Psychological Science is Born Wundt and psychology’s first graduate students studied the “atoms of the mind” by conducting experiments at Leipzig, Germany,

Psychological Science is Born

Wundt and psychology’s first graduate students studied the “atoms of

the mind” by conducting experiments at Leipzig, Germany, in

1879.

This work is considered the birth of psychology

as we know it today.

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Psychological Science DevelopsBehaviorists

Watson and later Skinner emphasized the study of overt behavior as the subject matter

of scientific psychology.

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Random Sampling

If each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a

sample, it is called a random sample

(unbiased).The fastest way to know about

the marble color ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller jar and count them.

Correlation

When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate.

Correlation coefficient

Indicates directionof relationship

(positive or negative)

Indicates strengthof relationship(0.00 to 1.00)

r = 0.37+

Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of the relationship between two

variables.

Experimentation

Experimentation is the backbone of psychological research.

Experiments isolate causes and their effects.

Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments (1) manipulate factors that interest us, while other factors are kept

under (2) control.

Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships.

Exploring Cause & Effect

Evaluating Therapies

Double-blind Procedure

Neither the participant nor the research assistant knows whether the participant is receiving the treatment or a placebo

An independent variable is a factor manipulated by the experimenter. The effect of the independent variable is the focus of the

study.

For example, when examining the effects of breast feeding upon intelligence, breast

feeding is the independent variable.

Independent Variable IV

A dependent variable is a factor that may change in response to an independent variable. In psychology, it is usually a

behavior or a mental process.

For example, in our study on the effect of breast feeding upon intelligence,

intelligence is the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable DV

FAQ

Q1. Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?

Q2. Does behavior depend on one’s culture and gender?

Q3. Why do psychologists study animals, and is it ethical to experiment on animals?

Neuron

A nerve cell, or a neuron, consists of many different parts.

Myelin sheath

• Specialized Glial cells • Acts as an electrical

insulator • Not present on all

cells• When present

increases the speed of neural signals down the axon.

Myelin Sheath

Action PotentialA neural impulse. A

brief electrical charge that travels down an

axon and is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of

channels in the axon’s membrane.

Threshold

Threshold: Each neuron receives excitatory and inhibitory signals

from many neurons.

Action Potential Properties

All-or-None Response: A strong stimulus can trigger more neurons to fire, and to fire more often, but it does not affect the

action potentials strength or speed.

Intensity of an action potential remains the same throughout the length of the

axon.

Types of Neurotransmitters• Acetylcholine• Serotonin• Norepinephrine• Dopamine• Endorphins• GABA • Glutamate

Acetylcholine

• Found in neuromuscular junction

• Involved in muscle movements

Serotonin

Serotonin pathways are involved with

mood regulation.

DopamineImportant for

movement, rewards & pleasure.

Involved with diseases such as

schizophrenia and Parkinson’s disease.

Endorphins• Control pain and

pleasure• Released in response

to pain• Morphine and codeine

work on endorphin receptors Involved in healing effects of acupuncture

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Sympathetic Nervous System: Division of the ANS that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.

Parasympathetic Nervous System: Division of the ANS that calms the body, conserving its energy.

PET Scan

PET (positron emission tomography) Scan is a visual display of brain activity that detects a radioactive form of glucose while the brain performs a given task.

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MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to

produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures

within the brain

fMRI - Functional MRI

Compares MRI scans taken less than a second apart

Detects blood moving to active parts of the brain

Shows brain function

Brain Stem

The Thalamus is the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem. It directs messages to the sensory areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

The Limbic System is a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebrum, associated with emotions such as fear, aggression and drives for food and sex. It includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.

The Limbic System

Hypothalamus

The Hypothalamus lies below (hypo) the thalamus. It directs several maintenance activities like eating, drinking, body temperature, and control of emotions. It helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.

"TALE of the hypothalamus":

Temperature

Appetite

Libido

Emotion

The Cerebral Cortex

• Cerebral Cortex – the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells

that covers the cerebral hemispheres– the body’s ultimate control and information

processing center

• Glial Cells – cells in the nervous system that are not neurons

but that support, nourish, and protect neurons

Figure 2.24 The cerebral cortexMyers: Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers

The Cerebral Cortex

• Frontal Lobes

– involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments

• Parietal Lobes

– include the sensory cortex

• Occipital Lobes

– include the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field

• Temporal Lobes

– include the auditory areas

The Cerebral Cortex

Split Brain

a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the corpus Callosum.

Sperry and Gazzaniga are key researchers in this area.

Environmental Influence

Culture the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes,

and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Norm an understood rule for accepted and

expected behavior

Developmental Psychology

Issue Details

Nature/Nurture

How do genetic inheritance (our nature)

and experience (the nurture we receive)

influence our behavior?

Continuity/Stages

Is developmental a gradual, continuous

process or a sequence of separate stages?

Stability/Change

Do our early personality traits persist through life, or do we become

different persons as we age.

Infancy and Childhood

Infancy and childhood span from birth to the teenage years. During these years,

the individual grows physically, cognitively, and socially.

Stage Span

Infancy Newborn to toddler

Childhood Toddler to teenager

Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development

Schema a concept or framework that

organizes and interprets information, they are building blocks of intellectual development

Typical Age Range

Description of Stage

Developmental Phenomena

SensorimotorBirth to nearly 2 years

Experiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing)

•Object permanence•Stranger anxiety•Some cause and effect

PreoperationalAbout 2 to 6 years

Concrete operationalAbout 7 to 11 years

Formal operationalAbout 12 through adulthood

Representing things with words and images but lacking logical reasoning

•Pretend play•Egocentrism•Language development•Think in symbols

Thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations

•Conservation •Mathematical transformations

Abstract reasoning, speculation •Abstract logic•Potential for moral reasoning

Piaget’s Stages

Sensorimotor Stage

In the sensorimotor stage, babies take in the world by looking, hearing, touching,

mouthing, and grasping. Children younger than 6 months of age do not grasp object permanence, i.e., objects that are out of

sight are also out of mind.

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Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development

Conservation the principle that properties such as mass,

volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Attachment

• Mary Ainsworth – Strange situation– Unfamiliar playroom– Mother and unfamilar woman– Women play with baby – leave briefly

• How to the babies respond?

Social Development: Parenting Styles

Authoritarian parents impose rules and expect obedience “Don’t interrupt.” “Why? Because I said so.”

Permissive submit to children’s desires, make few demands, use

little punishment Authoritative

both demanding and responsive set rules, but explain reasons and encourage open

discussion Rejecting-Neglecting

completely uninvolved; disengaged. Expect little and invest little

Developing Morality

Kohlberg (1981, 1984) sought to describe the development of moral reasoning by posing moral dilemmas to children and adolescents, such as “Should a person

steal medicine to save a loved one’s life?” He found stages of moral development.

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Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Approximateage Stage Description of Task

Infancy Trust vs. mistrust If needs are dependably met, infants(1st year) develop a sense of basic trust.

Toddler Autonomy vs. shame Toddlers learn to exercise will and (2nd year) and doubt do things for themselves, or they

doubt their abilities.

Preschooler Initiative vs. guilt Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks(3-5 years) and carry out plans, or they feel

guilty about efforts to be independent.

Elementary Competence vs. Children learn the pleasure of applying(6 years- inferiority themselves to tasks, or they feel puberty) inferior.

Mnemonic

Aging and Intelligence

It is believed today that fluid intelligence (ability to reason speedily) declines with age,

but crystalline intelligence (accumulated knowledge and skills) increases.

We gain vocabulary and knowledge but lose recall memory and process more slowly.

ThresholdsAbsolute Threshold: Minimum stimulation needed

to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.

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Why Does the “Absolute” Threshold Vary?

- Signal Detection• Sensitivity:

– Intensity of the signal.– Capacity of sensory systems.– Amount of background stimulation, or “noise.”

• Response criterion reflects one’s willingness to respond to a stimulus.– Influenced by motivation and expectancies.

Judging Differences Between Stimuli

• Difference Threshold or Just-Noticeable Difference (JND)

• JND = Smallest detectable difference in stimulus energy.

• JND determined by two factors:– How much of a stimulus was there to begin

with?– Which sense is being stimulated?

Sensory Adaptation

Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.

Put a band aid on your arm and after awhileyou don’t sense it.

The LensLens: Transparent

structure behind the pupil that changes

shape to focus images on the retina.

Accommodation: The process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to help focus

near or far objects on the retina.

Retina

Retina: The light-sensitive inner

surface of the eye, containing

receptor rods and cones in addition to layers of other neurons (bipolar,

ganglion cells) that process

visual information.

Optic Nerve, Blind Spot & Fovea

http://www.bergen.org

Optic nerve: Carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.

Blind Spot: Point where the optic nerve leaves the eye because there are no receptor cells located there.

Fovea: Central point in the retina around which the eye’s cones cluster.

Retina’s Reaction to Light- Receptors

Rods peripheral retina detect black, white and gray twilight or low light

Cones near center of retina fine detail and color vision daylight or well-lit conditions

Color Blindness

Ishihara Test

Genetic disorder in which people are blind to green or red colors. This supports the

Trichromatic theory.

Opponent Process Theory

Hering proposed that we process four primary colors combined in pairs of red-green, blue-

yellow, and black-white.

The Ear

Dr. Fred H

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The Ear

Outer Ear/Pinna: Collects and sends sounds to the eardrum.

Middle Ear: Chamber between eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window.

Inner Ear: Innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.

CochleaCochlea: Coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in

the inner ear that transforms sound vibrations to auditory signals.

Localization of SoundsBecause we have two ears, sounds that reach one ear faster than the other ear cause us to localize

the sound.

1. Intensity differences2. Time differences

Taste

Traditionally, taste sensations consisted of sweet, salty, sour, and bitter tastes. Recently, receptors

for a fifth taste have been discovered called “Umami”.

Sweet Sour Salty Bitter Umami(Fresh

Chicken)

Taste link at Nova

Blocking bitter taste at Nova

Chemical Senses: The Flavors and Aromas of

Life• Olfaction

– Olfactory epithelium – top of nasal cavity – Pheromone detection of sweat and urine

• Vomeronasal organ• Influence human female reproductive cycles• Inhalation of male sex hormone and mood

changes• Males may respond to sex hormones

Perceptual Organization: Gestalt

Gestalt--an organized whole tendency to integrate pieces of information

into meaningful wholes a school of psychology founded in Germany

in the 1900s that maintained our sensations are processed according to consistent perceptual rules that result in meaningful whole perceptions, or gestalts.

Perceptual Organization: Gestalt

Grouping Principles proximity--group nearby figures together similarity--group figures that are similar continuity--perceive continuous patterns closure--fill in gaps connectedness--spots, lines, and areas are

seen as unit when connected

Depth Perception

Visual Cliff

Depth perception enables us to judge distances. Gibson and Walk (1960) suggested that human infants (crawling age) have depth perception. Even newborn animals show depth perception.

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Binocular Cues

Retinal disparity: Images from the two eyes differ.

Monocular Cues

Relative motion: Objects closer to a fixation point move faster and in opposing direction to those objects that are farther away from a fixation

point, moving slower and in the same direction.

Biological Rhythms and SleepCircadian Rhythms occur on a 24-hour cycle and

include sleep and wakefulness. Termed our “biological clock,” it can be altered by artificial light.

Light triggers the suprachiasmatic nucleus to decrease(morning) melatonin from the pineal gland

and increase (evening) it at nightfall.

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During early, light sleep (stages 1-2) the brain enters a high-amplitude, slow, regular wave form called theta waves (5-8 cps). A person who is daydreaming shows theta activity.

Sleep Stages 1-2

Theta Waves

Stage 5: REM Sleep

After reaching the deepest sleep stage (4), the sleep cycle starts moving backward towards stage

1. Although still asleep, the brain engages in low-

amplitude, fast and regular beta waves (15-40 cps) much like awake-aroused state.

Hypnosis Hypnosis

a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

Posthypnotic Amnesia supposed inability to recall what one

experienced during hypnosis induced by the hypnotist’s suggestion

Hypnosis: Pain Relief

Dissociation (divided consciousness) a split in consciousness allows some thoughts and behaviors to

occur simultaneously with others

Hidden Observer Hilgard’s term describing a hypnotized

subject’s awareness of experiences, such as pain, that go unreported during hypnosis

Withdrawal & Dependence

1. Withdrawal: Upon stopping use of a drug users may experience undesirable side effects.

2. Dependence: Absence of a drug may lead to a feeling of physical pain, intense cravings (physical dependence), and negative emotions (psychological dependence).

Depressants1. Alcohol affects motor skills, judgment, and

memory…and increases aggressiveness while reducing self awareness.

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Depressants

2. Barbiturates: Drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment. Nembutal, Seconal, and Amytal are some examples.

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Hallucinogens

Hallucinogens are psychedelic (mind-manifesting) drugs

that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the

absence of sensory input.

Housewife on Acid on CNN 5:01

Another person on Acid 8:46

Leary and kids who dropped acid…creepy 1:14

It was the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who elucidated classical

conditioning.

His work provided a basis for later behaviorists like John Watson.

Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

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Classical Conditioning is Classical Conditioning is learning that takes place when learning that takes place when an originally neutral stimulus an originally neutral stimulus

comes to produce a conditioned comes to produce a conditioned response because of its response because of its

association with an association with an unconditioned stimulus.unconditioned stimulus.

Pavlov’s Experiments

Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned Stimulus, US) produces salivation

(Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the tone (neutral stimulus) does not.

Pavlov’s Experiments

During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in

salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits

salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)

Acquisition

The CS needs to come half a second before the US for acquisition to occur.

Extinction

When the US (food) does not follow the CS (tone), CR (salivation) begins to

decrease and eventually causes extinction.

A disappeared CS is called extinguished, not extinct.

Stimulus Generalization

Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS is called generalization.

Stimulus Discrimination

Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned

stimulus.

Biological Predispositions• John Garcia

Conditioned taste aversions

• Not all neutral stimuli can become conditioned stimuli.

• Internal stimuli—associate better with taste

• External stimuli—associate better with pain

• Biological preparedness

Behaviorism

John B. Watson

viewed psychology as objective science generally agreed-upon

consensus today

recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes not universally accepted by all

schools of thought today

Mary Cover Jones used an early form of desensitization to prove that fears (phobias) could be unlearned.

Peter, a young boy, had an extreme fear of rabbits. Jones gave Peter his favorite food while slowly bringing the rabbit closer and closer. Eventually Peter no longer panicked around rabbits.

Mary Cover Jones

Shaping

Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards

the desired target behavior through successive approximations.

A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminateobjects of different shapes, colors and sizes.

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Types of Reinforcers

Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens the

behavior it follows.

A heat lamp positively

reinforces a meerkat’s behavior

in the cold.

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Punishment

An aversive event that decreases the behavior it follows.

Updating Skinner’s Understanding

• Skinner’s emphasis on external control of behavior made him an influential, but controversial figure.

• Many psychologists criticized Skinner for underestimating the importance of cognitive and biological constraints.

Learning by Observation

Higher animals, especially humans,

learn through observing and

imitating others.

The monkey on the right imitates the

monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to

obtain a reward.

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Modeling Violence

Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression.

Children modeling after pro wrestlers

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Studying Memory: Information Processing

Models

Keyboard(Encoding)

Disk(Storage)

Monitor(Retrieval)

Sequential Process How Memory Works Nova

Encoding: Serial Position Effect

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Position of word in list1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Chunking

F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M

You already know the capacity of the working memory may be increased by

“chunking.”

FBI TWA CIA IBMBut you didn’t know that you can handle 4

chunks

Stress Hormones & MemoryFlashbulb memories are clear memories of emotionally significant moments or events.

Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories.

Scott Barbour/ G

etty Images

No New Memories

Amnesias

AnterogradeAmnesia

(HM)

Retrograde amnesia

Surgery

After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient Henry M. (HM) remembered

everything before the operation but could not make new memories. We call this

anterograde amnesia.

Memory Intact

How memory works at Nova 10:15

Memory intact

Surgery

No old memories

Implicit & Explicit Memory

HM is unable to make new memories that aredeclarative (explicit), but he can form newmemories that are procedural (implicit).

CBA

Towers of Hanoi Link

Forgetting as Interference

Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information Proactive (forward acting) Interference

disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information

Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference disruptive effect of new learning on recall of

old information

Thinking

Concept mental grouping of similar objects, events,

ideas, or people

Prototype mental image or best example of a category

matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin)

Algorithms

Algorithms, which are very time consuming, exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a

solution. Computers use algorithms.

S P L O Y O C H Y G

If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word using an algorithmic approach, we would face

907,200 possibilities.

Heuristics

Heuristics are simple, thinking

strategies that allow us to make

judgments and solve problems efficiently. Heuristics are less

time consuming, but more error-prone than algorithms.

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Thought Puzzle #1

What got in the way of solving this problem?

Mental Set - Old pattern of problem solving is applied to a new problem.

Functional Fixedness – A tendency to think about familiar objects in familiar ways which may prevent more creative use of those objects to solve the problem.

Fixation

Fixation: An inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. This impedes

problem solving. An example of fixation is functional fixedness.

The Matchstick Problem: How would

you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles?

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Thinking

Belief Bias the tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to

distort logical reasoning sometimes by making invalid conclusions

seem valid or valid conclusions seem invalid

Belief Perseverance clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the

basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Magic and the Brain at PBS

Language Structure

Morpheme: The smallest unit that carries a meaning. It may be a word or part of a word. For example:

Milk = milk

Pumpkin = pump . kin

Unforgettable = un · for · get · table

Language

Semantics the set of rules by which we derive meaning

from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language

also, the study of meaning

Syntax the rules for combining words into

grammatically sensible sentences in a given language

Explaining Language Development cont.

2. Inborn Universal Grammar: Chomsky (1959, 1987) opposed Skinner’s ideas and suggested that the rate of language acquisition is so fast that it cannot be explained through learning principles, and thus most of it is inborn.

Language Influences Thinking

Linguistic Determinism (Whorf hypothesis): language determines the way we think.

For example, he noted that the Hopi people do not have the past tense for verbs. Therefore, the Hopi cannot think readily about the past.Link

InsightChimpanzees show insightful behavior

when solving problems.

Sultan uses sticks to get food.

Chimp Problem solving: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ySMh1mBi3cI&NR=1&safety_mode=true&persist_safety_mode=1

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xOrgOW9LnT4&feature=

related&safety_mode=true&persist_safety_mode=1

General Intelligence

Spearman proposed that general intelligence (g) is linked to many clusters that can be analyzed by factor analysis.

For example, people who do well on vocabulary examinations do well on

paragraph comprehension examinations, a cluster that helps define verbal intelligence. Other factors include a spatial ability factor,

and a reasoning ability factor.

Alfred Binet

Alfred Binet practiced a modern form of

intelligence testing by developing questions

that would predict children’s future

progress in the Paris school system.

Lewis Terman

In the US, Lewis Terman adapted Binet’s

test for American school children and named the test the

Stanford-Binet Test.

The following is the formula of Intelligence

Quotient (IQ)

Normal Curve

Standardized tests establish a normal distribution of scores on a tested population in a bell-shaped pattern called the normal curve.

Validity

Reliability of a test does not ensure validity. Validity of a test refers to what the test is

supposed to measure or predict.

1. Content Validity: Refers to the extent a test measures a particular behavior or trait.

2. Predictive Validity: Refers to the function of a test in predicting a particular behavior or trait.

Genetic InfluencesStudies of twins, family members, and adopted

children together support the idea that there is a significant genetic contribution to intelligence.

Drive Reduction Theory Cont.

• Primary Drives– Unlearned

• Food• Water• Temperature regulation

FoodDrive

Reduction

Organism

Stomach FullEmpty Stomach(Food Deprived)

• Secondary Drives– Learned

• Money• Shelter• Job

Homeostasis

-tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state

-regulation of any aspect of body chemistry around a particular level

Hierarchy of Needs

Body Chemistry & the Brain

Levels of glucose in the blood are monitored by

receptors (neurons) in the stomach,

liver, and intestines. They send signals to the hypothalamus in

the brain.

Rat Hypothalamus

Glucose Molecule

Hypothalamus & Hormones

The hypothalamus monitors a number of hormones thatare related to hunger.

Hormone Tissue ResponseOrexin increase

Hypothalamus

Increases hunger

Ghrelin increase

StomachIncreases hunger

Insulin increase

PancreasIncreases hunger

Leptin increase

Fat cellsDecreases hunger

PPY increaseDigestive tract

Decreases hunger

Motivation-Hunger

Set Point the point at which an individual’s

“weight thermostat” is supposedly set when the body falls below this weight,

an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight

Basal Metabolic Rate body’s base rate of energy expenditure

Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology Overview

Applies psychological principles to the workplace.

1. Personnel Psychology: Studies the principles of selecting and evaluating workers.

2. Organizational Psychology: Studies how work environments and management styles influence worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity.

3. Human Factors Psychology: Explores how machines and environments can be designed to fit our natural perception.

Sources of Achievement Motivation

Why does one person become more motivated to achieve than another? Parents and teachers have an influence on the roots of motivation.

Emotional roots: learning to associate achievement with positive emotions.

Cognitive roots: learning to attribute achievements to one’s own competence, thus raising expectations of oneself.

Setting Specific, Challenging Goals

Specific challenging goals motivate people to reach higher achievement levels, especially

if there is feedback such as progress reports.

James-Lange Theory

James-Lange Theory proposes that physiological activity precedes the emotional experience.

Schachter and Singer’s Two-Factor Theory

Our physiology and cognitions create emotions.

Emotions have two factors–physical arousal and cognitive label.

Culture and Emotional Expression

When culturally diverse people were shown basic facial expressions, they did

fairly well at recognizing them (Matsumoto & Ekman, 1989).

Elkm

an & M

atsumoto, Japanese and

Caucasian F

acial Expression of E

motion

Venting anger through action or fantasy ----achieves an emotional release or “catharsis.”

Opposing Theory-- Expressing anger breeds more anger, and

through reinforcement it is habit-forming.

Catharsis Hypothesis

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

According to Selye, a stress response to any kind ofstimulation is similar. The stressed individual goes

through three phases.

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Stress and the Heart

Stress that leads to elevated blood pressure may result in coronary heart disease, a clogging of

the vessels that nourish the heart muscle.

Plaque incoronary

artery

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Stress and Colds

People with the highest life stress scores were also the most vulnerable when

exposed to an experimental cold virus.

Dream AnalysisAnother method to analyze the

unconscious mind is through interpreting manifest and latent contents of dreams.

Humanistic PerspectiveFocuses on mental capabilities that set

humans apart; self awareness, creativity, planning, decision making, responsibility.

Abraham Maslow(1908-1970)

Carl Rogers(1902-1987)

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Self-Actualizing PersonMaslow proposed

that we as individuals are motivated by a

hierarchy of needs. Beginning

with physiological

needs, we try to reach the state of self-actualization

—fulfilling our potential.

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Person-Centered Perspective

Carl Rogers also believed in an individual's self-actualization tendencies. He said that

Unconditional Positive Regard is an attitude of acceptance of others despite their failings.

Michael R

ougier/ Life Magazine ©

Tim

e Warner, Inc.

Evaluating the Trait Perspective

The Person-Situation Controversy

Walter Mischel (1968, 1984, 2004) points out that traits may be enduring, but the

resulting behavior in various situations is different.

Therefore, traits are not good predictors of behavior.

Personal Control

External locus of control refers to the perception that chance or outside forces

beyond our personal control determine our fate.

Internal locus of control refers to the perception that we can control our own fate.

Self efficacy: learned expectations about probability of success

Learned HelplessnessWhen unable/unwilling to avoid repeated

adverse events an animal or human learns helplessness.

Low self efficacy

Deviant, Distressful & Dysfunctional

1.Deviant behavior in one culture may be considered normal, while in others it may lead to arrest.

2.Deviant behavior must accompany distress.

3. If a behavior is dysfunctional it is clearly a disorder.

Carol B

eckwith

Woodabe clip at youtube

Goals of DSM

1. Describe (400) disorders.2. Determine how prevalent the

disorder is.

Disorders outlined by DSM-IV are reliable. Therefore, diagnoses by different professionals are similar.

Others criticize DSM-IV for “putting any kind of behavior within the compass of psychiatry.”

Anxiety Disorders

Feelings of excessive apprehension and anxiety.

1. Generalized anxiety disorder2. Panic disorder3. Phobias4. Obsessive-compulsive disorder5. Post-traumatic stress disorder

Panic Disorder

Minutes-long episodes of intense dread which may include feelings of terror, chest

pains, choking, or other frightening sensations.

Anxiety is a component of both disorders. It occurs more in the panic disorder, making

people avoid situations that cause it.

Symptoms

Kinds of Phobias

Phobia of blood.Hemophobia

Phobia of closed spaces Link .

Claustrophobia

Phobia of heights link.

Acrophobia

Phobia of open places.Agoraphobia

Arachnophobia at National Geographic Link

Obsessive-Compulsive DisorderPersistence of repetitive thoughts (obsessions)

and urges to engage in repetitive behaviors (compulsions) that cause distress.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

Four or more weeks of the following symptoms constitute post-traumatic

stress disorder (PTSD):

1. Haunting memories

2. Nightmares3. Social withdrawal

4. Jumpy anxiety

5. Sleep problems

Bettmann/ Corbis

Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)

A disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities,

formerly called multiple personality disorder.

Chris Sizemore (DID)Lois Bernstein/ Gamma Liason

Personality DisordersPersonality disorders are characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns

that impair social functioning.

Antisocial Personality DisorderA disorder in which the person (usually men) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends

and family members.

Formerly, this person was called a sociopath or psychopath.

Major Depressive Disorder

Major depressive disorder occurs when signs of depression last two weeks or more and are

not caused by drugs or medical conditions.

1. Lethargy and fatigue2. Feelings of worthlessness3. Loss of interest in family &

friends4. Loss of interest in activities

Signs include:

Bipolar Disorder

Many great writers, poets, and composers suffered from bipolar disorder. During their

manic phase creativity surged, but not during their depressed phase.

Whitman Wolfe Clemens Hemingway

Bettm

ann/ Corbis

George C

. Beresford/ H

ulton Getty Pictures L

ibrary

The G

ranger Collection

Earl T

heissen/ Hulton G

etty Pictures L

ibrary

Social-Cognitive Perspective

The social-cognitive perspective suggests that depression arises partly from self-defeating

beliefs and negative explanatory styles.

Schizophrenia

The literal translation is “split mind” which refers to a split from reality. A group of severe

disorders characterized by the following:

1. Disorganized and delusional thinking.

2. Disturbed perceptions. 3. Inappropriate emotions

and actions.

Disturbed Perceptions

A schizophrenic person may perceive things that are not there (hallucinations). Most such hallucinations are auditory and lesser visual,

somatosensory, olfactory, or gustatory.

L. B

erthold, Untitled. T

he Prinzhorn Collection, U

niversity of Heidelberg

August N

atter, Witches H

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ollection, University of H

eidelberg

Photos of paintings by K

rannert Museum

, University of Illinois at U

rbana-Cham

paign

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Understanding Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a disease of the brain exhibited by the symptoms of the mind.

Dopamine Overactivity: Researchers found that schizophrenic patients express higher levels of dopamine

D4 receptors in the brain.

Drugs that block these sites help schizophrenic patients.

Brain Abnormalities

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Abnormal Brain MorphologySchizophrenia patients may exhibit

morphological changes in the brain like enlargement of fluid-filled ventricles.

Both Photos: C

ourtesy of Daniel R

. Weinberger, M

.D., N

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/ NSC

The Psychological Therapies

Module 40

Psychoanalysis: Methods

During free association, the patient edits his thoughts, resisting his or her feelings to express emotions. Such resistance becomes important

in the analysis of conflict-driven anxiety.

Eventually the patient opens up and reveals his or her innermost private

thoughts. Developing positive or negative feelings may be transference towards the

therapist.

Behavior Therapy

Therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors.

To treat phobias or sexual disorders, behavior therapists do not delve deeply

below the surface looking for inner causes.

Classical Conditioning Techniques

Counterconditioning is a procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that

trigger unwanted behaviors.

It is based on classical conditioning and includes exposure therapy and aversive

conditioning.

Exposure Therapy

Expose patients to things they fear and

avoid.

Through repeated exposures, anxiety

lessens because they habituate to the things feared.

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Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning procedures enable therapists to use behavior modification,

in which desired behaviors are rewarded and undesired behaviors are either

unrewarded or punished.

Drug Therapies

Psychopharmacology is the study of drug effects on mind and behavior.

With the advent of drugs, hospitalization in mental institutions has rapidly declined.

Brain Stimulation

Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)

ECT is used for severely depressed patients who

do not respond to drugs.

Focuses in Social Psychology

Social psychology scientifically studies how we think about, influence, and relate

to one another.

“We cannot live for ourselves alone.”

Herman Melville

Attributing Behavior to Persons or to Situations

Attribution Theory: Fritz Heider (1958) suggested that we have a tendency to

give causal explanations for

someone’s behavior, often by crediting

either the situation or the person’s disposition.

http://ww

w.stedw

ards.edu

Fritz Heider

Fundamental Attribution Error

Fundamental Attribution Error. The tendency to overestimate the impact of personal disposition and underestimate the impact of the situations in analyzing

the behaviors of others.

We see Joe as quiet, shy, and introverted most of the time, but with friends he is very talkative, loud, and extroverted.

Actions Can Affect Attitudes

Why do actions affect attitudes? One explanation is that when our attitudes and

actions are opposed, we experience tension. This is called cognitive dissonance.

To relieve ourselves of this tension we bring our attitudes closer to our actions (Festinger, 1957).

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Social Influence

Module 44

Group Pressure & Conformity

Suggestibility is a subtle type of conformity, adjusting our behavior or thinking toward some group standard.

Group Pressure & Conformity

Informational Social Influence: An influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality.

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Milgram’s Study: Results

Milgram on Youtube

Lessons from the Conformity and Obedience Studies

In both Asch's and Milgram's studies, participants were pressured to choose between following their standards and

being responsive to others.

Individual Behavior in the Presence of Others

Social facilitation: Refers to improved

performance on tasks in the presence of

others.

Triplett (1898) noticed cyclists’ race

times were faster when they competed against others than

when they just raced against the clock.

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elle

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Social LoafingThe tendency of an individual in a group

to exert less effort toward attaining a common goal than when tested

individually (Latané, 1981).

Deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations that foster

arousal and anonymity.

Mob behavior

Psychology of Attraction

4. Similarity: Similar views among individuals causes the bond of attraction to strengthen.

Similarity breeds content! The more people are alike the more their liking

endures. (Byrne 1971)