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GCSE Psychology Topic E Are criminals born or made?

Key terminology – biological explanations for criminality

twin studies research into the similarity of twins, particularly their criminal similarity, to investigate genetic links.

XYY a rare genetic pattern said to be linked to aggression and slow learning ability.

chromosome abnormality

a mutation of genetic material that results as a change in the number or structure of chromosomes.

Revision notes - biological explanations for criminality There are many ways to see if criminality has a biological basis. We can compare the family trees of criminals and non-criminals – if many

criminals’ relatives are also criminals, there might be a biological link. Fewer criminal relatives, the weaker the link.

Twin studies – monozygotic twins share exactly the same genes. Christiansen (1977) found that from 3586 pairs of twins if an identical twin was a criminal, 525 of the time the other twin was also a criminal. In dizygotic twins the rate was only 22%.

We can also look at adoption studies – these people share genes but not environment so in these cases we can be sure that genetics are the cause of criminality.

There is evidence to suggest that individuals are more likely to be criminals if their parents are criminal.

It could be that it is nothing to do with genetics at all. Family members are raised together and treated similarly so therefore their criminal behaviour could be explained by SLT or observational learning.

XYY (male) chromosome abnormality – causes increased aggression, being taller and learning difficulties.

However, just a handful of murders have been found to have XYY. We cannot find enough samples of people with the disorder to be certain of the link to violent crime.

Task 1: For each of the following, circle whether the statement is TRUE or FALSE.1) There is only one way to see if criminality has a biological basis. TRUE FALSE2) Monozygotic twins share exactly the same genes. TRUE FALSE3) In adoption studies we are looking at people who share genes

and the same environment. TRUE FALSE4) There is evidence to suggest that individuals are more likely to be

criminals if their parents are criminal. TRUE FALSE5) The XYY (male) chromosome abnormality causes increased aggression,

makes men taller, have learning difficulties and shows a link to violent crime. TRUE FALSE

Revision notes - social explanations for criminality1

Family patterns are the experiences children have during their family life. If parents are divorced, individuals are more likely to have criminal tendencies due to factors such

as money difficulties, moving house, arguments in the home etc. If children are separated from their main caregiver before the age of 2 years old, this can cause

problems in later life – maternal deprivation. (Bowlby) Family size is also an important factor. More than 6 children in a family can result in children being

more likely to be criminals. An Australian study by Western (2003) found only a slight link between parental occupation and

youth crime. It seems a father’s occupation was not an indicator but the mother’s occupation did have an effect.

It is difficult to pin down exactly which social factors influence criminal behaviour because family circumstances are so complex. It seems likely that a combination of factors contributes to criminality. Deprivation from caregivers and bad childhood experiences seem to be factors.

Task 2: Unscramble the following anagramsyamfil spaernttMaternal deprivationyamfil zeistoncapuciocordediv

Revision notes - childrearing as an explanation for criminality The way in which parents bring up their children are known as childrearing strategies. Dealing

with naughty children may involve induction, love withdrawal and power assertion.

Induction is where parents explain to their child what they have done wrong and allow them to think about the consequences. Children can then make the right decision the next time.

Love withdrawal is when parents put conditions on their love, they don’t love their children when they have done something bad. Results in children being confused about their identity, unsure as to whether they are loved or not.

Power assertion includes hitting, shouting at children, humiliating them, grabbing them etc. Can lead to aggression in children.

Although this theory seems to suggest parents are solely responsible for producing delinquent children, there are many factors that contribute to delinquency.

Task 3: Draw a picture to help you remember each of the childrearing strategies.

Induction Love withdrawal Power assertionKey terminology - Self-fulfilling prophecy as an explanation for criminality

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conform to adjust to expectations made of us.self-fulfilling prophecy

when the expectations of others influence our behavior.

Revision notes - Self-fulfilling prophecy as an explanation for criminality If we are seen as or expected to be criminal, we will behave in that

way – this is an example of self-fulfilling prophecy. This is where a behaviour that is expected of someone will come

true. People conform to the behaviour that is expected of them. e.g. If a teacher expects a pupil to do badly in a test, they will not

offer them help and focus on others, resulting in the pupil doing badly in the test (the prediction has come true).

Rosenthal and Jacobsen (1968) conducted an experiment to test whether achievement could be self-fulfilling. They gave children an IQ test and then told their teachers which children were going to be ‘bloomers’ and which ones were going to be ‘average’. (this was a lie – it was just a random list of names!)

They found that the teachers didn’t expect much of the ‘average’ children and gave all the attention to the ‘bloomers’.

The IQ of the ‘bloomers’ rose and the ‘average’ children’s IQ fell. Johoda (1954) studied the Ashanti tribe who had a custom of naming their children after the day

of the week they were born on. e.g. Monday boys were called Kwadwo meaning calm and peaceful whereas those born on Wednesday were called Kwadku meaning aggressive and angry.

When he looked at the records of boys arrested he found that 22% of boys were born on a Wednesday with only 6.9% born on a Monday, thus the prophecy became self-fulfilling.

Those around them (family, friends, teachers etc.) expected the Wednesday boys to be aggressive and behave badly and treated them differently because of this.

Jahoda only found a link between the child’s name and criminality by using a correlation. It would be very unethical to study self-fulfilling prophecy as a cause of crime by treating someone differently and seeing if it affected their behaviour. It can’t be proved that self-fulfilling prophecy causes criminality.

Another weakness of the theory is that many of us reject the way we are treated by others so the prophecy is not fulfilled.

It doesn’t take into account the fact that there are many other reasons for crime, ranging from our biology to the families we are raised in.

Task 4: Complete the APRC table for Jahoda’s experiment.Aim: Results:

Procedure: Conclusion:

Revision notes – comparing theories of criminal behavior

Comparing the biological and social theories of criminality

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Biological causes of crime Social causes of crimeFocus on how we are born criminal Focus on how we are made criminalWe inherit the genes that cause criminal behavior Being brought up in a family that makes

criminal behavior more likely Adoption studies show how crime can be inherited Separation from parents can cause distress and

mistrust that can affect later developmentXYY chromosome abnormality may cause aggression in males, leading to violent crime

The self-fulfilling prophecy explains how behavior can be influence by the way we are treated and expected to behave

This theory is weakened by the confusion between genetics and upbringing in twin and family studies

This theory cannot separate the influence of many social factors that influence criminality, such as peers and other experiences

Chromosome research is limited, as only small samples have been gathered and studied

People often rebel against how they are treated by others; they do not fulfill the prophecies that are made.

In conclusion both sides have evidence but the debate is far from over. It is probably safest to talk about having a biological tendency or social vulnerability to criminal

behavior.

Task 5: Answer the following exam question (6 marks):Larry is arrested for shoplifting. Use both biological and social factors to explain Larry’s behavior.……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Key terminology - Theilgaard (1984): The criminal gene

generalised whether the results can be applied to other people.correlation A measure of an association or relationship between two factors or variables. e.g.

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Key study

family size and crime can be correlated to see if there is a link between the two.

Revision notes - Theilgaard (1984): The criminal gene Theilgaard conducted a study on XYY chromosome abnormality No conclusive evidence was found to suggest that XYY gene causes criminality

Aim: Alice Theilgaard wanted to see if criminals had a particular gene that

could be responsible for their criminal behaviour. Procedure:

They took blood samples from over 30,000 men born in the 1940s. Two chromosomal abnormalities were found – an XXY and an XYY.

Out of the 30,000 tested, 16 had the XXY and 12 had the XYY. They were interviewed by a social worker about their backgrounds and criminal history and given

IQ tests. A personality test was used to see if they displayed aggression more than normal XY males.

Theilgaard used a social worker who didn’t know the aim of the study to conduct the interviews therefore avoiding interviewing and researcher bias.

Results: It was found that XYY males had slightly lower intelligence than average and were more

aggressive. However, there were far more similarities between XXY males and the XYY males than there were

differences. No solid evidence of a criminal gene was found.

Conclusion: This study provides limited evidence for XYY males being more aggressive than XXY males.

Strengths WeaknessesAll tests and interviews were conducted by an independent social worker who didn’t know the aim of the study – no researcher or interview bias.

There was only a small sample of men used for the investigation. 1/1000 males are born XYY.Only 12 XYY males were tested – we cannot be sure that all XYY males are more aggressive or have lower intelligence – the findings can’t be generalised.

Used a vast range of tests to measure different aspects of the men’s lives, background and personality.

The link between XYY males and aggression is only a correlation – the XYY chromosomal abnormality may not have caused the increased aggression at all!The most obvious reason for aggression in the males is lower intelligence and delayed speech – this could have made school difficult leading to frustration and therefore aggression.

What would have happened if the XYY chromosome pattern had been identified as the criminal gene? Would all males be screened to identify their XYY abnormality?

How would the results like this be used? Would males with XYY be monitored and because of expectation would they turn to crime? If so, could this have led them to crime as a result of being labelled?

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Task 6: Fill in the gaps in the following paragraph:The aim of Theilgaard’s study was to…

They took ……………………. samples from over …………………….. men born in the 1940s. Two chromosomal abnormalities were found – an …………… and an …………….Out of the ……………. tested, 16 had the …………. and 12 had the ………….They were interviewed by a ………………… worker about their backgrounds and …………………….. history and given ……………………… tests. A …………………….. test was used to see if they displayed ………………….. more than normal ………………… males.Theilgaard used a …………………… worker who didn’t know the …………….. of the study to conduct the ………………………… therefore avoiding ………………………… and …………………….. bias.It was found that ………… males had ………………….. lower …………………… than average and were more …………………….However, there were far more …………………………… between ………….. males and the ………………. males than there were ………………………………………….No …………………… evidence of a ………………………. gene was found. This study provides …………………………. evidence for ……… males being more aggressive than ………… males.

Key terminology – Sigall and Ostrove (1975): Attractiveness and jury decision-makingcontrols ways to keep variables constant in all conditions of an experiment.control group a group that does not receive an experimental condition. This group provides a

baseline on which to compare those participants who do experience a condition of the experiment.

extraneous variables any variables that might affect the results of the study that might not be controlled.demand characteristics

when we change our behavior to meet the demands of the situation.

Revision notes - Sigall and Ostrove (1975): Attractiveness and jury decision-making They looked at effect of attractiveness on jury decision-making. They found that unattractive people are more likely to be sent to prison for burglary than

attractive people. Attractive people are more likely to be sent to prison for fraud than unattractive people (higher

class crime) Aim:

To see whether attractiveness affected jury decision-making and To investigate whether there was a relationship between attractiveness and the type of crime

committed.Procedure:

They used the crimes of burglary and fraud in their study. 120 Pps were given a piece of card with a crime written on it and a

photograph of a woman known as Barbara Helms. They were split into 6 groups of 20 Pps who each saw an attractive or

unattractive photo of Barbara and read about a fraud or burglary she had committed. (attractive – burglary, unattractive – burglary, no photo – burglary, attractive – fraud, unattractive – fraud and no photo fraud)

The Pps rated how attractive Barbara was to ensure Pps agreed.

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Key study

Pps were asked to sentence Barbara – they gave a range of 1 to 15 years.Results:

Attractive photo

Unattractive photo

No photo

Burglary 2.80 5.20 5.10Fraud 5.45 4.35 4.35

Pps gave Barbara a similar sentence for both crimes with both unattractive photo and no photo. However, the attractive photo made Pps give longer sentences for fraud but less time for burglary.

Attractive people are associated with crimes like fraud because they use their looks to rip people off. Moreover, unattractive people are associated with burglary.

Conclusion: Good-looking people seem to get away with some crimes, but if they have used their looks to

commit a crime they are less likely to get away with it.

Strengths WeaknessesThe study used good controls – Pps were all read the same instructions, similar cases to read and a sentence to decide. There were few extraneous variables that could have affected their decisions therefore the findings are reliable.

This experiment is not realistic as it is not what a jury would normally experience. A jury member would see the defendant in real life, listen to the evidence and testimony and decide as a group. Using a photo and only brief details of a case is not realistic.

The control group was useful to show whether the photographs did affect Pps decisions or not.

The Pps were less likely to guess the aim of the study because they did not know what the other groups were doing – demand characteristics were reduced.

Juries only normally decide whether a defendant is guilty or not, it is the judge that decides the length of the prison sentence. This is another way in which the study is unrealistic.

The study could be used in real life to inform jurors not to base their decisions on what a defendant looks like. They should only use the evidence presented to them.The Pps were asked to rate the attractiveness of the photo. Not everyone’s idea of attractiveness is the same!

Task 7: For each of the following, choose the odd one out and explain why.

Revision notes – Madon (2004): self-fulfilling prophecy and drinking behavior Madon found that if parents expected children to drink large amounts, a year later

they would have conformed to the expectations even if they didn’t drink as much before.Aim:

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good controls judge makes decision control group

fraud murder burglary

5.24.357.9

Key study

To see if a parent’s expectation of their child’s drinking habits would become a reality.Procedure:

115 children between 12-13 years were questioned. Parents were also questioned. Parents were asked to guess how much alcohol their child regularly drank or would drink in the

coming year. A year later, the children were asked to say how much alcohol they actually

consumed.Results:

Madon found that children who drank the most alcohol were the ones whose parents had predicted a greater use of alcohol.

It took only one parent to have a negative opinion about their child’s drinking habits to show a relationship with high levels of drinking but the child seemed at greater risk of higher alcohol use if both parents held negative beliefs.

Conclusion: Parent’s predictions of their child’s alcohol use was very accurate. The parent’s expectations

were consistent with alcohol use after 12 months. The drinking behaviour became a self-fulfilling prophecy because of what parent expected to

come true. Parent’s beliefs can have a massive influence on a child’s behaviour.

Strengths WeaknessesLarge sample of Pps so the results can be said to be valid and reliable.

Parents may not have influenced their child’s behaviour at all – they were just accurate in judging their child’s alcohol use. It may be an accurate prediction rather than self-fulfilling prophecy.Many others influence children – friends, media, role models etc.

Gives a strong warning to parents about holding negative beliefs about their children as it could become a self-fulfilling prophecy.

This study only shows a correlation – correlations have less control the experiments and the researchers cannot be sure of a true link between the variables they are measuring. In this study, the researcher could not be 100% certain of a definite link between parents’ predictions and a child’s alcohol use. Other factors could have influenced the child rather than parental beliefs.The questionnaire may have had social desirability bias – children may say they drink more to look tough or say they drink less in case their parents find out. Parents may predict their children drink more because they think it is a badge of honour, or predict they drink less because it is not acceptable.

Task 8: Spot the fibs! Read the following paragraph and correct the errors.a) Madon found that if parents expected children to drink small amounts, a year later they would

have conformed to the expectations even if they didn’t drink as much before.b) 120 children between 14-16 years were questioned. c) Madon found that children who drank the least alcohol were the ones whose parents had

predicted a greater use of alcohol.Revision notes – Is criminal research practical and ethical?

Practical issues – difficulties accessing and researching criminalsEthical issues – problems referring to the moral issues, or the rights/wrongs of this research

Practical problems Ethical problemsProblems In a study with 1000s of Pps, only a handful It is not ethical to say that having a specific

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with biological research

will have XYY supposedly linked to criminality – lowers validity of studies due to small sample size.

chromosome pattern causes criminality if the link is not 100% true. It could become a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Chromosome abnormalities are very difficult to detect (no obviously outward signs) – gathering Pps is therefore difficult.

To tell a criminal their behavior was due to a chromosomal abnormality might lead them to believe that they are not responsible for their actions – they can blame their jeans.

There are family links to crime and criminality but there are many different types of crime – a criminal gene concept is unlikely to be found.

Studies that have been conducted always maintain Pps anonymity – they aren’t named nor can they be identified from the research.

Family, twin and adoption studies rely on conviction rates but not all criminals get caught so these data will not be included in the studies.

If psychologists found a genetic link to criminal behavior, this knowledge could be used to control individuals with chromosome abnormality before they even commit a crime. This could be dangerous and encroach on people’s human rights.

Problems with social research

We cannot carry out an experiment to make someone a criminal, so any research just examines a link between criminality and social or biological factors – they may be other causes for the criminal behavior e.g. child rearing.

If there is a link between the family and criminal behavior it could be used to blame parents for their children’s behavior. Results for these studies should be treated with care and not used to hold parents responsible for their children’s actions if this is not a certainty.

Research often involves examining why people have turned to crime. Criminals and their family are questioned about past events that might have caused them to turn to crime. There are several practical problems associated with this:

Memory is not very reliable after many years, and the answers given might not provide an accurate account of what really happened.

Asking the criminals themselves might be unreliable because they blame aspects of their upbringing as a reason for crime, rather than the true reason/s.

It could be a way for criminals to avoid taking responsibility.

Investigating the self-fulfilling prophecy as an explanation may create or reinforce existing labels and therefore encourage criminal behavior.

Task 9: Answer the following questions:1) Why is validity an issue in biological research?

2) Why are there problems with family, twin and adoption studies?

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3) If you tell a criminal their behavior was due to their genes they might…

4) If there is a link between family and criminal behavior there is a danger of…

Revision notes – Gathering information from convicted offenders Convicted offenders are sometimes used in criminal research but there are problems with this type

of research. Practical problems Ethical problemsThey may use the research as a way of gaining early release from prison by telling psychologists that they are sorry for their crimes or by underplaying the crimes they have committed. This may lead to false results.

Criminals who are used in psychological research should not be treated any differently from non-criminals, just because they are criminals and are in prison.

They might try to glorify their crimes to make them feel more important than they are. This can lead to useless study findings.

Criminals, ex-criminals and prisoners have the same human rights as any other member of society.

They might feel guilty about their crimes and feel uncomfortable talking about what they have done.

Like all participants of psychological research, convicted offenders should have the right to give consent, be able to withdraw from the study, have their privacy respected and be debriefed. No humans should be put at risk for harm or distress.

They may believe the information they give could be used to convict another criminal – they don’t want to grass them up for fear of their own safety.

Criminals might feel guilt about their crimes and feel uncomfortable talking about them.

They might withhold certain information to protect themselves, their families or their criminal group.

Criminals may believe that the information they give could be used to convict another criminal. They may fear that the other criminal might look for revenge. This could lead to distress.

Task 10: Outline one ethical issue with using convicted offenders in psychological research. (2 marks)……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Key terminology – Offender profiling

criminal consistency the idea that a person will commit a crime in a way that mirrors his or her own personality and ability. An organised person will commit an organised crime.

profile a list of predicted abilities, personality characteristics, occupation, marital status, etc., that can be sued to narrow down a list of suspects for a crime.

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Revision notes – Offender profiling Offender profiling is the name of a process used to help police catch criminals. It does not

produce the name of the criminal but helps to narrow the number of suspects that police should investigate.

A criminal profile is a prediction of what a criminal is like using evidence and psychology. Traditional policing involves the analysis of physical evidence (fingerprints, bloodstains, show

prints, DNA etc.) but psychologists believe that the way in which a crime was committed gives additional clues about the criminal.

A criminal will leave clues at the crime scene such as: type of victim, type of crime, location, time of day or night, specific features of a crime, what is taken or left behind.

There are often similarities between crimes committed by the same person that can be picked out. The way in which an offender commits a crime is a reflection of their self – they will do things that they normally would do in their criminal behaviour - criminal consistency.

The profile can help the police predict the type of future victims and offenders. The profile can give clues about evidence that might be found on the criminal, such as souvenirs taken from the crime scene. It can also suggest very useful interview techniques for the police to use on the criminal. e.g. a clever criminal will not talk if interviewed in a severe way.

Creating a profile involves: 1. Analysis of the crime – the police make detailed records of the victim, place, photographs,

DNA evidence and time of day.2. Building a profile – a criminal profiler uses this information to construct a list of probable

features of a criminal. This can include age, race, sex, marital status, occupation, intellectual ability area lived in,

previous criminal activity. Does it work? A handful of profiles have been successful but others have led to

victimisation and entrapment. Colin Stagg was arrested for the murder of Rachel Nickell (1992) based on a

profile developed by Paul Brittan. There was no physical evidence against him but because the police thought he was the right man, he was followed by the media and police and made an outcast.

In 2008 Robert Napper pleaded guilty and Stagg was given an apology from the police. Many people argue that offender profiling is nothing more than experienced guesswork – some

say it is as accurate as horoscopes! Offender profiling is just one of the many links in the chain that police use to catch criminals. It is

unfair to blame the profile for failing to catch the criminal. Most police officers believe that profiles are useful, but that they do not always help solve the

crime. Traditional policing is still the most effective way of catching criminals.

Task 11: Answer the following exam questions:

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……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Revision notes – The case of John Duffy – ‘The Railway Killer’ David Canter is a famous forensic psychologist who produced profiles of offenders. The profile of John Duffy was very close to what they offender was actually like. Canter reasoned that Duffy tied his victims up because he was not a strong man.

Because he was small he was able to approach them without them seeing him as a threat.

David Canter’s profile of John DuffyDavid Canter’s profile Facts about John Duffy

Lived in London Was married with no children Had problems with his marriage Was a small man Physically unattractive Had an interest in martial arts Was a semi-skilled carpenter Link to British Rail Ages 20-30 years

Lived in Kilburn, London Married with no children 9infertile) Separated 5 feet 4 inches tall Unattractive Member of martial arts club Trained carpenter with British Rail Ex-British Rail employee 28 when arrested

Duffy was arrested on 7th November 1986 and convicted of 3 murders and 7 counts of rape and sentenced to 3 life sentences. He also revealed he had an accomplice, David Mulcahy (his school friend) committed some of the crimes with him.

Task 12: John Duffy the Railway murderer was arrested, convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment for his crimes. David canter helped the police profile john Duffy. Define the term offender profiling.

Key terminology – The job of a forensic psychologist

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psychopath person suffering from a chronic mental disorder with abnormal or violent social behavior.

Revision notes - The job of a forensic psychologistThe job:

Works in the courts to uncover psychological issues looks at psychological aspects of criminal activity Sets up treatment programmes and evaluates them Making offender profiles Working with prisoners to assess the threat to staff etc., working with victims

and witnesses Research and reviewing data Give evidence in court and advise parole boards Working with other agencies, assessing problems, coming up with interventions and developing

policy.Examples:

Advising prison governors about prisons, staff, implementing change or other organisational issues Carrying out one-to-one assessments and treatments of prisoners as appropriate Assessing the risk of reoffending using one-to-one or psychometric tests Carrying out research projects, anger management projects etc. Doing crime analysis, such as using offender profiling.

The problem of psychopathic disorders People with psychopathic disorders do not function normally with regard to social norms and

rules. How can their disorder be treated? They are usually detained in secure hospitals to protect the

public but are not always on a treatment programme. Should they be in a min prison? Many psychopaths are unable to show progress after their treatment There are also problems with the diagnosis of psychopathic disorder as this may lead to a label

being applied to the individual making the disorder hard to treat.

Revision notes - Becoming a forensic psychologistQualifications:

Degree in psychology Work experience Masters in Forensic Psychology (step 1 of the Diploma in Forensic Psychology) 2 years supervised practise (step 2)

Skills: Communication – listen carefully and speak comfortably Good writing skills Problem-solving skills Understand body language Be able to work within the BPS ethical guidelines

Who do they work for? HM Prison Service

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NHS Social Services Self-employed

Chartered status: Satisfied all the requirements of the British Psychological Society, and have sufficient qualifications

to be called a ‘psychologist’.

Task 13: draw a flow chart to show how someone becomes a forensic psychologist.

Key terminology – How a forensic psychologist might help treat offenders

mandatory has to be done.personal construct therapy

a therapy where someone finds their own way of looking at people (their personal constructs) and uses those constructs, not only to see how they judge the people they know but also to measure change after therapy.

Task 14:Revision notes – How a forensic psychologist might help treat offenders

Forensic psychologists develop rehabilitation programmes. They may use anger management, skills training or treatments for addiction.

Personal Construct Therapy A therapy where someone finds their own way of looking at people

(their personal constructs) and uses their constructs to see how they judge the people they know.

The psychologist helps the person to understand their own constructs and then repeats the task later to help them see how they have changed.

After some intervention by the psychologist, (e.g. social skills training) the individual judges their own constructs again to see what changes have been made during treatment.

Treating drug abuse Prescribing substitute drugs and monitoring the addict’s progress closely and providing support

and counselling. Making sure they have adequate housing and funding to prevent them turning back to drugs.

Treating sexual offenders It is mandatory that sex offenders attend a treatment programme. What causes sex offending? If we know what causes it, we can treat it but we can’t be sure what

causes it. Medication can be prescribed to reduce sex drive Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) involves helping someone to change how they think about

something and therefore behave differently.

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Negative thoughts are changed to positive ones. Intimacy problems – poor childhood relationships can lead to loneliness or a lack of skills in

intimacy. Offenders may have a distorted view of what is appropriate behaviour. Social skills problems – child molesters tend to lack confidence and have difficulty mixing socially. Problems with empathy – sex offenders seem to confuse fear, anger and disgust, finding it hard to

separate these emotions. Cognitive distortions – if the sex offender has distorted thinking, they can justify their behaviour

to themselves.

Task 15: Answer the following exam question: How might a Forensic psychologist help in convicting and treating criminals? (10 marks)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………Key terminology – How defendant characteristics affect jury decision-making

defendant a person who has been accused of a crime and is now in court

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verdict a decision made by a jury. The verdict can be guilty or innocent.testimony the evidence given by a witness, expert, or a person the defendant knows well.stereotype a general view of a person based on little or no factual information.

Revision notes - How defendant characteristics affect jury decision-making Serious criminal offences are dealt with in a court of law, with a judge and a jury (12 randomly

selected people from the local area) During the trial the jury listens to the evidence and testimony presented by the defence (those

who are supporting the defendant’s innocence) and the prosecution (those who are trying to prove that the defendant is guilty).

The jurors then talk to each other in private before making a decision. A guilty verdict results in the judge deciding upon a sentence. Sometimes however, innocent people are sent to prison or guilty people are released due to an imperfect system.

Can juries make mistakes? Their decision should only be based on what they have seen and hear in the courtroom – the evidence - but jurors might be affected by other factors.

How a defendant looks, acts or sounds affect how they are viewed by a jury. We base our decisions on the stereotypes we hold.

Race There is a higher proportion of ethnic minorities in prison (15%) than in the general UK population

(8%) If we have a stereotypical view of a black man as more likely to commit a crime, we are more likely

to find them guilty. Skolnick and Shaw (1997) found that the relationship between the race of jurors and the race of

defendants were both important in the decision-making process. Both black and white jurors were less likely to find a black defendant guilt (this goes against other studies), and that black jurors were more likely to find a white defendant guilty than a black defendant.

Attractiveness Taylor and Butcher (2007) conducted a mock jury study and found that more attractive people

were judged as less guilty of a crime and given lower sentences than unattractive people. Beautiful people get away with murder!

Accent If a defendant is well-spoken, we are less likely to find them guilty of burglary. A defendant with a strong regional or ‘rough’ accent (e.g. Geordie, Scouser etc.) may be more

likely to commit a crime. (Mahony and Dixon, 2002)

Task 16: Answer the following exam question: Explain how one characteristic of a defendant may influence jury decision-making. (3 marks)……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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