t i s v i rus , m o n o d o n bacu lov i ru s , infec t ious panc rea t i c nec ros i s v i rus ( I P N V ) , Yersinia ruckeri, Aeromonas salmonicida, Vibrio anguillarum and Aphanomyces spp . (6 , 15, 20) .

S o m e d i sease agen t s identif ied in aqua t ic an ima l s in Aus t r a l i a are l is ted in Table I. T h e pos i t ion of Aus t ra l i a in re la t ion to d i seases of aqua t ic an ima l s l is ted b y the Office In te rna t iona l des Ep i zoo t i e s (OIE) and requ i r ing not if icat ion is s h o w n in Table II.

INTERNATIONAL COORDINATION

The O I E - the w o r l d o rgan isa t ion for an ima l hea l th - deve lops C o d e s or gu ide l ines for m i n i m i s i n g the r isk of d i sease t r ansmiss ion as a resul t of in te rna t iona l m o v e m e n t of an imals and their p roduc t s . T h e O I E also p r o v i d e s a d i sease - repor t ing m e c h a n i s m for its 143 M e m b e r Coun t r i e s , m a k i n g essent ia l in fo rmat ion avai lab le for u s e in quarant ine po l icy fo rmula t ion and dec i s i on -mak ing (21) .

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T A B L E I

Some infectious disease agents affecting Australian aquatic animals

Disease agent Species affected

Epizootic haematopoietic necrosis Redfin perch (Perca fluviatilis) and virus rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

Picorna-like virus Larval barramundi (Lates calcarifer) Lymphocystis virus Farmed barramundi Monodon-like baculovirus Juvenile penaeid prawns Infectious hypodermal and Juvenile penaeid prawns

haematopoietic necrosis-like virus Atypical Aeromonas salmonicida Goldfish (Carassius auratus), carp

(Cyprinus carpio) and roach (Rutilus rutilus) Carnobacterium fiscicolor Salmonids

Enterococcus seriolicida Rainbow trout Flexibacter spp. Various species Mycobacterium spp. Ornamental fish Enterococcus seriolicida Rainbow trout Yersinia ruckeri Juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)

and rainbow trout Vibrio spp. Marine crustaceans and molluscs Saprolegnia spp. Finfish Ichthyophonus spp. Mullet (Mugilidae) Aphanomyces spp. Freshwater estuarine fish Ichthyobodo necator Various finfish Paramoeba spp. Atlantic salmon and rainbow trout Bonamia spp. Flat oysters (Ostreidae)

T h e O I E main ta ins t w o lists of d i seases of aqua t ic an ima l s . T h e list of diseases notifiable to the O I E conta ins e leven d i seases of h ighes t s ignif icance to internat ional t rade; of these , five are repor ted in Aust ra l ia , n a m e l y ep izoo t i c haematopoie t i c necros is , bonamios i s , marte i l ios is , mikrocy tos i s and pe rk insos i s . A s e c o n d list covers less impor tan t d iseases w h i c h have l imi ted g e o g r a p h i c d is t r ibut ion or are no t well defined. Four of the d i seases o n th i s l ist are p r e sen t in Aus t ra l i a ; h o w e v e r , a l though the causa t ive agents of t w o of these d iseases - n a m e l y infect ious h y p o d e r m a l and haematopo ie t i c necros is ( IHHN)- l ike v i rus and m o n o d o n - t y p e bacu lov i ruses – are present in penae id p rawns , the re la t ionship of these v i ruses w i t h p a t h o g e n i c exotic s t rains has no t b e e n character ised (12) .

W o r k s h o p s h a v e b e e n held in a n u m b e r of r eg ions of the wor ld , u n d e r deve lopmen t ass is tance or Uni ted Na t ions agency funding (23) . T h e need for quaran t ine p rocedures for aqua t ic an imals has been recognised . Typically, this recogni t ion has b e e n suppor ted by calls for in ternat ional s tandards (to w h i c h the O I E has r e sponded ) , toge ther wi th the crea t ion or commis s ion ing of d iagnos t ic and reference labora tor ies , inspec t ion and certification sys t ems for l ive fish and fish p roduc ts , and quaran t ine s y s t e m s for

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T A B L E II

Diseases of aquatic animals listed in the International Aquatic Animal Health Code of the Office International des Epizooties

Diseases Status in Australia

Notifiable diseases

Fish diseases Epizootic haematopoietic necrosis Present Infectious haematopoietic necrosis Exotic Oncorhynchus masu virus disease Exotic Spring viraemia of carp Exotic Viral haemorrhagic septicaemia Exotic

Diseases in crustaceans None at present -

Diseases in molluscs Bonamiosis Present Haplosporidiosis Exotic Marteiliosis Present Mikrocytosis Present Perkinsosis Present Iridovirosis Exotic

Other significant diseases

Fish diseases Bacterial kidney disease Exotic Channel catfish virus disease Exotic Viral encephalopathy and retinopathy Present Enteric septicaemia of catfish Exotic Epizootic ulcerative syndrome Present Infectious pancreatic necrosis Exotic Infectious salmon anaemia Exotic Piscirickettsiosis Exotic

Diseases in crustaceans Baculoviral midgut gland necrosis Exotic Baculovirus penaei infection Exotic Crayfish plague Exotic Infectious hypodermal and haematopoietic necrosis ?

Monodon baculovirus infection ?

Yellowhead monodon virus infection Exotic Diseases in molluscs

None at present -- not present ? present but in ; a strain of low pathogenicity

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in ternat ional m o v e m e n t of l ive fish ( inc lud ing quaran t ine facil i t ies and safe disposal of wa te r ) . D i sease has b e e n a major factor in the viabi l i ty of fish f a rming sys t ems and aquacul tu re general ly , and this has led to the e m e r g e n c e of sy s t ems of accredi tat ion for f a rms and of qualified g o v e r n m e n t fish pa tho log i s t s for cert if icat ion p u r p o s e s . This type of cont ro l sys t em has b e e n i m p l e m e n t e d in Canada , the Un i t ed Sta tes of Amer ica , the Un i t ed K i n g d o m and P a p u a N e w Guinea . T h e E u r o p e a n C o m m i s s i o n , in particular, has deve loped deta i led ru les to r educe the d isease r isks f rom t rade in aquacul ture an ima l s and their p roduc t s wi th in the E u r o p e a n U n i o n ( E U ) and impor t s f rom non -EU count r ies (9) .

M a n y other count r ies h a v e quaran t ine cont ro ls over l ive aqua t ic an ima l s , and in s o m e count r ies these ex tend to fish-derived b io log ica l s , fish feeds and ed ib le fishery p roduc t s .

THE AUSTRALIAN SITUATION

Aust ra l ia is a major expor ter of fishery p roduc t s , i nc lud ing tuna, p r a w n s , shellfish, aba lone and rock lobsters . Desp i t e the v o l u m e of such expor t s , fisheries p roduc t s such as shellfish, lobs ters and sa lmon id p roduc t s to the va lue of app rox ima te ly A U S $ 5 0 0 mi l l ion are impor ted annual ly , accord ing to figures pub l i shed by the Aus t r a l i an Bureau of Stat is t ics .

In addi t ion to these edible p roduc t s , approx imate ly 10 mi l l ion o rnamen ta l fish are impor ted annual ly f rom approved sources and th rough a sy s t em of quarant ine facili t ies. T h e aquacul tu re indus t ry has a need for fish feeds and fish m e a l s , and live foods such as br ine sh r imp are impor ted u n d e r a sy s t em of qua ran t ine t rea tments . Special i ty i t ems , such as h o r m o n e s to induce s p a w n i n g for the co l lec t ion of genet ic mater ia l , are impor ted under specia l cond i t ions of qua ran t ine r isk a s se s smen t and t rea tment (11) .

Legis lat ion

Impor ta t ion of aquat ic an imals and their p roduc ts into Aus t ra l i a is regu la ted through the Quaran t ine Ac t 1908 , and the Wildl i fe Pro tec t ion (Regu la t ion of Expor t s and Impor t s ) Ac t 1982 .

U n d e r the Aus t ra l i an federal sys tem, the C o m m o n w e a l t h (Nat iona l ) G o v e r n m e n t is respons ib le for quaran t ine . S ince federat ion in 1 9 0 1 , however , the Sta tes have pe r fo rmed field activit ies on behal f of the C o m m o n w e a l t h . T h i s ro le h a s been complemen ta ry wi th the role of the Sta tes in terrestr ial an ima l d i sease cont ro l . The Sta tes also have responsibi l i ty for s o m e fisheries. T h e Chief Veter inary Officers of the Sta tes are also Chief Quaran t ine Officers (Animals ) . In these dua l ro les , they have access to State laboratory and field resources for quaran t ine opera t ions .

Chief Quaran t ine Officers (Animals ) of each Sta te a lso act w i th federal officers as a commi t t ee to advise on quaran t ine pol icy and opera t ions . T h e s e a r r angemen t s are currently be ing changed , wi th the C o m m o n w e a l t h soon due to t ake over field quaran t ine in several Sta tes .

Legis la t ion emerged from a series of events w h i c h es tabl i shed the need for quaran t ine m e a s u r e s s imilar to those appl ied to terrestr ial an ima l s . In 1 9 3 3 , the appearance of Ichthyophthirius multifiliis d r ew at tent ion to the need for quaran t ine for

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imported l ive fish. In 1 9 6 3 , the A n i m a l Qua ran t ine Se rv ice b e c a m e c o n c e r n e d over the relative lack of qua ran t ine cont ro l on i m p o r t s of l ive fish, and r ecogn i sed the spread of fish d i seases a round the w o r l d . T h e n e e d w a s r ecogn i sed for addi t iona l p recau t ions - such as reg is t ra t ion of impor t e r s , inspec t ion on arr ival and quaran t ine , a list of species w h i c h shou ld b e a l lowed ent ry (es tab l i shed largely on env i ronmen ta l and safety g rounds ) - and these w e r e es tab l i shed over the fo l lowing few years (12) .

By 1968 , further cont ro l s w e r e cons ide red necessary . T h e n e e d for hea l th certification w a s r ecogn i sed , and it w a s also dec ided that fish impor t ed for b r e e d i n g (including spor t ing fish) shou ld b e a l l owed entry on ly to g o v e r n m e n t facil i t ies. F o r m a l control w a s ini t ia ted over w h i c h spec ies - especia l ly of o r n a m e n t a l fish - cou ld b e imported. A s these cont ro l s w e r e no t p r o m p t e d b y specific d i sease conce rns , they w e r e effected t h rough C u s t o m s legis la t ion .

At about the s a m e t ime , it w a s a lso dec ided that the w o r l d - w i d e spread of d i seases of sa lmonids just i f ied specif ic qua ran t ine m e a s u r e s cove r ing impor t s of l ive +sa lmon ids , their s e m e n and ova , and s a l m o n i d p roduc t s . Impor t a t ion of p roduc t s w a s to b e allowed only if t reated to inac t iva te poten t ia l p a t h o g e n s . In prac t ice , this m e a n t hea t ing or hot s m o k i n g . T h e s e m e a s u r e s w e r e des igned to pro tec t the hea l th s ta tus of loca l salmon and trout, w h i c h had b e e n in t roduced m o r e than a cen tury earl ier for spor t and recreation. T h e s e res t r ic t ions w e r e e m b o d i e d in legis la t ion in 1975 , at a t ime w h e n there w a s no c o m m e r c i a l f a rming of these spec ies in Aus t ra l i a ( 1 , 12).

A major r e v i e w of qua ran t ine po l ic ies and prac t ice w a s conduc t ed b y the Sena te Standing C o m m i t t e e on Na tu ra l R e s o u r c e s in 1978 and 1979 . T h i s C o m m i t t e e r ecommended , inter alia, that the sy s t em for o r n a m e n t a l . fish b e a u g m e n t e d by post-arrival qua ran t ine for four teen days . Legis la t ion w a s in t roduced to g ive effect to this r e c o m m e n d a t i o n . O r n a m e n t a l fish m u s t o r ig ina te f rom app roved p r emi se s , m u s t be certified, m u s t b e m a t u r e e n o u g h for ready identif ication, and are inspec ted on arrival in Aus t ra l i a . T h e fish are t ransfer red to qua ran t ine p r emi se s , w h e r e t he or ig ina l water is e x c h a n g e d and chemica l ly t rea ted before d isposa l . T h e four teen-day quarantine per iod enab les obse rva t ion and de tec t ion of c l inical d i sease , tes t ing (if required), identif icat ion of n o n - a p p r o v e d spec ies (if m i s sed on init ial inspec t ion) and detection of exo t ic inc lus ions such as snai ls and wa te r w e e d s (if not exc luded by wa te r change).

The 1983 and 1984 a m e n d m e n t s to legis la t ion also p rov ided for impor ta t ion of aquatic an ima l s for scientif ic r e sea rch and for display. T h e thrust of the legis la t ion is to give the Di rec to r of A n i m a l and Plan t Qua ran t ine author i ty to a l low ent ry of cer ta in items, p rov ided that they are t reated, tes ted or p roce s sed b y o ther m e a n s so as no t to introduce d i sease . T h i s is usua l ly a c c o m p l i s h e d by the d e v e l o p m e n t of ' p r o t o c o l s ' which p rov ide deta i led suppor t to the legis la t ion .

Species approved for importa t ion

Dete rmina t ion of w h i c h spec ies can b e i m p o r t e d is pe r fo rmed b y the Aus t r a l i an Nature Conse rva t ion A g e n c y ( A N C A ) u n d e r the Wildl i fe Pro tec t ion (Regu la t ion of Exports and Impor t s ) A c t 1 9 8 2 . A N C A is respons ib le for ensu r ing that Aus t r a l i a complies w i t h the C o n v e n t i o n on In te rna t iona l T rade in E n d a n g e r e d Spec ie s of Wi ld Flora and F a u n a ( C I T E S ) and that na t ive fauna and flora are p ro tec ted .

The A N C A list of a p p r o v e d spec ies of fish a lso he lps to p ro tec t the Aus t r a l i an environment agains t the in t roduc t ion of pes t spec ies , in case an ima l s are re leased into

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the wi ld . T h e list a lso seeks to exc lude an imal s w h i c h migh t b e d a n g e r o u s to h u m a n heal th , e.g. due to sp ines or tox ins . S ta te leg is la t ion prohib i t s the re lease of impor ted fish. T h e ro le p l ayed by adminis t ra t ive l aw is d i scussed be low.

R i s k analysis and disease control

T h e Aus t ra l i an G o v e r n m e n t re leased a pol icy s t a t ement in D e c e m b e r 1 9 8 8 , entitled 'Aus t ra l i an quaran t ine : l ook ing to the fu ture ' (2) .

T h i s s ta tement inc luded r equ i r emen t s for pub l i c consu l ta t ion (conf i rming and ex tend ing prac t i ce cur ren t at tha t t ime) , fo rmal r isk a s sessment , and m e a s u r e s to ensure pub l i c unde r s t and ing that ' n o r i sk ' po l ic ies w e r e not p rac t icab le . T h e s ta tement also requi res quaran t ine d i scuss ions to b e b a s e d on sc ience (2) .

Admin i s t r a t ive l aw e m b o d y i n g ' f r eedom of in fo rma t ion ' and ' d u e p rocess ' p r inc ip les a lso m a k e s d e m a n d s on the quaran t ine dec i s i on -mak ing p roces s . T h e nature of these legis la t ive m e a s u r e s can m e a n that dec i s i on -mak ing on cont rovers ia l issues is p ro t rac ted and pub l i c , bu t they do ensure input by all par t ies and the avai labi l i ty of as m u c h informat ion as poss ib le . T h e Admin i s t r a t i ve Dec i s ions (Judicia l Rev iew) A c t g ives the pub l i c access to k n o w l e d g e of the g r o u n d s on w h i c h dec i s ions are taken (3) .

R i sk assessment is as object ive as poss ib le , and m e t h o d s are b a s e d on the ' Impor t r isk ana lys i s ' chapter of the O I E International Aquatic Animal Health Code (21) .

T h e pr inc ipa l s teps for cons idera t ion are as fo l lows:

- the c o u n t r y fac tor (i.e. p re sence , absence , p r eva l ence of or reg iona l f reedom from the diseases of concern in the count ry of or igin)

- the c o m m o d i t y factor (i .e. capaci ty for the an imal , gene t i c mater ia l , p roduc t or b io logica l to carry disease)

- r i sk reduct ion m e t h o d s able to b e e m p l o y e d (i .e. t r ea tments , tests , p rocess ing of p roduc ts to r educe the r isk of specific sh ipmen t s ca r ry ing specific p a t h o g e n s )

- r i sk of domes t i c exposure ( i .e. l ike l ihood that the c o m m o d i t y wi l l b e exposed to a suscept ib le popu la t ion and in t roduce disease)

- the n u m b e r o f i m p o r t uni t s b e i n g impor ted .

A s s e s s m e n t of the r isk of each disease for each c o m m o d i t y f rom each country involves a ' s tep r isk ana lys i s ' . Each poin t of potent ia l con tamina t ion is identified and, at each of these points , the probabi l i ty of infect ion or con tamina t ion is assessed (5 , 7, 17). This l eads to an es t imat ion of the overal l cumula t ive probabi l i ty of the c o m m o d i t y in t roduc ing the d isease . W h e r e there is a p recedent , or w h e r e adequa te da ta on risk reduc t ion or agent inac t iva t ion s teps are avai lable , th is can b e ca lcu la ted quickly (usual ly subject ively) (25) .

Quant i ta t ive m e t h o d s of r isk assessment are be ing re sea rched and are increas ingly c o m i n g into use . Th i s m a y involve the use of a compu te r sp readshee t m o d e l . For each step, es t imates are m a d e of the m a x i m u m , m i n i m u m and mos t l ikely v a l u e s and the dis t r ibut ion, and M o n t e Car lo s imula t ions are used to deve lop a c u m u l a t i v e probabi l i ty dis tr ibut ion. Th i s dis t r ibut ion aids dec i s ion -mak ing and, w h e n c o m b i n e d wi th a sensi t ivi ty analys is (enabl ing the identification of the m o s t cri t ical s teps) , g ives the dec i s ion -maker a m o r e defensible bas i s on wh ich to de te rmine the level of r isk than a s ingle de te rminis t ic probabi l i ty figure (5 , 7) .

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Quant i ta t ive r isk ana lys i s can assist r i sk c o m m u n i c a t i o n , and can b e par t icu lar ly important in this regard w h e r e i m p o r t s of p roduc t s are i nvo lved (3 , 25 ) .

Quarantine pract ice for ornamenta l fish

Procedures e m p l o y e d for the qua ran t ine of i m p o r t e d f reshwater o r n a m e n t a l aquar ium fish are desc r ibed above . De ta i l s of p r o c e d u r e s are as fo l lows:

a) approva l of f a rms in the coun t ry of or ig in

b) cert if ication p r o v i d e d by the coun t ry of or ig in

c) s h i p m e n t s label led as to spec ies ; m a t u r e s p e c i m e n s on ly

d) s h i p m e n t s inspec ted on arr ival at the airport :

i) for spec ies

ii) for inc lus ions , such as snai l s and wa t e r w e e d s , in the wa t e r

e) s h ipmen t s t r anspor ted to qua ran t ine p r e m i s e s

f) inspec t ion on arr ival for d i sease , spec ies and ' i n c l u s i o n s ' ( inc lud ing snai ls and water w e e d s )

g) wa t e r e x c h a n g e d , d is infected and d i sposed of

h) fish he ld u n d e r obse rva t ion for four teen days

i) final inspec t ion before re lease for: d i sease , spec ies and ' i n c l u s i o n s ' .

Mar ine spec ies are e x a m i n e d on arr ival for ev idence of d i sease and fore ign matter, and for spec ies identif icat ion. D e m a n d is so great that a total b a n w o u l d induce smuggl ing and inc rease d i sease r i sks , and this is therefore a significant cons idera t ion .

Other live aquat ic an imals

Specific Min is te r ia l approva l is requi red for the impor ta t ion of o ther l ive aqua t ic animals , i nc lud ing c rus taceans , mo l lu scs , e c h i n o d e r m s and other inver tebra tes . T h e s e animals are a l l owed only for spec ia l p u r p o s e s , and specific quaran t ine a r r angemen t s have b e e n des igned , i nc lud ing d is infec t ion of w a s t e wate r . Impor t a t i ons of such animals are no rma l ly a p p r o v e d for r e sea rch or display, and they are kep t in p e r m a n e n t quarant ine. Specif ic p e r m i s s i o n is a lso requ i red f rom A N C A .

Dur ing the 1970s and 1980s , cons ide ra t ion w a s g iven to impor t s of gene t i c mate r ia l for aquacul tu re , bu t p l ans for t w o projec ts w e r e a b a n d o n e d fo l lowing a s se s smen t of the hea l th r i sks invo lved .

The Ni le pe rch (Lates niloticus) w a s to b e impor t ed to rep len i sh s tocks in t ropica l waters as n u m b e r s of b a r r a m u n d i (Lates calcarifer) dec l ined . A specia l qua ran t ine facility w a s bui l t to h a n d l e the project , and to a l low for obse rva t ion , tes t ing and w a s t e water cont ro l . T h e project w a s a b a n d o n e d , however , d u e to env i ronmen ta l conce rns .

The o ther project i nvo lved impor ta t ion of i m p r o v e d gene t i c mate r ia l of A t l an t i c salmon f rom N o r w a y , for the in t ended e s t ab l i shmen t of s a l m o n fa rming . It w a s decided that r i sks of d i sease w e r e too great , and the projec t w a s c o m m e n c e d us ing the small n u m b e r of an ima l s in t roduced decades earl ier and he ld at a g o v e r n m e n t r e sea rch facility.

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Products of mar ine an imals

Produc t s f rom mar ine an imal s are a l l owed entry, p rov ided that they are free from con tamina t ion and are not capab le of p ropaga t ion , and significant a m o u n t s of such p roduc t s are impor ted . Oys te rs are an except ion , however . Oys te r s on the full shell are prohib i ted , w h i l e oys ters on the hal f shell are pe rmi t t ed only f rom N e w Zealand. Specif ic r equ i rement s apply to shellfish. Spec ia l cond i t ions h a v e b e e n app l ied to s a lmon id p roduc t s for m o r e than twen ty years , as these are be l i eved to present a par t icular r isk (see b e l o w ) (4) . A n I m p o r t e d F o o d s Inspec t ion P r o g r a m was i m p l e m e n t e d in 1993 to ensure that such p roduc t s m e e t Aus t r a l i an food l a w s .

Manufac tured fish feed

Manufac tu red fish feed p roduc t s are impor t ed on ly by permi t , and after individual r isk a s ses smen t w h i c h is des igned to ensure that p roces s ing wi l l inact iva te the p a t h o g e n s of concern . F i sh foods and m e a l s are subjec ted to inspec t ion for f reedom from insect infestat ion and assurance that specified t rea tments h a v e b e e n under taken . A specific p rocedure appl ies , and involves the fo l lowing s teps :

- list of ingredients

- p rocess ing detai ls ( inc luding t empera tu res ach ieved , t imes e m p l o y e d and chemica l s invo lved)

- certification

- certification of count ry of or igin .

Br ine sh r imp eggs are g iven separa te approval , subject to ch emi ca l s ter i l isat ion and dry ing by heat .

Fishing equ ipment

Fish ing equ ipment can b e impor ted , p rov ided that it is inspec ted and is found to be free from contamina t ion . C lean ing and steri l isat ion m a y b e required; the na tu re of the t rea tment is dependen t on the c i rcumstances and mater ia l f rom w h i c h the equ ipment is m a d e .

Biologicals

Biolog ica l s used for in vivo pu rposes in fish unde rgo indiv idual eva lua t ion due to their potent ia l to in t roduce disease . Vaccines are b e c o m i n g increas ingly ava i lab le for aquacul ture . M e t h o d s of manufac tu re are carefully assessed. B io log ica l s des igned for in vitro u se present a m u c h lower risk: they m a y carry pa thogens but , if hand led in sui tably secure labora tor ies and appropr ia te ly d isposed of, they can b e u s e d wi th a h igh level of safety. A Q I S has laborator ies approved for this type of activity, wh ich are cont ro l led b y qual i ty assurance p r o g r a m m e s e m b o d y i n g approved use and disposal p r o g r a m m e s (7 , 8) .

Products der ived from species of the family Sa lmonidae

Specif ic quaran t ine p rov i s ions apply to p roduc ts f rom sa lmonids , due to the rapid spread of d iseases of s a lmon ids th roughout the wor ld . T h e impac t of d i sease entry on Aus t ra l i an s a lmon ids has b e e n increased by the deve lopmen t of s a lmon and trout

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farming since the mid-1980s, in addition to salmon and trout released in the late 19th century for recreational fishing. Australian conditions appear to be at the limits of the environmental range of these animals, and disease could be expected to have a serious effect on them.

Disease would also have an effect on the viability of farming enterprises. It has been estimated that the introduction of furunculosis and IHN into Australia would result in losses of sales of the order of AUS$8.5 million to AUS$9.4 million per year. Should survival rates for salmon and trout slip below 75% and 70% respectively, it is expected that farming operations would not be viable (19).

Imported salmon and trout must undergo heat treatment to render these products safe in the event that they pass into waterways at any stage. Current requirements stipulate one of the following combinations:

- 35°C for 7 h - 40°C for 51/2 h - 50°C for 3 h - 60°C for 1 h - 70°C for 15 min - 120°C for 12 min.

In practice, the treatment stipulated by the current requirements can be undertaken by commercial producers overseas, and products are then imported under permit. Applications have been received for importation of frozen products, particularly ocean-caught, headed and filleted Pacific salmon. Risk assessments on such importations are being conducted at present, and documents have been published for public consultation.

AQIS is willing to consider variations to the current requirements which could take into account the effects of the auxiliary processing, such as 'flash-baking', 'par boiling', 'gamma irradiation', 'brining' or 'freezing', where the effectiveness of this process in inactivating organisms can be demonstrated.

INTERNATIONAL OBLIGATIONS

The completion of the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Negotiations - and with it the establishment of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) - created new obligations for quarantine. The new SPS Agreement embodies principles designed to ensure that quarantine measures are not used to limit trade unfairly. Rather, they are designed to facilitate trade while minimising the spread of diseases of humans, animals and plants (10).

The principles of the SPS Agreement are as follows: - harmonisation (basing national quarantine measures on international standards) - quarantine measures based on science (especially where international standards

are not used), and under which all countries are treated consistently in respect of any given disease

- national treatment (treating imports in the same way as domestic production in respect of a given disease)

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- transparency (open and consultative decision-making on quarantine)

- regionalisation (accepting commodities from disease-free zones within infected countries where possible)

- equivalence (accepting alternative means of achieving quarantine objectives)

- risk assessment (restrictions based on actual risk, assessed as objectively as possible).

Harmonisation under the SPS Agreement utilises the following bodies:

- Codex Alimentarius Commission (for food standards and hygiene)

- International Plant Protection Convention (for plant quarantine measures)

- OIE International Animal Health Code and International Aquatic Animal Health Code (21).

CONCLUSION

Australian quarantine policies and practices for aquatic animals are designed to address the requirements of this unique and remote country. They are also designed to meet international obligations, and are based (as closely as is practical) on international standards.

Quarantine decision-making is transparent, consultative, and based on risk analysis.

Quarantine controls are complemented by measures for protection of the environment and the unique aquatic flora of Australian waters. The exclusion of exotic species of aquatic animals - unless considered to be compatible with the environment - is an essential element of this policy. The sole objective of quarantine measures is the exclusion of unwanted disease. The mission of AQIS is to facilitate trade while addressing the risk of disease. Methods of treatment which inactivate disease organisms enable the importation of products which would be excluded under 'zero risk' policies.

While introduction of foreign species was undertaken in the past for sporting and recreation purposes, this has virtually ceased due to disease and environmental concerns. Very strict quarantine limitations are imposed to ensure the exclusion of pest species and disease.

Emerging information on diseases of aquatic animals, on their means of transmission, and on diagnostic technology is making quarantine for aquatic animals and their products more scientific.

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PROCÉDURES DE QUARANTAINE APPLICABLES AUX ANIMAUX AQUATIQUES EN AUSTRALIE. - K.A. Doyle, P.T. Beers et D.W. Wilson.

Résumé : L'Australie est indemne de nombre de maladies importantes affectant les animaux aquatiques. Les procédures de quarantaine applicables aux animaux aquatiques et à leurs produits ont été élaborées pour satisfaire aux exigences du commerce international et empêcher l'introduction de parasites et

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de maladies. Ces procédures s'accompagnent, en outre, de mesures visant à faire obstacle à l'introduction d'espèces aquatiques qui pourraient nuire à l'environnement.

L'approche australienne de la quarantaine - fondée autant que possible sur une analyse objective des risques — est plus difficile à appliquer aux espèces aquatiques qu'aux animaux terrestres ; il est, en effet, difficile d'identifier et de quantifier les risques lorsque l'information sur l'épidémiologie et les maladies en cause est pratiquement inexistante.

Au cours des dix dernières années, et hormis le cas des poissons d'ornement auxquels s'appliquent des mesures de quarantaine strictes (y compris l'isolement dans des aquariums prévus à cet effet), il n'y a pas eu d'importation commerciale d'espèces aquatiques vivantes en Australie. Le coût des procédures obligatoires d'analyse des risques de maladie ainsi que des risques pour l'environnement a eu un effet dissuasif sur les importateurs potentiels.

Depuis de nombreuses années, des contrôles spécifiques — fondés sur l'analyse des risques - ont également été mis en place lors d'importation de produits tels que les huîtres en écaille, les produits de la salmoniculture et les produits à base d'animaux aquatiques destinés à l'alimentation humaine et animale.

Les autorités ont entrepris une importante révision des procédures officielles de quarantaine.

MOTS-CLÉS : Analyse des risques - Animaux aquatiques — Australie -Maladies - Quarantaine.

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LA CUARENTENA DE ANIMALES ACUÁTICOS EN AUSTRALIA. - K.A. Doyle, P.T. Beers y D.W. Wilson.

Resumen: Australia está libre de muchas de las principales enfermedades que afectan a los animales acuáticos. Las políticas de cuarentena para animales acuáticos y productos derivados han sido concebidas a la vez para adaptarse a las obligaciones de Australia en materia de comercio internacional y para impedir la penetración de parásitos y enfermedades. Dichas políticas se apoyan en un conjunto de medidas que impiden la introducción de especies acuáticas susceptibles de tener efectos deletéreos sobre el medio ambiente.

El enfoque australiano de la cuarentena —con utilización de la técnica de análisis objetivo de riesgos, siempre que ello sea posible— resulta de más difícil aplicación a las especies acuáticas que a las terrestres, pues la identificación y cuantificación de los riesgos entrañan mayor problema cuando se carece de buena parte de los conocimientos necesarios sobre las causas y la epidemiología de las enfermedades.

Excepción hecha de los peces ornamentales, para los que rigen normas de cuarentena muy estrictas (incluyendo el aislamiento en acuarios de cuarentena), ninguna especie acuática viva ha sido introducida en Australia con fines comerciales durante la década pasada. Las onerosas exigencias de la ley (análisis pormenorizado sobre el riesgo de enfermedad y las posibles implicaciones medioambientales) han disuadido hasta la fecha a los potenciales importadores.

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Durante muchos años se han impuesto asimismo controles específicos -basados en el análisis de riesgos- sobre la importación de artículos tales como ostras vivas, salmónidos y productos alimenticios derivados de animales acuáticos y destinados al consumo animal y humano.

En la actualidad se está llevando a cabo una importante revisión de la normativa vigente en materia de cuarentena.

PALABRAS CLAVE: Análisis de riesgos - Animales acuáticos - Australia -Cuarentena - Enfermedades.

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