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aesthetics of message design. Forprint, this includes use of color,framing, white space, fonts, spacing,and symbols. For video, taughtprinciples include things likecontinuity, framing, lighting,editing, and pacing.
Students trained in journalismand mass communication shouldalso be excellent public speakers andcomfortable in “the public eye”.Specific skills include knowing howto dress, how to act, how to gesture,and how to speak in front of groupsor a camera.
Finally, media professionalsshould be expert at asking questionsthat do not insult or anger people.They should be personable andintuitive, knowing principles ofpsychology and interpersonalcommunication to be able tointerpret nonverbal communication(such as when a person is unwillingor unable to speak about a matter).And they should be knowledgeableabout laws and ethics regarding libel,privacy, access, and other relevantareas of press freedom.
Implications for the FutureMedia practitioners must
anticipate that audiences nowinevitably search for content that isfresh, new, and exciting. Companiesthat choose to ignore this trend maybe bypassed for not taking advantageof the new “worldwide marketplaceof ideas”. Each site that successfullyt ransi t ions f rom amateur tocommercial status competes foraudiences and types of revenue. Mediacompanies must establish protocols forusing and being used by independentcontent creators who constitute part ofthe converged audience.
For the content creators whoare under their employ, this meansgreater freedom and less control.Encouraging employees to launchtheir own Web businesses couldresult in rewards based on thegoodwill generated. In other words,media companies can choose to
compete or co-opt with these newtypes of content creators, butcoopera t ing offe r s the bes tlikelihood of mutual success.
A n u m b e r o f e t h i c a lconsiderations must be addressed.Contractual and licensing issues willcontinue to be significant becausecontent that is now freely given maytake on value at a later stage. Sinceanything appearing on the Internetconstitutes publication, reprinting orre-broadcasting this content bringsthe potential for royalty claims andcopyr igh t in f r ingement . Asindividuals create content for mediaorganizations as well as themselvesand their own private Web sites, thisissue will become more significant.
Future of Journalism andMedia?
For journalism and masscommunication to regain stability asa profession, craft, or vocation, somesetting of standards may be needed.It is vital that citizen journalism, theblogosphere, and traditional mediaand journalism programs cometogether to sort this issue out. Butthere is widespread disagreementand battle lines have already beendrawn. Calls for standards by theindustry are typically seen as mereattempts at control. A December,2007 op-ed piece in the New YorkTimes by several Deans of notedJournalism programs expressedconcerns “opinion journalism” andthe need for standards in the newmedia environment. But responsesby bloggers likened the call to thatof the control tactics used byreligious cults (Borriss, 2007).
Therefore, journalism scholarsand practitioners might try re-inventing themselves in the broadestterms professionally, and aggressivelymove into all the areas mentionedabove. It would be helpful for us todistinguish between journalismprocess (unique) and multimedia skills(common), even as the two havebecome intertwined in daily practice.
Over time it is hoped that protocols,practices, and standards will emerge,and the compelling information wecreate is effective and popular. Afterall, journalists should be best able toconsistently tailor content for eachplatform. In this manner journalistscan remain relevant, viable, andimportant in the age of mediaconvergence.
Both individually and as agroup, journalists must determinehow to succeed when their primaryproduct – the “news story” –competes with similar-lookingmessages f rom other f ie lds .Journalists may increasinglyexperiment with new forms ofstorytelling (as they are), injectingprinciples of entertainment to boostthe informational aspects. Until theeconomics of journalism stabilize,the value of a multiskilled journalistmay remain in flux.
It is past time for journalismand media educators to expand ourscope beyond feeding entry-levelworkers to newspapers andbroadcast companies. Those of uswho teach the skills of contentcreation can take comfort in what ishappening at the macro-level. Wehave helped to impart reporting andmultimedia skills to untold numbersof young people who in turn aretransforming every sector of everysociety around the world. As wehave so often said to our students,our ultimate goal is to bring free andopen debate to society. Throughconvergent journalism skills andmedia technology, that goal maynow be realized globally.
�=gÉÑÑêÉó=pK=táäâáåëçåAssociate Dean, Division of
Humanities & Social SciencesProfessor & Coordinator,International Journalism,
BNU-HKBU United InternationalCollege, Zhuhai, China
t h e I m p l i c a t i o n s f o ra n d J o u r n a l i s m E d u c a t i o n
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The term “convergence” is oftenused to describe the synergies
between technology, media, andinformation that are changingsocieties worldwide. The word isused in conjunction with journalismand media to help us understand howthe Internet and broadband wirelessdevices have shifted control from thesource to the receiver. This meansthat the power to decide what is seen,read, or heard is increasingly in thehands of the consumer.
Today a l l ser ious newsorganizations have a Web presenceand a “Web-first” strategy. Althoughlive broadcasts are still preferred formajor events, it is becoming morecommon for stories to first appearon the Web site, then repurposed foreither broadcast or print. As audiencemedia use changes, so also theeconomics are morphing intosomething different from pastgenerations. Traditional media nowcompete with blogs and YouTubewith mixed results (State of themedia, 2007). The blogosphere,social networking sites, and citizenjournalism sites also provide newsand information on demand. Butserious news organizations handicapthemselves by insisting first that theinformation is accurate. So far thishas been difficult to quantify foradvertisers.
Convergent AudiencesFor many years “journalism”
has been synonymous wi thnewspapers, magazines, radio, andtelevision. Academic programspositioned themselves to train studentsto work as reporters, editors,photographers, and presenters (in theU.S., called “anchors”). Forgenerations, we considered these skillsand practices as uniquely our own.
But now, media education hasbecome ubiquitous, and there seemsno limit to how young a child can beto get on-air experience (Kohlenberg,2003). Teenagers with little trainingroutinely produce podcasts or video
blogs in their bedrooms and uploadthem to YouTube, Facebook, or thelatest, coolest social networking site.Their friends and acquaintanceswatch at home or on their broadbandcellular telephones.
In the 1990s, many scholarstrumpeted “content is king!” yet fewanticipated the coming of YouTube.Whether it’s idle doodling, juvenilepoetry or the serendipitous recordingof a cat striking piano keys, all canbe considered "content" and even“news” for hundreds of thousands ofWeb users.
There are a number of issuesthat must be addressed for media tore-assert itself amid the shifts andchanges in society. To frame themodern media landscape, it may beuseful to consider the factors ofChoice, Competition, Cooperation,and Collision.a. Choice.Like it or not, almost anyone with abit of training can now createa t t rac t ive , in format ive , andentertaining content. Whether it’s afilm, a blog, a viral, parody, rant,commentary, or interview – all canbe produced and posted online.People now have alternatives to TV,radio, and newspaper. Content is notking, but rather a legislature. Mediahave several votes but can always beoverruled.b. Competition for Advertising andAudiences.If there’s a stable audience ofsufficient size, anyone can now geta slice of the advertising pie. TheDrudge Repor t , F l ickr , andRocketboom are three case studiesof ordinary non-media web sites thatbecame Internet brands (Wilkinson,M c C l u n g , a n d S h e r r i n g ,forthcoming). These sites arguablycompete with traditional mediabecause they attract advertising andaudiences for particular types ofnews and/or content.c. Cooperation.The work of those who create newforms of content (including news
and information) can be harvestedand/or licensed to mass media fortheir own use. For example, it isincreasingly common for newspaperweb sites to feature photo gallerieswhere local amateur photographerscan post their work and visitors caneven purchase them.d. Collisions with non-Media Fields.Competition comes not only fromthe audience, but also from whatmight be described as “traditionalnon-media fields.” Law firms createdocumentaries and multimediapresentations, government relationspeople provide expertly crafted newsreports and information services, asdo hospitals and medical firms(Wilkinson, forthcoming). Thesereports are professionally writtenand produced to look exactly likewhat we expect in a standard “newsreport.” By creating content withentertainment and informationvalue, using digital technologies anddelivery systems, we have entered aperiod of social and economicDarwinism, a survival of the fittest.
The Multiskilled JournalistTherefore, convergence forces
us to reconsider the most basicquestion of all: What is a journalist?Generally, educators might suggestthat journalists are a particular kindof content creator. Journalists areexperts in gathering and presentinginformation for the public good.They are experts in message creationstrategies including the use oflanguage, story structure, andorganization. Journalists can seethrough puffery and jargon and ableto weave statist ics, personalobservations, and the experiences ofothers to create dramatic andinteresting accounts that can deeplyimpact others.
Modern journalism educationtra ins s tudents to be exper tstorytellers across all platforms –print, electronic, and Internet(Wilkinson, Grant, Fisher, 2008).Journalists should know the visual
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