-
Puerto Ricos Economy: A brief history of reforms from the 1980s
to today and policy recommendations for the future
Recent headlines have highlighted the currently distressed
eco-nomic status of Puerto Rico, however, few understand some of
the historical factors that led to its current state. After
describing some of the structural reforms over the last three
decades, this paper concludes with a brief description of the
present economy,
as well as a discussion of policy alternatives.
-
2Copyright The National Puerto Rican Chamber of Commerce
Executive Summary
Despite being an island paradise, Puerto Rico is far from an
economic one.
Recent headlines have highlighted Puerto Ricos struggling
economy, demonstrat-
ing a need for substantial policy shifts at the local level, as
well as consideration
towards improving relevant federal policies.
Few are aware, however, of the decisions that have led to Puerto
Ricos
recently distressed state, nor the policies that developmental
economists would rec-
ommend in order to change its projected, long-term path.
The following paper provides the historical context necessary to
understand
how Puerto Rico developed from an agrarian-dominated society in
the early 20th
century, to a semi-autonomous territory whose knowledge-based
economy has been
granted sovereignty in some areas, while also limiting
policymakers tools in oth-
ers. Economic parallels to other countries who share Puerto
Ricos Latin American
roots offer some insights into Puerto Ricos economy today,
nonetheless, Americas
hegemony has ensured considerable distinction.
Puerto Ricos economy remains closely tied to that of the U.S.,
yet it is more
deeply impacted by recessionary periods and often fails to
capitalize on economic
expansions. Specific incentives and federal tax policies have
been enacted in an at-
tempt to counter the effect, however, some policies have led to
deeper dependence
and little growth, and in some cases, countercyclical fiscal and
monetary policies
have exacerbated worsening economic conditions.
When compared to the rest of the U.S., Puerto Ricos current
economy is
relatively tenuous. Total outstanding public debt has grown
substantially, doubling
in the 1980s, and again in the 1990s, while tripling since 2000.
Despite numerous
-
3Copyright The National Puerto Rican Chamber of Commerce
new reforms and policy shifts, as well as a recovering American
economy, Puerto
Rico still has a number of economic impediments to overcome,
including, but not
limited to: borrowing costs that outpace current or projected
growth, high unem-
ployment, a large informal economy, a high percentage of
impoverished citizens, a
shrinking labor pool, and stagnant economic growth.
Federal policymakers have several reasons to be concerned.
First, millions
of Americans have some exposure to Puerto Ricos bonds, whose
fluctuations could
impact financial markets. In addition, changes to bankruptcy
protections, tax laws,
and Puerto Ricos current status have implications for the rest
of the U.S. Last,
since Puerto Ricans are American citizens, federal policymakers
have an obligation
towards their general welfare.
Although there are many specific recommendations that can, and
should,
be implemented, the report discusses several broad changes that
must be made,
including:
Shift long-term and current taxes and other incentives to focus
on investment
that directly encourages the hiring of Puerto Rican
citizens;
Ensure that policies emphasize growth in labor intensive versus
capital inten-
sive industries;
Reduce and limit island-wide bureaucracies that impede
entrepreneurial devel-
opment;
Invest in the retention and development of human capital,
including expanding
investments in primary through post-secondary education;
Shift from targeting hiring credits to emphasizing sectoral job
training pro-
grams;
-
4Copyright The National Puerto Rican Chamber of Commerce
Adjust public assistance programs to ensure that reservation
wages do not de-
press job creation and labor participation;
Make a quick and permanent status decision (i.e. whether to
remain a territory,
become a state, or gain independence) that will again give
confidence to future
generations of Puerto Rican citizens, as well as potential
long-term investors.
Although many of the specifics of such recommendations have to
be deter-
mined by local administrators, these broad categories of reforms
should serve as a
framework within which policymakers across the country can work
to ensure that
Puerto Rico does not continue to rely upon policies that have
little positive impact
on, or are in fact detrimental to, Puerto Ricos economy.
Introduction
Puerto Ricos economic and social history began very similarly to
that of
many other countries traditionally considered Latin American.
Yet, despite being
among the first discoveries of Spanish explorers, Puerto Ricos
economic similari-
ties diverged when it became a colony of the United States,
instigating an argument
among economists and other social scientists as to Puerto Ricos
designation as
such. As a semi-autonomous American territory today, Puerto
Ricos economic
trajectory has been largely impacted by external policies
enacted by U.S. legisla-
tors, ensuring that its economy has closer ties to the U.S.
economic system than
others in the Western Hemisphere. Nonetheless, this paper will
analyze Puerto
Ricos economic development considering Puerto Ricos historical
ties to Latin
America, as well as its relatively more recent one to the U.S. -
by first providing the
historical basis for its current economy, then discussing the
reforms that have been
implemented in recent decades, while considering the impacts
that reform policies
-
5Copyright The National Puerto Rican Chamber of Commerce
have had on economic growth, poverty, and income inequality.
Finally, it will pro-
vide an analysis of recent and current policies and their
effectiveness in promoting
economic development.
Brief History Puerto Rico was founded by Spanish expeditions in
1493, subsequently be-
coming a colony of the Spanish crown for more than 400 years.
When the United
States defeated Spain in the Spanish-American War, it acquired a
number of terri-
tories, including Puerto Rico. The U.S. introduced a government
that was subject
to federal law, but given a range of latitude and autonomy in
setting local policies.
After a series of Supreme Court cases, known as the Insular
Cases, Puerto Rico
was officially deemed an unincorporated territory that would not
be subject to the
revenue clauses of the Constitution, despite maintaining a
number of fundamental
rights (Gerow, 2014). Puerto Ricans were granted U.S.
citizenship in 1917 and
the territory officially became a Commonwealth under its
constitution in 1952, a
status that it maintains today.
Economy Although offered some autonomy, Puerto Rico has never
had full authority
over its own economy and government. The Jones Act of 1917
granted Puerto
Rico authority over its own local tax policy, yet, in 1920 the
Merchant Marine Act
ensured that ships had to first go through U.S. ports before
heading to Puerto Rico,
inflating the costs of goods brought to the island. Puerto Rico
is also required to
maintain the federal minimum wage, and has to apply the same
labor and envi-
ronmental standards as the rest of the U.S., while not being
allowed to negotiate
bilateral trade agreements and having to adhere to fiscal policy
directed by the U.S.
-
6Copyright The National Puerto Rican Chamber of Commerce
Congress and monetary policy controlled by the U.S. Federal
Reserve.
Despite these economic impediments or perhaps because of them
the
U.S. enacted a series of polices that allowed Puerto Rico to use
its tax autonomy to
its own advantage. Section 931 of the Revenue Act of 1921
(originally section 262)
sought to boost economic growth by providing corporate tax
exemptions for all
U.S. corporations with income derived in Puerto Rico, while
Puerto Rico doubled
down with its own local income and other tax incentives. As a
result, combined
with a less expensive labor force and the advantages of being a
U.S. territory, labor
intensive manufacturing grew dramatically in Puerto Rico.
Between 1950 and the
mid-1970s, output per employee grew by nearly 5 percent per
year, a rate compa-
rable to the well-known, dramatic growth of East Asia (Collins,
et al., 2006). In
1950, GDP per worker was about 30 percent of the U.S. average,
while in 1980 it
peaked at todays level of approximately 74 percent, making
Puerto Rico one of the
worlds most developed Latin societies (Griffin, et al., 2011).
Despite macroeco-
nomic growth, labor force participation has remained below 50
percent since 1960,
while the U.S. rate has climbed to above 60 percent. Gross
National Income (GNI)
has also declined as a fraction of Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
during this time
period, meaning that more foreign entities and individuals were
transferring their
economic output to locations outside of Puerto Rico.
Tax incentives under Section 931 contributed to a decrease in
federal tax
revenues while leading to little growth in employment in Puerto
Rico, compelling
the U.S. Congress, in 1976, to replace the tax exemption policy
in favor of one
that allowed domestic tax credits for foreign taxes paid. The
new Section 936 still
allowed for favorable tax treatment and, in fact, contributed to
the vast growth of
wholly-owned subsidiaries in Puerto Rico, but instead shifted
the incentive from la-
-
7Copyright The National Puerto Rican Chamber of Commerce
bor intensive industries to manufacturers in capital intensive
industries. The result-
ing lack of employment growth attributed to the increase in
Congressional scrutiny
over the next two decades regarding the continued benefit of
Section 936 to Puerto
Rico (Gerow, 2014).
Puerto Rico has transformed from an agriculturally-based economy
to one
based on industrial manufacturing, to a knowledge-based economy
today, yet its
economy is still directly tied to that of the U.S. and is more
greatly impacted by
contractionary periods in the American business cycle than the
mainland itself.
During the U.S. recessions in the 1970s and 1980s, Puerto Rico
suffered from eco-
nomic contractions that were longer than in the rest of the
country, which were
sometimes exacerbated by policy changes related to its tax
incentives. While mak-
ing some economic gains during the U.S. boom of the 1990s, since
the start of
the new millennium Puerto Rico again suffered through nearly a
decade-long con-
traction, while becoming heavily dependent on transfer payments
and other public
assistance from the U.S. Federal Government. Federal transfer
payments equaled
27 percent of GDP in 2010, while more than half receive some
type of government
assistance today (Vlez, 2011).
Todays economy has been widely criticized as being on the brink
of eco-
nomic collapse (El Nuevo Da, 2015; Caribbean Business, 2015;
Vlez-Hagan,
2013; Greece, 2013; Green, 2013). Puerto Rico has had a budget
deficit for more
than a decade, which has contributed to a growing public debt
which, in total, has
surpassed more than 100 percent of GNP (total economic output by
Puerto Rican
citizens within its borders), while some estimate it to be much
higher (Government
Development Bank, 2015; El Nuevo Da, 2015; Colegio CPA, 2014).
Unemploy-
ment is also rampant, stagnating at around 14 percent (not
including the large in-
-
8Copyright The National Puerto Rican Chamber of Commerce
formal sector, which is estimated to comprise nearly 40 percent
of the economy),
while labor force participation remains low at nearly 40 percent
(U.S. Department
of Labor, 2015). Puerto Ricos economy has been contracting for
nearly a decade,
while analysts see little opportunity for growth, which has
resulted in credit down-
grades from all of the major rating agencies leaving few
opportunities for addi-
tional borrowing required to finance government operations
(Colegio CPA, 2015;
Government Development Bank, 2015; Kuriloff, 2015).
The following section will provide an overview of some of the
structural
reforms that have been enacted between the late 1970s and today,
and will continue
with a short description of the reforms that the government has
considered recently
or is considering enacting today.
Economic Structural Adjustments
Although Puerto Rico did not undergo the same structural
adjustments
that other Latin American countries were required to undertake
(per IMF and World
Bank lending requirements) following their economic crises
(Franko, 2007), it has
implemented a number of structural reforms, many at the
direction of the U.S. Fed-
eral Government, that have had varying repercussions. It should
also be noted that,
unlike in independent countries, Puerto Rico is limited to
reforming only its local
fiscal policy, leaving monetary and major fiscal policy to the
discretion of the U.S.
Federal Government.
Reforms in the 1980s
After Congress replaced Puerto Ricos corporate tax incentive
scheme with
the new Section 936 tax credit law in 1976 and American
corporations began
establishing wholly-owned subsidiaries in Puerto Rico to take
advantage of the
-
9Copyright The National Puerto Rican Chamber of Commerce
new incentives Puerto Rico enacted its own Industrial Incentive
Act of 1978,
which lowered the effective tax rate on corporations even
further. However, after
Congress closed several previously advantageous loopholes,
corporations began a
notable shift in manufacturing. Whereas, previously it was more
beneficial to bring
labor intensive manufacturing to the island, the new law
incentivized corporations
to shift intangible property to Puerto Rico, leaving large
investments in R&D be-
hind to take advantage of lucrative tax credits on the mainland
(Weisskoff, 1985).
Instead, products would only be finished in Puerto Rico to apply
tax breaks that
applied only to completed products, which significantly reduced
the number of
employees required in the manufacturing process. Pharmaceutical
companies were
among the most adept at implementing these tax policies, as more
than 80 percent
of the most prescribed drugs in the U.S. were manufactured in
Puerto Rico by 1990
(GAO, 1992).
The Federal Government also greatly improved the amount and
efficiency of
transfer payments and other public assistance to Puerto Rico
during the late 1970s
and 1980s. For the first time, Puerto Ricans became eligible for
the Food Stamp
program in the 1970s, while other public assistance doubled
during the 1980s as
shown in Table 1 of the Appendix (Segarra, 2006).
Puerto Ricos own legislators also made a significant number of
reforms
during this time period. Government investment increased
substantially in programs
to promote economic development. The Government Development Bank
was offi-
cially created, while it also began investing in programs to
facilitate regional exports
produced by local businesses. Because of the substantial
investments, deficit spend-
ing increased considerably during the 1980s, doubling
outstanding public debt from
approximately $6 billion to more than $12 billion by 1990 (Vlez,
2011).
-
10
Copyright The National Puerto Rican Chamber of Commerce
Reforms in the 1990s
During the 1990s, economic growth both in the mainland U.S. and
in Puerto
Rico was positive, however, Puerto Ricos economy was met with
another series of
reforms that had lasting economic impacts. After extensive
welfare reforms were
passed in the U.S. in 1996, Puerto Rico too incurred reductions
in the transfer pay-
ments that supported nearly one-third of the economy. In the
same year, Congress
also decided to abolish Section 936, which Puerto Ricos
manufacturing and phar-
maceutical industries relied upon, citing a lack of meaningful
employment gains for
Puerto Rico as well as revenue concerns at the U.S. Treasury
(Gerow, 2014).
Although Congress allowed for a ten year phase-out of Section
936, manu-
facturing immediately declined; less than one-third of those
previously taking ad-
vantage of the law accounted for total manufacturing employment.
To counter the
effects, Puerto Rico attempted to shift the economy to greater
emphasize tourism
and the service sector, yet 40 percent of GNP remained dependent
upon the manu-
facturing sector (Vlez, 2011).
Various other public works initiatives and investments were
developed
during this period as well. Administrators funded public works
projects that cre-
ated an urban train system, a new super-aqueduct water system,
the Coliseum of
Puerto Rico, and a new convention center (Ayala & Bernabe,
2007).
The government also began privatizing some government-owned
entities in
the 1990s. As government agencies and public corporations were
consolidated and
privatized, healthcare reform ushered in a new privately-run
healthcare system, and
public employment was subsequently reduced.
As a result of the public spending initiatives, total public
debt again doubled
-
11
Copyright The National Puerto Rican Chamber of Commerce
between 1990 and 2000, from nearly $12 billion to $24 billion
(Government Devel-
opment Bank, 2015).
Reforms in the 2000s
Bookended by two recessions, one in 2001 and another beginning
in 2006,
the decade of the 2000s has been especially harmful to the
economy of Puerto Rico.
Due to these periods of contraction, the government of Puerto
Rico took especially
severe measures to stymie the economic and social impact.
Public investment again led to major deficits and growing
long-term debt.
After investing more than $1 billion in self-managed community
projects to de-
crease poverty, the government also increased spending on
infrastructure projects
and created other new programs to reduce poverty and government
dependence, all
of which helped to increase public employment by nearly 12
percent in just the first
half of the decade (Vlez, 2011).
While implementing a new consumption tax to increase public
revenues
and fiscal stability, Puerto Rico simultaneously lobbied the
Federal Government to
help salvage its manufacturing-dominated economy. With Section
936 officially
ending in 2006, Puerto Rico has ensured that some tax deferral
policies still remain
(Gerow, 2014). However, the shifting tax code continued to lead
to greater con-
solidation within the manufacturing industry and a shift to more
capital intensive
investments, further reducing the need for employees in this
sector.
Despite an inability to form bilateral trade agreements, Puerto
Rico contin-
ued to work with the Federal Government to establish its role
and ensure lasting
benefits from certain trade agreements, as well as its
relationship with other coun-
tries in the Hemisphere. Puerto Rico again sought to reestablish
and build new
-
12
Copyright The National Puerto Rican Chamber of Commerce
agreements with both CEPAL and CARICOM, among others, hoping to
boost trade
and export opportunities for its local businesses (Ayala &
Bernabe, 2007).
Nonetheless, after the phase-out of Section 936 was completed in
2006,
combined with the U.S. Banking Crisis and a large and growing
deficit and public
debt, the economy was pushed into one of the worst recessions on
record, prompt-
ing even more drastic measures to be enacted. Public employees
salaries were
frozen and 28 public agencies were consolidated (which resulted
in a two-month
government shutdown and an estimated economic impact of more
than $2 billion),
major utility subsidies were eliminated, taxes were increased on
the banking sector,
and an island-wide sales and use tax was created (Harvard Law
Review, 2015).
In 2009, Puerto Rico welcomed a new governor and administration,
hoping
it would counter the ever-increasing $3.3 billion deficit, which
equaled nearly one-
third of the islands total annual revenues (Government
Development Bank, 2015).
The governments liquidity problems required that the Governor
had to immedi-
ately take out a loan to cover the first public payroll under
his new administration
(Casey, 2012). The following several years heralded a drastic
structural adjustment
period. More than 20,000 public employees were laid off,
government spending
was reduced by 10 percent, taxes were raised in some sectors and
on high-end real
estate and earners, contract negotiations and pay raises were
frozen, corporate tax
rates were flattened and reduced, toll roads and the islands
biggest international
airport were privatized, and more than $4 billion was borrowed
to cover govern-
ment liquidity needs (Vlez, 2011). The government also enacted
two major laws
intended to boost foreign investment by reducing, almost to
zero, income taxes on
returns in real estate and passive income (Government
Development Bank, 2015).
-
13
Copyright The National Puerto Rican Chamber of Commerce
At the same time, government transfer payments were again
increased sub-
sequent to the passage of the Affordable Care Act, which also
allowed for increased
investments in a number of public assistance programs (Public
Law, 2010).
Reforms Today
Since 2013, a newly-elected administration brought about a major
shift in
economic policy. Deficits and employment remain major issues,
while a mass ex-
odus of professionals to the mainland U.S. continues to reduce
the number of con-
tributors to Puerto Ricos economic output as well as to
government revenues (total
population decreased by 4.7 percent from 2010 to 2014) (Abel
& Dietz, 2014). In
order to counter the deficit, major tax provisions from the
previous administration
were overturned, effectively increasing taxes by as much as 60
percent on high-in-
come, domestic earners, while funding for schools and other
social investments
have been reduced, public employee salaries were again frozen,
public employ-
ee pension reform was passed to privatize pensions, major
reorganizing initiatives
were enacted on some of the more inefficient utilities, and even
more incentives are
being offered to instigate foreign direct investment (Slavin,
2014).
Knowing that the current levels of debt will continue to inhibit
Puerto Ricos
ability to return to economic growth, the current administration
has attempted to re-
structure some of its existing liabilities. Courts, both in
Puerto Rico and in the U.S.
mainland, have overturned several attempts to do so (Harvard Law
Review, 2015),
yet, Puerto Rico has also begun to lobby Congress to allow the
territory to restruc-
ture its debts under Chapter 9 of the Bankruptcy Code, an option
currently unavail-
able to the islands government. In order to find alternative
means for increasing
revenues to cover debt service as well as continuing government
operations, the
island has recently passed a tax on crude oil, while now
debating a value-added tax
similar to that of many European countries. Contrarily,
Washington, D.C. is now
-
14
Copyright The National Puerto Rican Chamber of Commerce
considering overturning an IRS tax law that allows foreign
corporations to deduct
corporate taxes that it pays to Puerto Ricos government, which
Puerto Rico has
recently used to help boost corporate tax revenues without
decreasing the incentive
for corporations to locate within its borders.
Much like in other parts of Latin America, reforms in Puerto
Rico have had
substantial, if not always immediately evident, effects on the
economy, which will
be discussed in the following section.
Growth, Income Inequality, and Poverty
1980s
During the late 1970s, annual GDP growth improved significantly,
reaching
a peak of 5.4 percent in 1979, while unemployment fell from a
high of 20 percent
in the mid-1970s to 16 percent in 1980 (U.S. Department of
Labor, 2014). High
growth continued through the end of the 1980s, while public debt
also increased
dramatically (Vlez, 2011). The boom in manufacturing from
Section 936 is often
attributed to improvements, however major investments in works
projects as well
as business incentives can also be attributed (Collins, et al.,
2006).
While nearly two-thirds of all households were under the
official poverty
line in 1969, poverty declined in both the 1970s and 1980s, most
significantly re-
duced among the most impoverished (Sotomayor, 1996). After the
Food Stamp
program and other major increases in transfer payments were
extended to Puer-
to Rico, income among the poor increased dramatically in the
1970s and public
assistance income doubled in the 1980s (Table 1, Appendix).
Rising wages and
household incomes increased income inequality over these two
decades, however
transfer payments negated this effect, leading to reduced
inequality and a lower
Gini coefficient (Table 2, Appendix).
-
15
Copyright The National Puerto Rican Chamber of Commerce
1990s
The increasing importance of the Internet in commerce, along
with new free
trade agreements in the 1990s, led to greater globalization and
competitiveness for
Puerto Ricos manufacturing and export sectors; its competitive
advantage was fur-
ther reduced after the repeal of Section 936 tax incentives.
Yet, substantial growth
still continued throughout all of the 1990s, with GDP growth
averaging above 3
percent, annually. Employment also greatly improved. After
reaching a high of
more than 16 percent unemployment, by the end of the decade
Puerto Ricos unem-
ployment stood at around 10 percent (U.S. Department of Labor,
2015).
As demonstrated in Table 1 of the Appendix, a major shift in
public assis-
tance benefits occurred in the 1990s as they began to comprise a
lower percentage
of total income (Segarra, 2006). Tables 2 and 3 reveal how a
simultaneous increase
occurred in the Gini coefficient of more than 11 percent,
demonstrating a marked
increase in inequality during a generally successful period of
economic growth, a
common occurrence in developing economies.
2000s
Some economists have come to call the 2000s Puerto Ricos lost
decade.
Growth since 2000 has been effectively zero, while contracting
during the Great
Recession through today. The recession of 2001 exacerbated the
flight of manufac-
turers that resulted from the repeal of Section 936 in 1996,
leading to a subsequent
decrease in manufacturing employment of nearly 10 percent, with
a total drop in
manufacturing employment greater than 34 percent through 2010
(Government
Development Bank, 2015), losses that continue through today.
After reaching new
lows of approximately 10 percent, the official unemployment rate
again increased
after the recessions, reaching as high as 16.9 percent in 2010
and remains near
-
16
Copyright The National Puerto Rican Chamber of Commerce
14 percent today (U.S. Department of Labor, 2015), while
combined with a large
informal economic sector (some estimate to be nearly 40 percent
of GDP) many
estimate real unemployment to be much higher. Some economists
have concluded
that the repeal of Section 936 decreased GDP growth by as much
as 5 percent after
the recession of 2001, continuing through today (GAO, 2006),
although many point
to multiple other factors that have attributed to the depressing
the economy.
During the last decade, the Gini coefficient officially declined
from .56 to
.53, despite the impact of two recessions that had an even
greater negative impact
on Puerto Ricos economy than that of the rest of the U.S.
(Census, 2010). Some
have suggested that this can be attributed to the emigration of
professional and
high income earners that have disproportionately left Puerto
Rico since the mid-
2000s (Abel & Dietz, 2014), while others point to accounting
and inflation adjust-
ment considerations in both the Gini Index and official poverty
statistics (Guerrero,
2004).
Given the number of varying reforms with even more disparate
impacts
that Puerto Rico has implemented over the last several decades,
there are numerous
analytical opinions and suggestions for future economic growth
that can be drawn
upon.
Analysis and Opinion
Tax Policy
Although it initially contributed to the substantial development
and growth
of the manufacturing sector in Puerto Rico, federal tax policy
should not be relied
upon as a major driver for long-term economic growth. Numerous
analyses and
studies have shown that federal tax policies that were created
with the intention
-
17
Copyright The National Puerto Rican Chamber of Commerce
of boosting employment in Puerto Rico have fallen far short of
their goal (Gerow,
2014), by instead bringing capital intensive industries to
Puerto Rico which have
little impact on job creation. By adding its own incentives,
Puerto Rico is helping
to subsidize many of these large corporations, which is creating
a missed oppor-
tunity to obtain revenues for investment in the development of
other industries.
Instead, Congress, and the Puerto Rican government, should
invoke policies which
tie investment in Puerto Rico directly to the hiring of Puerto
Ricans.
Local tax policy, as well as a comparatively bureaucratic
entrepreneurial
environment, is also adding to the lack of development on the
island. Recent ini-
tiatives have substantially increased income taxes on businesses
developed domes-
tically, which has reduced the incentive for native Puerto
Ricans to develop busi-
nesses and has perpetuated the exodus of Puerto Rican
entrepreneurs and business
owners to the mainland.
Industry Diversification
The lack of diversification in economic development has
contributed to finan-
cial crises throughout Latin America. Due to both U.S. Federal
Government and lo-
cal tax incentives, Puerto Rico became dependent on the
manufacturing sector, which
has become highly concentrated over the years. Puerto Rico
should invest in the
growth of sectors that traditionally have higher rates of
employment and can employ
the existing workforce, including and especially the service
sector. Analysts consid-
er service, especially in the tourism industry, to be
underdeveloped, leaving a vast
opportunity for growth, job creation, and long-term positive
economic development.
Recent incentives have been enacted with some success, however,
they are again cre-
ating an opportunity for low levels of diversification and
shallow employment returns
by attracting investments in the financial and other capital
intensive sectors.
-
18
Copyright The National Puerto Rican Chamber of Commerce
Human Capital Development
Human capital has been shrinking in Puerto Rico as its
population ages and
the number of people migrating to mainland has increased.
Failure to invest in the
retention and development of human capital can lead to and
continue to exacerbate
existing high levels of poverty, unemployment, illiteracy, and
other social ills.
Compared to the rest of Latin America, Puerto Rico has
historically made
substantial educational investments, making it sixth in world in
higher educa-
tion enrollment, with a strong emphasis on science and
engineering (Griffin, et
al., 2011). However, recent initiatives may counter this
comparative advantage as
spending cuts have been pushed throughout Puerto Ricos education
system from
primary schooling through post-secondary education.
Puerto Rico should act to ensure that investments in education
are not re-
duced and should combine them with skill-training programs to
make more skilled
labor available to specifically-targeted industries that look to
expand within or to
Puerto Rico. Although Puerto Rico has had some success in the
field of engineer-
ing, there are numerous opportunities for improvement. A recent
shift in emphasis
towards targeted hiring credits should be reconsidered, both
because specific hiring
credits have been found to have little effect (Neumark, 2013)
and because sectoral
job training programs have been substantially more successful
throughout the U.S.
(Michigan Department of Licensing, 2010; MacGuire, et al.,
2010).
Poverty and inequality have been reduced due to the increase in
transfer
payments and public assistance programs from both the U.S.
Federal Government
as well as Puerto Rico, as can be demonstrated in the Tables of
the Appendix. How-
ever, the rapid expansion of government transfers in 1970s and
early 1980s had a
-
19
Copyright The National Puerto Rican Chamber of Commerce
simultaneous effect of reducing work effort. Puerto Ricans
essentially have devel-
oped a reservation wage that has depressed job creation, which
compares what
could be earned on the mainland or through public assistance and
places a floor
upon market wages (Collins, et al., 2006). For this reason,
Puerto Ricos labor par-
ticipation rate has fallen from nearly 50 percent before the
2000s to a current low
of below 40 percent. In order to combat this problem, without
furthering inequality
and poverty, the programs should be redesigned to make them more
conducive to
employment gains.
Deregulation
Like many other Latin American countries, Puerto Rico has had a
long his-
tory of high barriers to business creation. Both the previous
governor and the cur-
rent one have cited the problems associated with a complex
bureaucracy and its
impact on business development and competition, while economists
have cited the
cumbersome permitting process as an impediment to business
activity (Collins,
et al., 2006). High energy and transportation costs add to these
compliance costs,
making it oftentimes more costly to do business than in other
parts of the U.S.,
while excessive labor laws have also made for an inefficient
labor market.
Fiscal Policy
Due to Puerto Ricos lack of control over monetary policy, some
suggest
that it has excessively used its fiscal authority to attempt to
stimulate its economy.
Puerto Rico has borrowed against future revenues for decades,
despite the islands
balanced budget requirement, which is having a crowding out
effect on private ac-
tivity through the increased cost of productive resources.
Furthermore, its relative-
ly high rate of debt and unfunded pensions have substantially
increased the risk of
-
20
Copyright The National Puerto Rican Chamber of Commerce
a fiscal crisis similar to the debt crisis in Latin America
during the 1980s, in which
total debt owed to foreigners outweighed its ability to earn
income, resulting in an
unsustainable economic outlook.
Macroeconomic modeling has long suggested that when interest
rates on an
economys debt exceeds its current and projected growth rate, it
becomes impos-
sible for an economy to fully recover (Blanchard & Weil,
2001). Few economists
will concede the possibility of Puerto Ricos growth rate
reaching or exceeding ex-
isting interest rates that lenders are willing to offer Puerto
Rico, given its currently
perceived riskiness for default.
Status
One of the key debates surrounding Puerto Ricos economy is the
impact
that a change in its status will have. While Puerto Rico is
currently considered an
autonomous territory of the U.S., three groups of advocates
surround this issue:
those who wish to maintain the status quo, those vying for the
creation of an in-
dependent country, and those who believe that Puerto Rico should
become the 51st
state of the United States. As most recent debates revolve
around the possibility of
statehood, this paper will continue with a brief discussion on
its economic implica-
tions.
There are numerous arguments, both for and against, Puerto Rico
statehood.
Economic arguments for statehood have suggested that, where
capital intensive
industry development has failed, a Puerto Rican state would have
a similar fate
to that of Hawaii. When Hawaii first became a state, it reaped
rapid rewards by
quickly developing a substantial service sector due to its new
connection to the U.S.
and free marketing received from the statehood process (Gerow,
2014). Puerto
Rico may also benefit from an employment boost from a
labor-intensive industry
and would be afforded the higher public assistance and transfer
payment bene-
-
21
Copyright The National Puerto Rican Chamber of Commerce
fits that states currently receive, which may substantially
contribute to reducing
poverty and income inequality (as was the result of similar
increases in the 1970s
and 1980s). Contrarily, the substantial increase in public
assistance benefits could
further contribute to the depressed labor market and incentive
for accepting labor
market wages, while increased federal taxes on businesses could
also depress eco-
nomic activity, both domestically and from foreign
investments.
Considering the political rift among Puerto Ricos legislators
its appointed
representative in D.C. advocates for statehood, while its
governor prefers the status
quo it may be unlikely that a permanent decision will be reached
until greater
political unity is achieved. However, it should be noted that
future investors, and
even native Puerto Ricans considering their own residency and
investments, may
consider the rift a sign of continued economic instability and
uncertainty. Regard-
less of the outcome, there will be economic benefits to a
permanent and conclusive
end to the status discussion.
ConclusionWhether or not Puerto Rico decides to change its
status in the near future,
it is clear that Puerto Rico has had a storied economic history
that has led to its
currently indebted, yet opportunity-rich climate. On one side,
there are those who
see Puerto Ricos fiscal situation as one of disrepair, unable to
sustain itself in the
near future. However, on the other side of this negative outlook
is one that, at the
very least, concedes that Puerto Ricos economy may have nowhere
to go but to-
ward improvement. Whether the bumpy road ahead is a short-run
headache, or a
long-term impediment to any sign of future growth, will rest
upon the shoulders of
those in power. Officials may continue to put off hard decisions
for current political
victories, unite to implement a tough, yet fruitful, long-term
economic plan, or have
their hands forced due to a painful economic collapse.
-
22
Copyright The National Puerto Rican Chamber of Commerce
References
Abel, J. & Deitz, R. (2014). The Causes and Consequences of
Puerto Ricos De-clining Population. Current Issues in Economics
& Finance, 20(4), 1-8.
Ayala, C. J., & Bernabe, R. (2007). Puerto Rico in the
American century: A histo-ry since 1898. Chapel Hill: University of
North Carolina Press.
Blanchard, O. & Weil, P. (2001). Dynamic Efficiency, the
Riskless Rate, and Debt Ponzi Games under Uncertainty. Advances in
Macroeconomics, 1(2), 1.
Caribbean Business Editorial Board (2015, January 11). The
Economist forecast: PR among worlds weakest economies in 2015.
Retrieved February 23, 2015, from
http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/news/the-economist-fore-cast-pr-among-worlds-weakest-economies-in-2015-103074.html
Casey, N. (2012, November 5). In Puerto Rico, a Governor Pushes
Big Change. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved May 10, 2014, from
http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB1000142405297020478930457808698
Colegio de Contadores Pblicos Autorizados de Puerto Rico (2014).
Informe del Comit de Recomendaciones para la Recuperacin Econmica
de Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico: Colegio CPA.
Collins, S. M., Bosworth, B., & Soto-Class, M. A. (2006).
The economy of Puerto Rico: Restoring growth. San Juan, P.R: Center
for the New Economy.
El Nuevo Da Editorial Board (2015, February 3). Puerto Rico Est
en Quiebra. Retrieved February 23, 2015, from
http://www.elnuevodia.com/noticias/locales/nota/puertoricoestaenquiebra-2002768/
Federal Reserve System. (2010). District Profile of Puerto Rico.
Retrieved May 3, 2014, from
http://www.newyorkfed.org/regional/profile_pr.html
Fernandez, R. (1995). The Disenchanted Island, Puerto Rico and
the United States in the 20th Century. Hispanic American Historical
Review, 75(3), 518-519.
Franko, P. (2007). The Puzzle of Latin American Economic
Development (3rd ed.). Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.
Government Accountability Office (GAO). (1992). Pharmaceutical
Industry: Tax Benefits of Operating in Puerto Rico 3. Retrieved May
10, 2014, from http://www.gao.gov/assets/80/78407.pdf
Government Accountability Office (GAO). (2006). Fiscal relations
with the Fed-eral Government and economic trend during the phase
out of the Posses-sions tax credit. Report to the Chairman and
Ranking Minority Member, Committee on Finance, U.S. Senate.
Retrieved May 10, 2014, from
http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-06-541
-
23
Copyright The National Puerto Rican Chamber of Commerce
Greece in the Caribbean. (2013, October 26). The Economist.
Retrieved May 10, 2014, from
http://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21588374-stuck-real-debt-crisis-its-back-yard-america-can-learn-europes-aegean
Greene, D. (2013, February 6). Puerto Ricos Battered Economy:
The Greece Of The Caribbean?. NPR. Retrieved May 10, 2014, from
http://www.npr.org/2013/02/06/171071377/puerto-ricos-battered-econo-my-the-greece-of-the-caribbean
Griffin, M., Annulis, H., McCearley, T., Green, D., Kirby, C.,
& Gaudet, C. (2011). Analysis of human capital development in
Puerto Rico: summary and conclusions. Human Resource Development
International, 14(3), 337-346.
Government Development Bank of Puerto Rico. (2015). Economy and
Economic Indicators. Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. Retrieved January
20, 2015, from http://www.gdb-pur.com/
Gerow, A. E. (2014). Shooting for the Stars (and Stripes): How
Decades of Failed Corporate Tax Policy Contributed to Puerto Ricos
Historic Vote in Favor of Statehood. Tulane Law Review, 88(3),
627-650.
Guerrero, R. (2004). The Increasing Income Gap between Rich and
Poor in Puerto Rico. University of Puerto Rico, Graduate School of
Planning. Retrieved May 10, 2014, from
http://graduados.uprrp.edu/planificacion/facultad/rafael-corrada/increasing_income_gap_pr.pdf
Harvard Law Review (2015). Municipal Bankruptcy PremptionPuerto
Rico Passes New Municipal Reorganization Act. Harvard Law Review,
128(4), 1320-1327.
Kuriloff, A. (2015, February 19). Moodys Cuts Puerto Rico Rating
Further into Junk. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved February 23,
2015, from
http://www.wsj.com/articles/moodys-cuts-puerto-rico-rating-further-into-junk-1424381800
Maguire, S., Freely, J., Clymer, C., Conway, M., and Schwartz,
D. (2010). Tun-ing In to Local Labor Markets: Findings from the
Sectoral Employment Impact Study, Executive Summary. Public/
Private Ventures Publications, Philadelphia. Retrieved December 2,
2013, from
http://www2.oaklandnet.com/oakca/groups/ceda/documents/report/dowd021455.pdf
Michigan Department of Licensing and Regulatory Affairs. (2010).
Latest Re-port Shows 75 Percent of NWLB Workers Obtained, Retained
a Job As a Result of Training. Michigan Department of Licensing and
Regulatory Affairs, 29 June, 2010. Retrieved December 2, 2013, from
http://www.michigan.gov/lara/0,4601,7-154-10573_11472-239530--,00.html
-
24
Copyright The National Puerto Rican Chamber of Commerce
Neumark, D. (2013). Spurring Job Creation in Response to Severe
Recessions: Reconsidering Hiring Credits. Journal of Policy
Analysis and Manage-ment, 32 (1):142-171.
Public Law 111148. (2010). The Patient Protection and Affordable
Care Act. 111th United States Congress. Washington, D.C.: United
States Govern-ment Printing Office. Retrieved January 25, 2015 from
http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/granule/PLAW-111publ148/PLAW-111publ148/content-detail.html
Segarra, E. (2006). What happened to the distribution of income
in Puerto Rico during the last three decades of the xx century? A
statistical point of view. Essay 129. University of Puerto Rico,
Department of Economics. Re-trieved May 1, 2014, from
http://economia.uprrp.edu/ensayo%20129.pdf
Slavin, R. (2014, May 12). Puerto Rico Plan Aims to Reboot
Economy. The Bond Buyer. Retrieved December 10, 2014, from
http://www.bondbuy-er.com/issues/123_90/puerto-rico-plan-aims-to-reboot-islands-econo-my-1062350-1.html
Sotomayor, O. J. (1996). Poverty and Income Inequality in Puerto
Rico, 1969-89: Trends and Sources. Review of Income & Wealth,
42(1), 49-61.
U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau. (2010).
American Commu-nity Survey (ACS). Retrieved May 1, 2014, from
http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/wc_acs.html
U.S. Department of Labor. (2015). Unemployment rate
demographics, 1976-2015. In U.S. Department of Labor- Bureau of
Labor Statistics. Retrieved Febru-ary 10, 2015 from
http://data.bls.gov/pdq/SurveyOutputServlet
Vlez, G. (2011). Reinvencin boricua: Propuestas de reactivacin
econmica para los individuos, las empresas y el gobierno. San Juan,
P.R.: Inteligen-cia Econmica.
Vlez-Hagan, J. & Finger, R. (2013, December 1). Default:
Puerto Ricos Inevita-ble Option. Forbes. Retrieved May 5, 2014,
from
http://www.forbes.com/sites/richardfinger/2013/12/01/default-puerto-ricos-inevitable-option/
Weisskoff, R. (1985). Factories and food stamps: The Puerto Rico
model of de-velopment. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University
Press.
World Factbook. (2014, April 14) Puerto Rico. CIA Library.
Retrieved February 5, 2015, from
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-fact-book/geos/rq.html
-
25
Copyright The National Puerto Rican Chamber of Commerce
Appendix: Data Tables
Table 1
Percentage of Household Income from Earnings, Social Security
and Public Assistance
(Household Average)1970 1980 1990 2000
% of Household income from earnings 77 61 61 59% of Household
income from Social Security 13 21 21 21% of Household income from
Public Assistance 5 8 8 10
Total 95 90 94 90Source: (Segarra, 2006)
Table 2
Source: (Segarra, 2006)
Table 3
Source: (Segarra, 2006)
Gini Coefficients for Household Income andHousehold Earnings,
1970-2000
Year Householdincome%
ChangeHouseholdEarnings
%Change
1970 0.545 0.61504
1980 0.512 -5.9 0.65678 6.81990 0.506 -1.2 0.66313 1.0
2000 0.564 11.4 0.69129 4.2
Gini Coefficients for total household income, with exclusions
1970-2000
YearTotal
Householdincome
%Change
TotalHousehold
Income(Excluding
SocialSecurityIncome)
%Change
HouseholdIncome
(ExcludingPublic
AssistanceIncome)
%Change
1970 0.560 0.595 0.565
1980 0.512 -8.4 0.592 -0.4 0.535 -5.21990 0.500 -2.4 0.583 -1.5
0.543 1.52000 0.564 12.7 0.638 9.4 0.581 6.9
-
This paper has been produced and presented by
For inquiries, please send an email to: [email protected]