INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Definition of Psychology Psychology is best defined as the study of mind. It is the science of behavior and a mental process that seeks to describe and explain aspects of human thought feelings, perceptions and actions. It is about understanding people: how they think, what they say, and why they do what they do. It’s about finding out what motivates people, what is important to us, and why we are all so individual. The Goals of Psychology To describe, explain, predict, and control behavior and mental processes Describe: tell what occurred Explain: tells the why Predict: under what conditions is the behavior/event likely to occur
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INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
Definition of Psychology
Psychology is best defined as the study of mind. It is the science of behavior and a
mental process that seeks to describe and explain aspects of human thought feelings,
perceptions and actions.
It is about understanding people: how they think, what they say, and why they do
what they do. It’s about finding out what motivates people, what is important to us,
and why we are all so individual.
The Goals of Psychology
To describe, explain, predict, and control behavior and mental processes
Describe: tell what occurred
Explain: tells the why
Predict: under what conditions is the behavior/event likely to occur
Control: how is the principle applied or what change in condition is necessary
to prevent unwanted occurrence or to bring about a desired outcome
Research in Psychology
Basic Research: research conducted for the purpose of advancing knowledge
rather than for practical application (typically three goals: description,
explanation, prediction)
Applied Research: research for the purpose of solving practical problems
(typically the fourth goal: to control behavior)
Research Methods
Naturalistic Observation: researchers observe and record behavior without
trying to influence or control it-subjects are not aware of observation
Advantage: study is in natural setting ; good descriptive; can provide
hypothesis to be tested later
Disadvantage: must wait for behavior to occur, researcher has no control
so cause and effect is difficult to determine-potential for observer bias,
presence of researcher may influence situation
Case Study: an in depth study of one or a few participants consisting of
information gathered by observation, interview, or psychological testing to
provide a description of behavior or disorder
Advantage: advances knowledge especially in unusual conditions; can
provide a hypothesis to be tested later
Disadvantage: cannot establish cause of observed behaviors; don't know
if the cases studied generalize to larger population; may not be
representative of condition, event; subject to misinterpretation by
experimenter
Surveys: a research technique in which questionnaires or interviews are
administered to a selected group of people.
Advantage: large quantity of information; It’s fast, cheap, easy and more
flexible than some other methods.
Disadvantage: can be affected by an unrepresentative sample or poor
survey questions
Co relational Research: a research technique based on the naturally
occurring relationship between two or more variables.
Advantage: efficient, study things that can’t be controlled/manipulated in
laboratory, description and prediction possible
Disadvantages: no control over variables and cannot imply causality
Experimental Method: A research technique in which an investigator
deliberately manipulates selected events or circumstances and then measures
the effects of those manipulations on subsequent behavior
Independent variable: the variable that is manipulated by the
experimenter to test its effects
Dependent variable: the variable that is measured to see how it is
changed by the independent variable
Advantages: conclusions about causality can be made
Disadvantages: more ethical considerations, behavior is constrained
to laboratory and artificiality of lab
Subfields of Psychology
Biopsychology: is a branch of psychology that analyzes how the brain and
neurotransmitters influence our behaviors, thoughts and feelings. This field
can be thought of as a combination of basic psychology and neuroscience.
Clinical Psychology: is concerned with the assessment, diagnosis, and
treatment, and prevention of mental disorders.
Cognitive Psychology: is the branch of psychology that focuses on internal
states, such as motivation, problem solving, decision-making, thinking, and
attention.
Community Psychology: is the application of psychology to the study of
social organizations such as neighborhoods, and the development of methods
for evaluating and initiating changes in social policy
Counseling Psychology: maintains an emphasis on the positive aspects of
human development and are focused on exploring and facilitating the
strengths and assets of individuals, groups, and organizational units
Developmental Psychology: is the study to how people grow and change
Selection: Selection system developed to assess key KSAOs. Ensures that it
is job-related
Training: Gaps in KSAs of new hires represent training needs
Methods of Job Analysis
The Job Components Inventory
Recruitment/Selection
Training & Development
Performance Appraisal
Compensation
PerformanceImprovementPrograms
EmployeeDisciplineSafety & Health
Job AnalysisFoundations
Tools and equipment
Perceptual and physical requirements
Mathematical requirements
Communication requirements
Decision making and responsibility
Functional Job Analysis (FJA)
Fine & Wiley (1971)
Tasks are rated on scales reflecting varying degrees of involvement with
Things, Data, and People as well as math, language, etc. requirements
Each scale is arranged hierarchically
Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)
McCormick, Jeanneret, & Mecham (1972)
Developed because of criticism that JA relied on observation – not
quantifiable
Detailed questionnaire (194 tasks)
Determines extent to which each task is applicable to target job
Using a 5-point scale
Task Inventories
Time spent on task
Importance of task, difficulty of learning
Critical Incident Technique (CIT)
Flanagan (1949)
Identifies behaviors that indicate success or failure on the job
Effective vs. ineffective behaviors
Critical Incidents include:
Context - in which the incident occurred
Behavior - exactly what the individual did that was effective or
ineffective
Consequences - of the behavior and whether or not consequences
were in the employee’s control
Job Evaluation
Job Evaluation refers to a family of quantitative techniques used to determine the
salary levels of jobs.
Ranking - rank order the jobs according to each jobs relative worth or value to
the organization.
Classification - placing all jobs into a predetermined taxonomy of grades or
classes (like the DOT).
Point systems - assign points to various levels of skill, knowledge,
responsibility, working conditions, then summing the points.
PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL
Performance appraisal is a powerful tool to help the supervisor meet the
objectives of the department and organization.
The benefits of conducting performance appraisals include providing
information necessary for improving performance and motivating
employees.
Performance appraisals also provide important records for the
company.
Managers use this information for decisions on raises,
promotions, and discipline.
There are systematic steps in appraising performance.
First, performance and results expectations and standards of
performance are established and communicated to employees.
The supervisor then observes behavior and performance results,
comparing them to the standards set.
Finally, the supervisor provides reinforcement for acceptable or
excellent performance and works with employees to develop remedies
for inadequate performance.
It is impossible for different supervisors to evaluate employees in exactly the
same way.
A supervisor may have a tendency to select some specific ratings or
identify certain behaviors as problematic over others.
Biases about specific people and groups of people can affect the
appraisal process.
For example, supervisors who fail to keep good records may
rely on recent events when evaluating an employee.
A supervisor may give a more favorable appraisal to someone
who is similar to the supervisor and appraise more negatively a
person who is different from the supervisor.
Another bias comes from the halo effect, which leads people to
generalize one positive or negative trait to a person’s entire
performance.
There are several types of appraisals used to evaluate performance.
Supervisors usually do not choose the type of form to use, rather it is
selected by the human resources department or upper management.
The goal of some appraisal forms is to make the process easy and consistent
for all employees.
Ideally, the form focuses on behavioral performance and results to
reduce bias and increase objectivity.
The graphic rating scale is an example of this type of appraisal
form.
However, this type of form is susceptible to lack of consistency
from supervisor to supervisor.
Another type of appraisal is the paired-comparison approach, which measures
the relative performance of employees in a group.
This form rank orders all employees to find the best employees.
Therefore, it reflects negatively on other employees.
The appraisal interview provides feedback to the employee and allows the
employee to join in the process of performance improvement.
The interview should follow careful and thoughtful completion of the
appraisal form, and should be in a private place with plenty of time for
the employee to discuss issues raised in the interview.
The final outcome of the interview should be agreement between the
supervisor and employee about what improvements need to be made and the
method for achieving the improvement goals.
Uses of Performance Appraisals
Training and development needs.
Career planning and development.
Deficiencies in staffing process.
Informational inaccuracies.
Job design error.
Avoidance of discrimination.
External challenges
Benefits of Conducting a Performance Appraisal
Performance Appraisal: Formal feedback on how well an employee is
performing his or her job.
Performance appraisals may be accomplished with the use of a
standard form, which includes questions or items to guide the process.
On the other hand, performance appraisal can be accomplished without
a standard form.
In either case, the evaluation should be based on predetermined
performance expectations that are communicated to employees.
Performance appraisals provide information necessary for employees to
improve the quality of their work.
It can help motivate employees.
Employees like to hear how they are doing, and behaviors that
are evaluated or measured tend to get more attention from
individuals.
Therefore, when it is useful to the organization to have special
attention directed at a goal, it is useful to have that item on a formal
appraisal.
For example, if the quality of a product or service is important,
it is worthwhile to have a section on the performance appraisal
on quality.
Another reason for conducting performance appraisals is that they provide
important records for the organization.
They are a useful source of information when deciding on raises,
promotions, and discipline, and they provide evidence that these were
administered fairly.
In the case of employee behavior or performance problems, an
appraisal documents the problem.
Systematically Appraising Performance
For appraisals to deliver their potential benefits, they must be as fair and
accurate as possible.
Supervisors should be systematic in appraising performance.
Appraisal Process
Establish and Communicate Expectations: During the planning process and
related action plans, the supervisor spells out who is to do what in order to
accomplish the department objectives. This information will indicate what
each employee must do in order to help the department or work group meet its
objectives. One approach is to list three to five major responsibilities of each
position; then focus on these responsibilities.
Observe and Measure Individual Performance: Through the control
process, the supervisor should continuously gather information about each
employee’s performance. This is an ongoing process, not something the
supervisor saves to do when filling out appraisal forms.
Reinforce Performance: To keep employees motivated and informed, the
supervisor needs to tell them when they are doing something right, not just
when they are making a mistake. Reinforce good performance by pointing out
to employees the areas in which their performance is good.
Avoiding Discrimination in Performance Appraisals
The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) is the government agency
charged with enforcing federal laws against discrimination. The EEOC has published
the Uniform Guidelines of Employee Selection Procedures, which include guidelines
for designing and implementing performance appraisals.
Types of Appraisals
Types of commonly used performance appraisal techniques include:
Graphic rating scales.
Paired-comparison approach.
Forced-choice approach.
Essay appraisal.
Preparing for a Performance Appraisal
Preparation for the interview begins with completing the appraisal form.
The supervisor should allow enough time to complete the form
carefully and thoughtfully.
The supervisor should think about how the employee is likely to react
to the appraisal and should plan how to handle the employee’s
reaction.
Also be ready with some ideas for how to correct problems noted in
the appraisal.
Notify the employee ahead of the time of the interview.
Arrange for a private place to hold the interview.
Make arrangements to prevent interruptions.
This is a very important event for both the supervisor and the
employee--treat it as such.
In preparation for the appraisal interview, it is also useful for the supervisor to
review for himself or herself why appraisals are important for the
organization, department, and most of all for the supervisor to be competent at
the job.
When the supervisor is convinced the performance is a positive enterprise and
that it can be a win-win situation, it will be easier to do the interview.
Guidelines for Conducting the Interview
Begin the interview session by an attempt to put the employee at ease.
A refreshment and small talk may help break the ice.
Review the employee’s self-evaluation first, if there is one.
Ask for reasons for the various ratings.
Then the supervisor describes his or her evaluation of the employee.
Start with an overall impression, then explain the contents of
the appraisal forms.
Most employees are waiting for the “bad news,” so it is
probably most effective to describe areas for improvement
first.
Then describe the employee’s strengths.
Allow time for the employee to respond to the performance appraisal.
The employee should be allowed to agree or disagree with the
supervisor’s conclusions, as well as to ask questions.
It is important for the supervisor to keep an open mind and listen to the
employee.
When the supervisor and employee understand each other’s point of view,
they should reach a decision on how to solve problems described in the
appraisal.
At the end of the interview, the supervisor and employee are usually
required to sign the appraisal form.
By doing so, they acknowledge that the interview has been conducted
and that the employee has read and understood the form.
After the interview is over, the supervisor continues to appraise performance.
Training and coaching for improvement should ensue.
The follow-up is an ongoing process.
ASSESSMENT METHOD OF SELECTION
Reliability
Reliability is the degree to which a measure of physical or cognitive abilities,
or traits, is free from random error.
The correlation coefficient is a measure of the degree to which two sets of
numbers are related.
A perfect positive relationship equals +1.0
A perfect negative relationship equals - 1.0
Knowing how scores on the measure at one time relate to scores on the same
measure at another time refers to test-retest reliability.
Validity
Validity is the extent to which a performance measure assesses all the relevant
—and only the relevant—aspects of job performance.
Criterion-related validation is a method of establishing the validity of a
personnel selection method by showing a substantial correlation between test
scores and job-performance scores. The types include:
Predictive validation
Concurrent validation
Content Validation
Content validation is a test-validation strategy performed by demonstrating
that the items, questions, or problems posed by a test are a representative
sample of the kinds of situations or problems that occur on the job.
Best for small samples
Content validity is achieved primarily through a process of expert
judgment
Generalizability
Generalizability is the degree to which the validity of a selection method
established in one context extends to other contexts.
Three contexts include:
different situations
different samples of people
different time periods
Utility
Utility is the degree to which the information provided by selection methods
enhances the effectiveness of selecting personnel in organizations.
It is impacted by reliability, validity, and generalizability.
Legality
All selection methods must conform to existing laws and legal precedents.
Three acts have formed the basis for a majority of the suits filed by job
applicants:
Civil Rights Act of 1964 and 1991
Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1991
Techniques for the Assessment
1. Psychological Tests
2. Biographical Inventory
3. Interview
4. Work Sample
5. Assessment Center
6. Electronic Assessment
Characteristics of Psychological Test
1. Group Versus Individually Administered Tests
2. Objective Versus Open-Ended Tests
3. Paper-and-Pencil Versus Performance Tests
4. Power Versus Speed Tests
5. Ability Tests
Cognitive Ability Tests
Psychomotor Ability Tests
6. Knowledge and Skill or Achievement Tests
7. Personality Tests
8. Integrity Tests: Overt Versus Personality
9. Vocational Interest Tests
10. Emotional Intelligence: Trait Versus Information Processing
11. Drug Testing
Biographical Information
Biographical Inventory
Detailed information about a person’s background
Empirical vs. Rational
Predictive of job performance
Interviews
Used in almost every hiring situation
Most acceptable to college students in US and France (Steiner & Gilliland,
1996
Relates to cognitive ability (Huffcutt et al., 1996)
Structured vs. Unstructured
Structured much more valid in predicting performance
Work Samples
Simulation of actual job tasks
Good predictors of future job performance
Acceptability by applicants because of obvious job relevance
High face validity
Assessment Centers
Simulation of management and other white collar jobs
44% of British employers who hire college students use (Keenan, 1995)
In US used mainly for promotion and selection of managers
Can also be used for employee development
Overall scores valid predictors of performance
Dimension scores often not valid
Assesses how person fits role (Russell & Domm, 1995)
Electronic Assessment
Electronic administration of psychological test
Web-based assessment
Can administer customized test
Makes scoring easier and quicker
Tailored testing
Trend or wave of the future?
SELECTING EMPLOYEES
What is selection?
The process of collecting and evaluating information about an individual in
order to extend an offer of employment
Either a first position for a new employee
Or a different position for a current employee
Performed under legal and environmental constraints
Addresses the future interests of the organization
Basic objective of selection
Separate, from a pool of applicants for a job, those that have the appropriate
knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) to perform well on the job.
To do so, the selection specialist must systematically collect information from
the applicants about how much of the necessary KSA each possesses.
Crucial Issue in Selection
The crucial issue is not whether an organization can collect information from
applicants and then decide which are to be given employment offers.
The issue is whether the organization can collect information from applicants
about individual characteristics that are closely related to job performance and
effectively use these data to identify the best applicants for employment offers
Steps in the Development of Selection Program
1. Job analysis:
The gathering of information about a job in an organization
Information should describe:
Tasks or activities engaged in
The results of those tasks or activities
The equipment and materials used
The individuals
The environment
2. Identification of relevant job performance dimensions:
What constitutes successful job performance?
What do the workers need to know and be able to do upon entering the
job to be successful at the job?
Some things can be learned on the job and therefore are less
critical in the selection process
3. Identify the KSAs necessary for the job:
These are the prerequisites to performance
What must a worker know?
What skills and abilities must he or she possess to perform the critical
job tasks?
4. Development of assessment devices to measure KSAs
Once you’ve identified the KSAs needed, you have to measure those
KSAs in applicants for the job
Tests
Interview questions
Demonstrations of skills
Etc.
5. Validation of assessment devices
Validation is the steps taken to collect and evaluate information to
determine whether the worker characteristics thought to be important
to job performance are, in fact, related to successful job performance
If not, you need to revise
So that you get the best people
Legal reasons
6. Use of assessment devices in processing of applicants
Once you’re sure your assessment methods work, use them.
Why not more information?
Better selection decisions can be made when the data collected are
accurate and complete.
The greater the amount of accurate data collected, the more complete
the assessment will be.
So, why do selection specialists only obtain limited information?
Measurement
Why are numbers necessary in the selection process?
Because they facilitate comparison of people
Gives you information better than words alone
Permit statistical manipulation, which provides even more information
about the selection program
Problem of measurement
The problem for selection specialists is to ensure that the numbers generated
are actually accurate descriptions of the characteristics of the applicant, job, or
job performance
Can measure anything
But should only measure what’s important
Analyze measurements in a meaningful way
Legal issues with selection
Very important for a company to adopt clear, effective, measurable selection procedures that do not unfairly discriminate between groups of individuals
Those procedures should measure only the person’s ability to do a job
Must be able to prove that your procedures are measuring only that
Otherwise, organization is very vulnerable if discrimination charges are brought against them
Two major objectives of every selection program
To maximize the probability of making accurate selection decisions about applicantsTo ensure that these selection decisions are carried out in such a manner as to minimize the chance of a judgment of discrimination being made against organizationEqual Employment OpportunityEEO regulation is directed at addressing social and economic problemsIt is directed toward the solution of national issues such as employment inequalities
EEO Regulations
Two components:
The laws and executive orders that state general principles and empower regulatory agencies (EEOC, OFCC, federal courts, state courts, state agencies)
Court decisions that interpret these general principles in specific situations
EEO Laws and Executive Orders
EEO laws are federal laws whose purpose is the elimination of discrimination in HR management decisions
EEO executive orders are statements made by the executive branch of the government intended for the same purpose, but aimed at organizations that do business directly with the government
ADA of 1990
Americans with Disabilities Act
Prohibits pre-employment inquires about a person’s disability.
Places the responsibility on the disabled person to bring any relevant disability to the employer’s attention.
Many applications will specifically ask if you have a disability that would interfere with your ability to perform a job. This is illegal.
Disparate treatment / impact
EEO laws and executive orders prohibit discrimination in selection. But what precisely is discrimination? One of two things:
Disparate treatment
Disparate impact (adverse impact)
Disparate Treatment
Refers to those situations in which different standards are applied to various groups of individuals, even though there may not be an explicit statement of intentional prejudice
Example: Not hiring women with young children but hiring men with young children
Example: Hiring minorities for cleaning positions in a restaurant and hiring whites with similar qualifications for wait staff or cashiering
Disparate Impact
When selection standards are applied uniformly to all groups of applicants, but the net result of such standards is to produce differences in the selection of various groups.
Example: requiring a high school diploma, which unfairly limits the % of minority applicants
Example: height requirements, which unfairly limit women, Asian Americans and Latin Americans
Evidence
In both types of discrimination there must be evidence that the discrimination has occurred.
But the way in which evidence is presented differs depending on whether it is a case of disparate treatment or disparate impact.
Title VII discrimination cases
In a Title VII discrimination case (discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin) the following steps are involved in presentation of evidence (see table 2.2)…
Disparate Treatment Step 1
Plaintiff
Demonstrates that he or she belongs to a protected class
He or she applied and was qualified for a job for which the company was seeking applicants
Despite these qualifications, he or she was rejected
After this rejection, the position remained open and the employer continued to seek applicants from persons with the complainant’s qualifications
Disparate Treatment Step 2
Defendant
Provides a clear and specific job-based explanation for actions
Disparate Treatment Step 3
Plaintiff
Proves that the defendant’s argument is a pretext and the true reason for rejection was prejudice
Disparate Impact Step 1
Plaintiff
Demonstrates statistically that this HRM practice affects various groups differently in comparison to their distribution in the relevant labor market
Disparate Impact Step 2
Defendant
Demonstrates at least one of the following:
• Business necessity
• Bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ)
• Validation data
Disparate Impact Step 3
Plaintiff
Proves that an alternative practice is available that has less adverse impact
BFOQ
One way of fighting a discrimination charge is by demonstrating bona fide occupational qualification.
A BFOQ defense means that no person of a particular sex, race, color, religion, or national origin can adequately perform the given job.
This has mainly been related to sex or religion cases
Legally, it is impossible to frame a BFOQ defense for race, color, or national origin
Statistics
With both forms of discrimination, statistics become important in helping to show the discrimination either did or did not occur
Disparate treatment: statistics are mainly used to assist the plaintiff in rebutting the defendant’s explanation of the selection practice under question
Disparate impact: statistics are most often used by the plaintiff in demonstrating that a pattern of adverse effect has occurred
Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures (1978)
These guidelines show how you should set up your selection program.
Prior to this time, both the EEOC and the Department of Labor had issued separate guidelines that conflicted with respect to certain procedures.
Problem was that you could not conform to both sets of guidelines.
Therefore, you could not avoid the threat of trouble from both agencies.
Later the courts ruled that the joint guidelines will be used almost as a checklist for any court cases. Therefore they are very significant.
Unacceptable Skills and Abilities
According to the joint guidelines, skills and abilities easily learned during a brief training program are not acceptable as selection requirements
Affirmative action programs
An affirmative action program (AAP) applies to a set of specific actions taken by an organization to meet the objectives of EEO law.
Typically an affirmative action plan is created to explicitly state the steps the organization will take in selection.
Three situations to adopt AAP
Being a government contractor
Having lost a court discrimination case or having signed a consent decree
Voluntarily attempting to implement EEO principles
Government Contractors
Most of the EEO laws and executive orders require AAPs for government contractors with contracts of at least $10,000
So, they have good reason to adopt AAPs (they have to)
Losing a discrimination case
Often a part of losing the case entails that the organization legally has to adopt an AAP
So, they also have a good reason to adopt AAPs (they also have to)
Voluntary adoption
An organization may decide, on its own, to implement an AAP to promote diversity
However, this can get tricky
In the process of being fair to traditional victims of discrimination, the company may bend over backwards and end up discriminating other groups.
By discriminating against those other groups and thus violating parts of Title VII, the organization opens itself to charges reverse discrimination.
Griggs v. Duke Power (1971)
13 African American employees filed a class-action suit against Duke Power.
They were charging discriminatory employment practices
The claim was based on newly implemented selection requirements (high school diplomas, passage of a mechanical aptitude test, and an IQ test)
According to the plaintiffs, these tests unfairly screened out a much higher percentage of African Americans than whites.
The requirements did not affect current employees, just future employees (applicants)
Duke Power made no attempt to determine the job relatedness of the selection requirements
A lower district court found in favor of the company on the grounds that there was no discriminatory intent.
An appellate court agreed district court
However, the Supreme Court, in an unanimous decision, reversed the previous decisions
The court ruled that a lack of discriminatory intent was not a sufficient defense against the use of employment devices that exclude on the basis of race.
The court held that tests and other measuring devices must be related to job performance.
Duke Power had workers who did not meet the selection requirements (the ones who had been hired before the requirements were put into place).
Those workers had performed their jobs successfully
Therefore, Duke Power had no evidence relating the selection requirements to job performance
Important precedents set by Griggs v. Duke Power
The applicant has the burden of proving the adverse impact of a particular selection device
Once adverse impact has been established, the burden of proof shifts to the employer
The employer must prove the validity or job relatedness of the device
Selection Problem: Choose the Best Person For the Job
Best performer
Best social fit (team player)
Best person job fit (worker adjustment/well-being)
Empirical process: Data based and objective
Legal process: Government regulation and law
Utility: Benefit of using a selection procedure
Hiring Process
Planning and Recruitment
Planning: Anticipating needs for human resources
Expansion vs. replacements
Labor markets
Recruitment
Advertising
Employee referral
Employment agencies
School recruiters
Walk-ins
Web (Monster website)
Preliminary Concepts
Reliability
Test-retest
Internal consistency: Multiple items required
Validity
Criterion related
Concurrent vs. predictive
Content
Face
Convergent vs. Discriminant
Construct: Overall case necessary for legal defense
Making Selection Decisions
Human judgment: Hire whoever seems best
I/O approach: Use empirically (research-based) proven assessment methods
Steps involved in I/O method
1. Analyze job
2. Define criteria
3. Define abilities needed
4. Choose potential predictors
5. Validate (determine equation)
6. Cross-validate
Multiple cutoff option: Must meet each selection requirement
Multiple regression: Must achieve a certain total score regardless of
performance on each requirement
Validity generalization: Effective selection devices work in all settings
Utility
Value of selection system to the organization
Cost/benefit ratio
Utility is maximized by
1. Validity of selection device—should be high
2. Selection ratio (hired/applicants)—should be low
3. Baseline for success—should be 50%
4. Cost of selection program—should be low
5. Cost of bad selection (recruitment, training, low productivity)—
should be high
Hunter-Schmidt programmer aptitude test for federal government
Cost: $6000/year
Estimated gain: $5.6 million to 97.2 million
If universally adopted could save $1.5 billion in U.S.
However, this assumes unlimited supply of applicants and no
constraints on performance in organizations
TRAINING EMPLOYEES
Training in Organizations
Training can be very valuable by
Increasing employee competence and performance
Increasing employee motivation
Increasing employee adjustment and well-being
Not always effective because training
is for the wrong thing
given to the wrong people
uses the wrong methods
Steps to Developing Training
Needs Assessment
Determining which employees need training
Determining what training should be done
According to Goldstein (1986, 1991), needs assessment should focus on three
Performance appraisal: Can be part of a performance management system
Employee surveys
Setting Objectives
The objectives of training are based on criteria and include a statement of
what a trainee should be able to do or know after training
The training criteria is a statement of how achievement of the training
objective can be assessed
Criteria serve as the basis for the design of organizational training
Training Design
Goal: Transfer of training to job
Factors to Consider
Trainee characteristics
Design factors that affect transfer of training
Feedback
General principles
Identical elements
Over learning (Practice)
Sequencing of Training Sessions part versus whole and massed
versus spaced
Work Environment
Training Methods
Training Methods
1. Audiovisual Instruction
2. Auto instruction
3. Conference
4. Lecture
5. Modeling
6. On-the-Job Training
7. Role Playing
8. Simulations
Delivery of A Training Program
In most organizations specialists who are skilled in training deliver the
program
They may or may not be experts in the content of the training or in training
design
Evaluation
Set Criteria
Training criteria
Reactions
Learning
Performance criteria
Behavior
Results
Choose Design
Pretest-posttest
Control group
Pretest-Posttest Design
Control Group Design
Pretest Assessme
nt of
Criteria
TrainingDelivery
Posttest Assessme
nt of
Criteria
Choose Measures of the Criteria
Collecting Data
Data Analysis and Interpretation
Random Assignment of People to Groups
Deliver No Training
To Control Group
Assess Trained
Group on Criteria
Deliver Training
To Trained Group
Assess Control
Group on Criteria
JOB SATISFACTION & ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT
Job satisfaction
Job satisfaction is an attitudinal variable that reflects how people feel about their jobs overall as well as various aspects of them.
Organizational commitment
It is attachment to the job and another popular attitudinal variable in the work domain.
Nature of Job Satisfaction
Global approach: Overall satisfaction with work
Facet approach: Satisfaction with aspects of the job
Pay
Promotion
Supervision
Nature of work
Most people like the job overall
Facet satisfactions vary
Highest: Nature of work
Lowest: Pay and Promotion opportunities
Mean levels of U.S. Satisfaction On the Job Satisfaction Survey
Assessment
Self-report survey
Easy to use
Can be anonymous
Person best judge of own feelings
Standard scales exist
Job Descriptive Index (JDI)
5 facets of job satisfaction
Job In General (JIG)
Global job satisfaction
Scales exist for commitment and emotion
Antecedents of Job Satisfaction: Environmental
Job characteristics
Hackman & Oldham
Characteristics à Psychological States à Job satisfaction
Strong research support linking perceptions of characteristics to job satisfaction
Weak research support linking objective characteristics to job satisfaction
Pay
Salary compared to people in same job more important than different jobs
Justice
Distributive and Procedural related to global and facet satisfaction
Job Characteristics Theory
Antecedents of Job Satisfaction: Environmental
Personality
Negative affectivity (high NAs less satisfied)
Locus of control (externals less satisfied)
Gender
Few gender differences
Age
Curvilinear—satisfaction lowest age 26 to 31
Culture and Ethnicity
Few racial differences within the U.S.
Western countries score higher than Asians
Could be due to response styles rather than true feelings
Person-Job Fit
Match between individual and the job
People differ in reactions to same situation
Characteristics of the person is a moderator
Moderator: Variable that affects relationship between two other variables
Growth need strength (GNS)
People high on GNS are more satisfied with high scope jobs
People low on GNS are not more satisfied with high scope jobs
Effects of Job Satisfaction
Job Performance
Small correlation
More evidence that performance causes satisfaction than reverse
Turnover
Dissatisfied people more likely to quit
Moderated by labor market—people quit when they find another job
Absence
Very small correlation—other factors more important
Health and Well-Being
Job satisfaction relates to health variables such as anxiety and depression
Life Satisfaction
Job satisfaction important component of life satisfaction
Spillover
Organizational Commitment
One commitment, three components
Mowday, Steers, Porter
Acceptance of organization goals
Intention to stay on the job
Willingness to work hard
Three commitments
Meyer and Allen
Affective: Like the job
Continuance: Need the job
Normative: Feel obligated to stay on the job
Commitment and Other Variables
Similar correlations as job satisfaction
High commitment associated with
High job scope
High job satisfaction
Low job stressors
Job Scope
Emotions and Work
Emotion state: How you feel now
Emotion mood: How you have been feeling lately
Positive emotions: Feeling good
Greater creativity
Higher job satisfaction
More contextual performance
Negative emotions: Feeling bad
Lower job satisfaction
Higher absence
More turnover
Emotional Labor
Requirement at work to express or inhibit emotional display
Smiling at customers
Not showing anger toward clients
Some studies showed that acting happy can lead to job satisfaction
Emotional dissonance: Expressing emotion you don’t feel
Leads to dissatisfaction and stress
WORK GROUPS &WORK TEAMS
Work Group
A work group is a collection of two or more people who interact with one another and
share some interrelated task goals.
Work Team
A work team is a type of work group, but a team has three specific properties (Baker,
1991):
1. The actions of individuals must be interdependent and coordinated.
2. Each member must have a particular, specified role.
3. There must be common task goals and objectives.
Group/Team Concepts
Roles: Specialization of function within positions
Formal: position title and description define with job analysis
Informal: Emergent behavior in group
Status
Power & influence, prestige, respect
Partially inherent in role
Norms
Expected & accepted behavioral standards
Productivity norms
Dress norms
Group Cohesiveness: Attraction of group members toward staying in group
High cohesive groups
Lower turnover
Stronger adherence to norms (homogenizer of behavior)
Greater satisfaction
Greater group influence
Team Commitment
Strength of an individual’s involvement in team and acceptance of
team goals
Team Mental Model
Shared understanding of task by team members
Process Loss
Effort/time spent by team members on non-task activities
Stages in Team Building
Stages in Team Building
Stage I: Forming – Provide clear direction to establish the team’s purpose, setting goals, etc.,
Stage II: Storming – Provide strong, hands-on leadership to keep people talking and task-focused
Stage III: Norming – Codes of behaviour becomes established and an identifiable group culture emerges. People begin to enjoy each other’s company and appreciate each other’s contributions
FormingStormingNorming
PerformingAdjourning
Stage IV: Performing – Teams that reach this stage achieve results easily and enjoyably. People work together well and can improve systems, solve problems and provide excellent customer service.
Stage V: Adjourning – Temporary project team reaches this stage; celebrate their team’s achievements.
Types of Teams
1. Problem-solving teams – groups of 5-12 employees from the same department who meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency, and the work environment.
These teams are rarely given the opportunity to unilaterally implement any of their suggested actions, i.e. lack of employee involvement in decision-making process.
2. Self-managed work teams – groups of employees (typically 10-15) who perform highly related or interdependent jobs (e.g. planning, assigning tasks to members, making operational decisions, and taking action on problems) and take on many of the responsibilities of their previous supervisors.
Members report higher job satisfaction but also higher absenteeism and turnover rates – situation dependent.
3. Cross-functional teams – employees from about the same hierarchical level, but from different work areas, who come together to accomplish a task. Examples include ‘Task force’, ‘Committees’.
It takes time to build trust and teamwork, especially among people from different backgrounds, with different experiences and perspectives.
4. Virtual teams – that use computer technology to tie together physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal.
Allow people to work together who might otherwise never be able to collaborate.
Suffer from less social rapport and less direct interaction among members.
Considerations Before Deciding To Use Teams
Teams are not always preferable to individuals. Three conditions favor teams:
(a) The work is complex and can be done better by more than one person;
(b) The work has a common purpose or set of goals that is more than the aggregate of individual goals; and
(c) There is interdependence between tasks.
Key Factors to Successful Performance of a Team S.C.O.R.E.
Strategy
Clear Roles and Responsibility
Open Communication
Rapid Response
Effective Leadership
S.C.O.R.E.
Strategy:
Shared purpose
Clearly articulated values and ground rules
Understanding of risks and opportunities facing the team
Clear categorization of the overall responsibilities of the team
Clear Roles and Responsibilities:
Clear definition of roles and responsibilities
Responsibility shared by all members
Specific objectives to measure individual results
Open communication:
Respect for individual differences
Open communication environment among team members
Rapid response:
Rapid response to the team’s problems
Effective management to change in the internal and external environment
Effective Leadership:
Team leader who is able to help members achieve the objective and build the team
Team leader who can draw out and free up the skills of all team members, develop individuals
Components of Effective Teams
1. Context – adequate resources, leadership and structure, climate of trust, performance evaluation and reward systems.
2. Composition – abilities of members, personality, allocating roles, diversity, size of teams, member flexibility, member preferences.