PsychExchange.co.uk Shared Resource

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Anomalistic– the Specification

Theoretical and methodological issues in the study of anomalous experience• Issues of pseudoscience and scientific fraud• Controversies relating to Ganzfeld studies of ESP and studies of psychokinesis

Factors underlying anomalous experience• Cognitive, personality and biological factors underlying anomalous experience• Functions of paranormal and related beliefs, including their cultural significance• The psychology of deception and self-deception, superstition, and coincidence

Belief in exceptional experience • Research into:• psychic healing• out-of-body and near death experience•psychic mediumship

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AQA A A2 PSYCHOLOGY

Lesson ONE

Introduction to Anomalistic Psychology

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Lesson objectives

• Explain what is meant by anomalistic psychology

• Understand the key features of science

What do you think?• It is possible to know what someone else is thinking or feeling

even if they are out of touch by ordinary means.

• Dreams can foretell the future.

• Prayers will sometimes be answered.

• It is possible to make someone turn around just by looking at them.

• Some people can remember past lives that they have lived in other bodies.

• It is possible to get messages from the dead.

• Some houses are haunted by ghosts.

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What does the public think?• It is possible to know what someone else is thinking or feeling

even if they are out of touch by ordinary means. 63%

• Dreams can foretell the future. 71%

• Prayers will sometimes be answered. 71%

• It is possible to make someone turn around just by looking at them. 66%

• Some people can remember past lives that they have lived in other bodies. 54%

• It is possible to get messages from the dead. 37%

• Some houses are haunted by ghosts. 69%

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Science – A definition • ‘Science can be seen as a quest for

understanding that creates laws and principals that can be tested experimentally’

• The defining feature of a science is its method: – The systematic process of objectively collecting

information to test theories/Hypotheses.– Replicability– Falsification – the Hypothetico-deductive method– Evidential support

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Science and Non-Science

• The key features of replicability, objectivity and falsifiability separate science from knowledge and other types of information

• Shaughnessy et al. identify a number of features that characterise scientific and non-scientific approaches:

1. Science is empirically based, whereas non-science is frequently intuitive

2. The process of collecting scientific information is systematic and controlled, whereas non-scientific information is often gathered in a random, uncontrolled fashion.

3. Ideas or hypotheses CAN be tested in science but they cannot be tested in non-science

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Does it exist?

• Most Parapsychologists argue that available evidence already proves beyond doubt that the Paranormal exists.

• Critics (and Skeptics) including most Anomalistic Psychologists are unconvinced of this argument.

• Parapsychology has been criticised for having made little progress in terms of theory - mainly due to lack of reliable, empirical data

• Many have therefore claimed that ParaPsych is a PSEUDOSCIENCE…

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Karl PopperFalsification and Deduction

• Falsification: Try to prove your hypothesis WRONG not RIGHT.– The longer you go without disproving your hypothesis,

the more likely it is to be true.– This forces you to also look for disproving evidence, not

just ‘proving’ evidence, thus making research more objective

• Deductive method:– Generate a hypothesis (usually based on existing

evidence)– Conduct research– Revisit original Hypothesis to see if it was correct –

MODIFY it is it was not correct!!

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Characteristics of a

Pseudoscience:

1. A tendency to invoke ad hoc hypotheses

2. An absence of self-correction, resulting in intellectual stagnation

3. An emphasis on confirmation rather than refutation

4. A tendency to place the burden of proof on sceptics of claims

5. Excessive reliance on anecdotal evidence to substantiate claims

6. Evasion of the scrutiny offered by peer review

7. Absence of connectivity with other areas of science

8. Use of impressive-sounding jargon

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Task

• Discuss in groups whether the following are a Science or Pseudoscience:– Astrology– New Age Healing– Psychoanalysis– Acupuncture

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Key differences between Science (S and Pseudoscience (PS)

1) Anachronistic thinking: PSs often use outdated, disproved or not even proved theories to support research. S has a system of continual updating of theories

2) Looking for Mysteries: PS tends to ignore and disagree with conventional S research. S tests things that actually happen, whereas PS tests things that could possibly happen

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Cont.

3) Appeal to Myths: Myths are used by PS to support theories, whereas S uses theories that are tested by Empirical evidence.

4) ‘Grab bag approach’: Quantity NOT quality of evidence is often used by PS to support theories. S only accepts evidence that has been rigorously tested

5) Irrefutable Hypotheses: PSs defy falsification by creating theories that are hard to prove as false

6) Direct communication to the public: PSs avoid the rigorous Peer review that S endures

7) S formulates Hypotheses then gathers data – PSs gather data then formulate hypotheses to support the data.

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Scientific Fraud

• Cases of Fraud in science are not just restricted to Parapsychology.

• A famous example is that of Sir Cyril Burt.• A highly respected Psychologist, he was the

first to be Knighted and was president of the BPS.

• He was influential in the area of IQ as having a genetic basis.

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Scientific Fraud cont.

• Burt used a set of 53 MZ twins raised apart and found they had a positive correlation in IQ of +0.771 – seeming a strong +ive correlation.

• However peer review found that this correlation was exactly the same to the 3rd DP as many of his other studies – a highly unlikely finding.

• The BPS found him guilty of fraud and many others have pointed to further evidence suggesting he invented and changed his data to support his theories.

• Using this example what is the problem with Scientific Fraud?

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Anomalistic experiences – Fraud in findings or Reality?

• So are studies that show paranormal findings valid? Or are the results down to Fraud?

• Most Anomalistic Psychologists have studied the research area of ESP to answer the question of…

• ESP: Extrasensory Perception– Telepathy (communication with others not through the 5

senses)– Clairvoyance (the ability to perceive

objects/persons/events not through the 5 senses)– Pre-cognition (predicting future events)

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Issues and Debates

• Bias in Psychological research• The role of Animals in research• Ethical issues• Nature vs Nurture• Free Will vs Determinism• Reductionism

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Eye on the Exam

Describe issues of Pseudo Science and Scientific Fraud (9

marks)

• AO1 skill – description only• About 2/3 page

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Plenary

Are these examples of science or pseudoscience?

1. Using your horoscope to hypothesise what will happen to you this afternoon?

2. Giving an elephant acid to see what the biochemical effects will be?

3. Training a dog to catch a frisbee?

4. Freud’s claims that our early life and our fixation at certain psychosexual stages will affect our adult behaviour?

5. The claim that meditation can help us to de-stress?