Qualitative analysis coding and categorizing

Qualitative Analysis: Coding and Categorizing

Philip Adu, Ph.D. Methodology Expert

National Center for Academic & Dissertation Excellence (NCADE) The Chicago School of Professional Psychology

Outline

1. Meaning of coding 2. Essence of coding 3. Coding process 4. Coding strategies/methods 5. Research question and

coding methods 6. Coding cycles 7. Memoing 8. Researcher’s Influence 9. Presenting findings

(writing chapter 4)

Codes

Categories

Themes

Theory

1. Reducing data 2. Creating concepts 3. Capturing essence 4. Developing theory

Meaning of Coding

Assigning labels to

Data 1. Interview transcripts

2. Documents 3. Artifacts

4. Field notes

A code is a word, phrase, or sentence that represents aspect(s) of a data or captures the essence or feature(s) of a data

(Saldana, 2013)

Essence of coding

1. Reducing data • Not losing the meaning of the data • Capturing the significant ideas or issues

2. Understanding phenomenon 3. Developing construct

• Developing categories and themes – Constructs/conceptual variables: “[They] are the mental

definitions of properties of events of objects that can vary”. “…[They] are often expressed in general, theoretical, qualitative, or subjective terms…” Read more: Conceptual Variables - Constructs in Science

4. Developing theory

(Hani, 2009; Saldana, 2013)

Coding Process

Coding Sorting Synthesizing Theorizing

Theory Themes Categories Codes

Real or

Particular

Abstract or

General

(Saldana, 2013)

Coding Sorting Synthesizing Theorizing

First Cycle Coding methods

1. Attribute coding 2. Descriptive coding 3. Emotion coding 4. Evaluation coding 5. In Vivo coding 6. Magnitude coding 7. Narrative coding 8. Process coding 9. Values coding 10. Themeing data

Post-Coding Techniques

1. Code Mapping 2. Code

Landscaping 3. Operational

Model Diagramming

Second Cycle Coding Methods 1. Pattern coding 2. Focused coding 3. Axial coding 4. Theoretical coding

Abstract or

General

Coding Strategies/Methods

(Saldana, 2013)

Types of Research Questions and Coding Methods

Type of Research Question

Meaning Examples Coding Methods

(1st Cycle Coding)

Ontological question

Related to studying “the nature of participants’ realities”

“What is the nature of…?”

“What are the lived experiences of…?”

“What is it like being…?”

• Attribute • Emotion • In Vivo • Narrative • Process • Values • Themeing

Epistemological question

Related to “knowing and an understanding of the phenomenon of interest”

“How does…?” “What does it mean

to be…?” “What factors

influence…?”

• Descriptive • Evaluation • Magnitude • Narrative • Process • Themeing

(Saldana, 2013, p.61)

First Cycle Coding Methods Related to Ontological Research Questions

Coding Methods

Function Examples

Attribute Coding

Coding features of research site(s), participant(s), and material(s) being studied

Participants’ age, gender, & educational level

Emotion Coding

Coding participants’ sentiments, feelings, reactions, excitements and sensations

• From participants’ viewpoint • From researcher's standpoint

Hopelessness Anxiety Pessimism Denial

In Vivo Coding

Coding by using participants’ own words “Never again” “Pay back time” “No mercy”

Value Coding

Coding participants’ “values [V], attitudes [A], and beliefs [B]” (p. 268)

[V] – Education [A] – Sense of uncertainty [B] – Existence of discrimination

Narrative coding

Coding participants’ stories including their interaction with others and retelling them.

They can be structured as follows: (1)Abstract [summary], (2) Orientation [characters, setting & time] (3) Complicating action [response/reaction] (4) Evaluation [essence] (5) Results [consequence] (6) Coda [lessons & conclusion]

(p. 133)

First Cycle Coding Methods Related to Epistemological Research Questions

Coding Methods

Functions Examples

Descriptive coding

• Assigning topics to aspects of the data • Normally nouns • For “social environments” (p. 262)

Churches, Schools, Playing ground, Banks, Public library, and Recycle bins

Evaluation coding

• “Assign[ing] judgments” (p. 119) (-) ‘Foreign’ to them (-) Not part of program planning (+) Sense of independence (+) Increase in family income (-) increase in domestic violence

Magnitude coding

Assigning “intensity, frequency, direction, presence, or evaluative content” to code(s)

High, Moderate & low income Present & absent motivation More & less determined

Process Coding

• Also called action coding • Coding “observable activity” and/or

“conceptual action” (p. 96)

Walking Cooking breakfast Checking emails Making calls Enjoying music Reflecting

Themeing data

• Using phrase or sentence to describe or capture the meaning of an aspect of a data

Ability to take care of their children Ability to pay bills Ability to have time with their children

(Saldana, 2013)

Post-Coding Techniques

Code Mapping Thoughtful and systematic process of sorting codes into:

Categories Themes/concepts

Codes Categories

Themes

1. Code Mapping 2. Code Landscaping 3. Operational Model Diagramming

Code Landscaping Visual display of participants’ transcripts

Word counts = Font sizes = Font color

Source: http://www.wordle.net/create

Operational Model Diagramming Illustrating the relationship among codes, categories themes,

and/or concepts

Cmap: http://ftp.ihmc.us/

Second Cycle Coding Methods

Coding Methods

Functions

Pattern coding

• Examining initial codes • Identifying trends, patterns, relationships • Assigning labels (they could be categories or themes)

Focused coding

• Identifying “the most frequent or significant initial codes” (p. 264)

• Building categories around them Axial coding • Identifying core category (“Core phenomenon”) and related

categories • Examining the features and dimensions of categories Causal conditions Core phenomenon Strategies Intervening conditions Consequence (Creswell, 2013, p. 86)

Theoretical or Selective coding

• Connecting the core category and related categories to create a storyline

• The narrative (proposition/theory) should explain a phenomenon

(Saldana, 2013)

Memoing Personal reflections and impressions • Data collection phase Documenting your thoughts about:

What you are observing in the field Your interaction with participants Your experience during the data collection process

• Data Analysis phase Documenting your thoughts about: Data analysis process Codes and their respective meanings Relationship among codes, categories, and themes

Researcher’s Influence

Factors influencing the data analysis process • Background • Beliefs and biases • Interests • Philosophical paradigm

Presenting Findings (in Chapter 4)

• Providing background information about participants or the observed (especially the first cycle coding: attribute coding)

• To better understand what they said or you observed

• Presenting the number of codes, categories and themes emerged

• Having a findings summary table (“Findings “at a glance” – Saldana, 2013, p. 254)

Category or Theme

Meaning Evidence from the data

Theme 1

Theme 2

Presenting Findings (in Chapter 4)

• Creating diagram to show the relationship between themes • Systematically presenting the finding

i. Stating the theme ii. Describing what the theme stands for (i.e. meaning of the theme) iii. Supporting the theme with an evidence from the data (e.g. Quote

from participants)

• Showing how the findings address the research question(s)

By Nathan Sawaya

Coding is like using Lego bricks to make an art: it always starts with using meaningless pieces

of bricks to create meaningful piece of art ~Philip Adu

CAQDAS (Computer-Aided Qualitative Data Analysis Software)

ATLAS.ti: www.atlasti.com MAXQDA: www.maxqda.com NVivo: www.qsrinternational.com HyperRESEARCH: http://www.researchware.com Nvivo: http://www.qsrinternational.com/products_nvivo.aspx QDA Miner: http://provalisresearch.com/ Qualrus: www.qualrus.com Transana: www.transana.org Weft QDA: www.pressure.to/qda/

(Saldana, 2013, p. 29)

References

Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches (3rd). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Hani (2009,January 20). Conceptual Variables. Retrieved from Explorable website: http://explorable.com/conceptual-variables Saldana, J. (2013). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. London: Sage