Running Head: Parental Status and Life Satisfaction1[Type
text][Type text][Type text]
Parental Status and Life Satisfaction3
Parental Status and the Effect on a Childs Life Satisfaction
University of North Carolina at Charlotte
Joshua Haynes
If there are any questions about this research project, the
researcher can be reached via email at [email protected].
May 6th, 2014
AbstractThis study was conducted to gain a better understanding
of the impact parental transitions have on a child. The research
examined the relationship between parental status and a childs
satisfaction with life. It is hypothesized that a negative
relationship would exist between major parental transitions during
a childs life and the childs reported life satisfaction. Research
such as this are critical to better understand the complex
situation a divorce or other significant changes in parental status
can have on a child growing up. Questions made by the researcher
were asked to determine whether or not the participants parents
went through any significant transition, particularly divorce, and
they were placed into one of two groups accordingly. The
participants life satisfaction was measured using the Satisfaction
with Life Scale (Diener et al., 1985) to obtain a numeric value for
analysis. An independent samples t-test was used with the SPSS
system to examine the data. The results showed no significant
difference in the average life satisfaction scores between the two
groups.
Parental Status and the Effect on a Childs Life
SatisfactionDivorce rates have increased in recent years, leaving
many children to grow up in nontraditional family structures
(Kennedy & Ruggles, 2014). Because such a significant shift has
occurred in recent years, very little formal research has gone into
whether children of divorce or other major transitions experience a
diminished satisfaction with life. This research will attempt to
understand if a relationship is present between the parental status
of individuals during childhood and their current satisfaction with
life.Despite the novelty of this idea, quite a bit of preliminary
research has already been done. In 1991, research was conducted to
examine the possible relationship between boys problems adjusting
and the presence of parental transitions (Capaldi & Patterson,
1991). The researchers examined fourth-grade boys of different
transitional family structures in a variety of different attributes
related to adjustment. The results showed a positive correlation
between the amount of family transitions and the presence of
adjustment problems. These findings indicate that family structure
changes can lead to problems for a childs proper development.Astone
and McLanahan (1991) also researched how family structure can
influence children. They looked at how the absence of both parents
in a household can lead to less success for children in high
school. The researchers obtained data that indicated a detrimental
relationship between children living in households that went
through a major transition and educational attainment. Much like
Capaldi and Pattersons findings, children that experienced a
parental transition experienced various difficulties that impacted
different aspects of life.Longitudinal research was conducted to
examine the lasting impact of divorce or other parental conflict on
psychological well-being (Amato, Booth, & Loomis, 1995). After
a 12-year longitudinal study, participants whose parents either
divorced or consistently exhibited conflict displayed more issues
than individuals without divorce or parental inter-marital
conflicts. Once again, this research shows a clear pattern that
children that experience parental divorce often display more
issues, both in the short term and long term, than similar children
without divorced parents.Research similar to Amato et al. (1995)
was conducted to examine how adolescents handled family stressors,
such as divorce and parental conflict (Henry & Plunkett, 1999).
Different situations were examined to see how adolescents dealt
with and interpreted different family stressors and how these
scenarios were intertwined. The researchers determined that
different coping mechanisms exhibited can influence how adolescents
handle the different situations that were examined, which in turn
altered the adolescents satisfaction with their family. This
research indicates that it is not only the situation, but also the
individual that influences satisfaction when dealing with parental
transitions or other similar issues. However, strong research
regarding the relationship between divorce and how it can effect
children was still a couple years away.Emery and Kelly (2003) began
conducting research to see how divorce in particular can impact a
childs adjustment. They explained that children following divorce
might experience less parental involvement, a loss of close
relationships, increased stress, and even painful long-term
memories of the divorce. Emery and Kellys findings coincide with
what this research sets out to discover: a negative relationship
exists between children whose parents have gone through major
change and their satisfaction with life.Kelly (2007) continued her
research by examining the living arrangements the parents settle on
for children following a divorce. She looked at data of different
arrangements, as well as the childrens feelings toward the
situation, to come to her conclusion. Kelly feels that the current
setup many children are put into are often unsuccessful in
addressing the childrens best interests. Much of the current
procedure for children after divorce do not foster adequate
adjustment, and in turn lead to a lower satisfaction with life.
Fomby and Cherlin (2007) set out to examine the long-term effects
on children that experienced multiple transitions in family
structure. They used a longitudinal study that included a variety
of measures that looked at child development and indicators of
future well-being. The results varied between white and black
children; white children show a relationship between the number of
transitions and delinquent behavior, while black children showed no
statistically significant difference. The research shows that many
children end up experiencing long-term adjustment issues related to
the number of parental transitions present while they were growing
up. A study made at the University of South Carolina was conducted
to examine how family structure and adolescent functioning are
related (Antaramian, Huebner, & Valois, 2008). The researchers
looked at middle school children coming from multiple family
structures and examined their satisfaction with life. Their results
indicated that children in single-parent or step-parent households
had a lower satisfaction with life than their counterparts. This
data continues to underline the relationship between the different
types of family structures and a childs satisfaction with life. A
recent study set out to determine how parental divorce affects
children on both a cognitive and noncognitive level (Kim, 2011).
The researcher examined data before, during, and after the divorce.
Kim focused on children whose parents actually went through a
divorce, and examined data to come to various conclusions. The
researcher found negative effects of divorce on children, even
after factoring in other extraneous factors, and these effects
appeared to persist during and after the study period. This study
displays another negative impact parental transitions can have on
childrens development. A large-scale study was conducted recently
that examined children in different family structures in 36 western
societies (Arnarsson et al., 2012). Children from different
countries were answered different questionnaires that indicated
both their family structure and satisfaction with life. The
researchers findings indicated that children who lived in
two-parent homes reported a higher satisfaction with life than
other families that had experienced a significant transition. These
findings correlate with much of the other data that has been
presented regarding parental transitions and the childs
satisfaction with life.Research on the relationship between divorce
or other parental transitions and a childs adjustment and
satisfaction with life is still relatively new. However, much of
the data currently available indicates that these transitions have
a negative impact on the child, both in the short and long term.
Because the data shows a connection between the two factors, more
research should be done to examine the impact. It is hypothesized
that parental transitions will affect a childs satisfaction with
life. Specifically, this study will continue to explore the
negative relationship between parental transitions and the effect
these may have on a childs satisfaction with life.
MethodParticipantsThe participants for this research study
consisted of 164 different individuals, coming from a variety of
different backgrounds. 98 of the participants said their parents
were never divorced, while 49 individuals stated their parents did
get divorced while they were growing up. 11 responses indicated
some other situation not listed, and the participants gave a brief
description. Seven responses were eliminated either because the
participant did not wish for their information to be included in
the research or they were below the age of 18 and parental consent
was not obtained. The demographic information revealed 50 men, 104
women, and four individuals that preferred not to answer. The
average age was 21.84 years old, with a range of 18 to 60 years
old. The majority ethnicity was Caucasian at 72.8 percent, but
other races were also represented:10.8 percent stated they were
Black or African American, 7.0 percent chose Hispanic or Latino,
6.0 percent selected Asian or Pacific Islander, 0.6 percent marked
American Indian or Alaskan Native, and 3.2 percent preferred not to
state their race. Subjects gained access to the survey online,
through facebook.com, reddit.com, and through an email sent to
students by the supervisor, Dr. Kathleen Willet. Participants who
received the survey through Dr. Willet received extra credit in her
course, while the other individuals were not compensated.
Participation was completely voluntary, and individuals were told
they could leave the survey at any time without consequence. The
subjects were also told their responses would remain anonymous, and
the only identifying information given was the essential
demographic questions. The responses were not shown to anyone other
than the researcher.MaterialsFor this study, participants completed
a questionnaire consisting of three separate parts. The first part
asked demographic question, revealing the subject variables for
each participant, as well as information such as age, gender, and
ethnicity. These answers showed the participants parents either
experienced some sort of significant transition, specifically a
divorce, or they were together. Participants then completed two
different surveys. The first was the Rosenberg Self-Esteem scale
(Rosenberg, 1965), which measured the participants self-esteem. The
second survey was the Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener, Emmons,
Larsen, & Griffin, 1985), which scores the participants overall
satisfaction with their life. The results from the second scale
made up the dependent variable of this research. The Satisfaction
with Life Scale is one of the most successful measurements of life
satisfaction available. It is widely accepted for both its
reliability and validity. The researcher created the demographic
questions specifically for this study. Their reliability is
unknown. A typo was present in the survey as well; when asking
about gender, female was misspelled as femals. After speaking with
some of the participants, they noted that some of the questions
seemed ambiguous and were unsure how to respond. The discussion
will cover these potential influences later. Overall, participants
answered 20 questions. A full copy of the questionnaire can be
found in Appendix A.Design and ProcedureThis research was set up as
a between subjects study. A convenience sample was used due to time
and funding constraints. Participants were placed into one of two
subject variable groups, which was determined by whether or not
their parents had gone through any significant transitions,
especially divorce. The dependent variable examined was their
results on the Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener, Emmons,
Larsen, & Griffin, 1985). Participants completed the
questionnaire over the Internet, so this may have had an impact on
their results. For example, they may have been distracted by other
online activities, or they may have low computer literacy. An
incorrect button may have also been pressed, which could
potentially have impacted the results on that survey. If a
potential candidate did not have access to the Internet or a device
that could access the survey, they were unable to be a part of the
research.Before completing the questionnaire, individuals were
asked to review the informed consent form. They were then asked if
they consented to their answers being used in this research; if
they declined, their results were not analyzed in any way. While
reviewing the informed consent portion, they were told their
responses would be completely anonymous. No specific information
was connected to any of the participants, and the results were only
viewed by the research conductors. Deception was used in the
research; the self-esteem results were intended to distract the
participants from the true purpose of the study. This was used as a
deceptive method to conceal the research was looking at the
relationship between parental status and life-satisfaction.
Therefore, the scores on this portion were not examined in the
results. Completing the survey required between five and ten
minutes of the volunteers time. Afterward, they were shown the
debriefing form. This covered the experiment and what it is
examining, as well as contact information for the researchers.
Information was also provided if they wished to know the results of
the research or if any part of the questionnaire made them feel
stressed or uncomfortable.
ResultsScoring and CalculationsTo analyze the data, participants
were split into two groups depending on which independent variable
set they belonged to for this study. The independent variable was
whether or not the participants parents got a divorce. Their
responses to the question Did your parents get divorced while you
were growing up? determined how their responses would be
categorized. If they selected Other: they were asked to describe
the situation, and were placed into one of the two groups that best
fit their situation. If an individuals parents were divorced, they
were given a score of 1; if the parents stayed together, the
individuals score was a 0. An independent samples t-test was used
within the SPSS system. Their aggregate scores on the Satisfaction
with Life Scale (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985) were
also input alongside the corresponding individual variable. Scores
on each question ranged from 1 to 7, while the total score could be
anywhere from 7 to 35. A significance value of 0.05 was used for
this data analysis.Overall FindingsFor this research, it was
hypothesized that the presence of significant parental transitions
in an individuals life would affect his or her satisfaction with
life. This study examines the possibility of a negative
relationship between parental divorce and the childs satisfaction
with life. This hypothesis was not supported after the data were
analyzed. Through the SPSS program, an independent samples t-test
was administered on the data. Results from the independent samples
t-test indicate thatlife satisfaction scores for children with
separated parents (M=21.06) were not significantly different than
children whose parents did not separate or experience any other
significant transitions (M=20.55); t(149)=-.39, p=.70.IV group
Figure 1 displays a side-by-side comparison of the two means, while
Appendix B shows a full breakdown of the data groups.DiscussionThis
study was done to examine what sort of impact parental transitions
have on a childs satisfaction with life. It was hypothesized that
divorce and other significant transitions would negatively affect
the childs satisfaction with life in later years. Although prior
research indicated this correlation, the findings in this
particular study did not support the hypothesis. In fact, the
average life satisfaction score was actually higher for individuals
whose parents got divorced. This unexpected outcome could have been
caused by a variety of different factors. The standard deviation
for the individual variable group whose parents remained together
was somewhat high, over 8, and the other groups standard deviation
of 6 could have also played a factor. There was also a limited
sample size in this study. Due to the use of a convenience sample,
ample representation of the population was not present.
Furthermore, there was a discrepancy in the representation between
the two independent variable groups; approximately two-thirds of
the participants reported that their parents were not divorced or
experience any other significant transitions. In an ideal study,
more participants from different backgrounds would have
participated in the research, especially those who grew up with
divorced parents.The questions used in the study were imperfect.
The researcher questioned some of the participants after they
completed the study, and they noted some of the questions were
confusing or unclear. Some of the questions seemed to have been
poorly worded. One participant stated that neither agreeing nor
disagreeing with question 13, I wish I could have more respect for
myself, displayed a particularly positive state of mind. Although
this question was discarded, as were the rest of the self-esteem
questions, similar ambiguity may have existed in the
life-satisfaction questions. The demographic questions were created
by the researcher and had no proven reliability or validity. The
portion that focused on parental status may not have been clear or
offered a clear response option. Some of the responses indicated
parents never getting divorced, yet the participant grew up with
only one parent. There was also a spelling mistake on the survey
itself. Question 2, which asked about the participants gender,
misspelled female as femals. Even though the research did not focus
on male or female differences and the participants gender played no
role in the data analysis, this may have altered their perception
for the remainder of the questionnaire.Despite the simplicity and
brevity of the survey, many participants may have responded
inaccurately. They may have simply filled out the answers without
even reading the questions. For example, some of the responses had
4 as the only response, despite the questions displaying either a
positive or negative. Participants not filling out the survey
correctly would certainly impact the final results, and if a
significant number of students marked their answers in this manner,
the results may have been severely altered. After the conclusion of
this study, more research should be done on the subject. The
results were inconclusive, but this was likely due to some of the
issues noted above, such as the sample size and poor questions. A
more comprehensive study could potentially show significant results
on this topic, especially if a bigger and broader group of
individuals participated. The limited results of this study
actually showed lower life satisfaction scores for individuals who
did not experience and major shifts in parental status, although
the difference was not statistically significant at the 0.05 level.
Further examination may indicate that difficulties such as divorce
and other major changes make the individual less susceptible to
hardships later in life that they are unable to overcome.The
research in this study is of significant importance because society
does not yet fully understand the possible implications of divorce
on a childs well-being. Life satisfaction is a strong indicator of
general happiness and life fulfillment. If an individual has low
life satisfaction, they may suffer in many areas of life. Once more
research has been done and research supports the effects of divorce
on children, better steps may be taken to ensure the child still
grows up to be happy and well-adjusted.
ReferencesAmato, P. R., Booth, A., & Loomis, L. S. (1995).
Parental divorce, parental conflict, and offspring well-being
during early adulthood.Social Forces, 73(3), 895-915.Antaramian, S.
P., Huebner, E. S., & Valois, R. F. (2008). Adolescent life
satisfaction.Applied Psychology: An International Review,57,
112-126. Arnarsson, A. M., Bendtsen, P., Bjarnason, T., Borup, I.,
Haapasalo, I., Iannotti, R. J., Lfstedt, P., & Niclasen, B.
(2012). Life satisfaction among children in different family
structures: A comparative study of 36 western societies. Children
& Society,26, 51-62. Astone, N. M., & McLanahan, S. S.
(1991). Family structure, parental practices, and high school
completion.American Sociological Review, 56(3), 309-320.Capaldi, D.
M., & Patterson, G. R. (1991). Relation of parental transitions
to boys adjustment problems: I A linear hypothesis. II Mothers at
risk for transitions and unskilled parenting. Developmental
Psychology,27(3), 489-504.Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J.,
& Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction with Life Scale. Journal
of Personality Assessment, 49, 71-75.Emery, R. E., & Kelly, J.
B. (2003). Children's adjustment following divorce: Risk and
resilience perspectives.Family Relations,52, 352-362.Fomby, P.,
& Cherlin, A. (2007). Family instability and child
well-being.American Sociological Review,72, 181-204. Henry, C. S.,
& Plunkett, S. W. (1999). Adolescent perceptions of
interparental conflict, stressors, and coping as predictors of
adolescent family life satisfaction.Sociological Inquiry,69(4),
599-620.Kelly, J. (2006). Childrens living arrangements following
separation and divorce: Insights from empirical and clinical
research.Family Process, 46(1), 35-52.Kennedy, S., & Ruggles,
S. Breaking Up Is Hard to Count: The Rise of Divorce in the United
States, 19802010.Demography,51, 587-598.Kim, H. S. (2011).
Consequences of parental divorce for child development.American
Sociological Review,76(3), 487-511. Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society
and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press.
Figures
Note: Figure 1 compares the average scores of participants whose
parents divorced with the mean scores of individuals. The maximum
score is 35, while the minimum score is 7.
Appendix A: Questionnaire Answered by ParticipantsSurvey on
Self-Esteem and Life SatisfactionProject Title and Purpose: You are
invited to participate in a research study entitled Life
Satisfaction and Self-Esteem. This is a study to examine how an
individuals self-esteem and satisfaction with life can be heavily
related to one another. Investigators: This study is being
conducted by Dr. Kathleen Willet ([email protected]) and Joshua
Haynes ([email protected]). Description of Participation: You will
be asked to complete a 20 question survey covering a variety of
questions, covering both demographic and psychological information.
Length of Participation: Your participation in this project will
take approximately five to ten minutes, which includes reading the
Informed Consent form, completing the survey, and a short
debriefing session. Risks and Benefits of Participation: There are
no known risks to participation in this study. However, there may
be risks which are currently unforeseeable. The benefits of
participation in this study are an increased understanding of the
different relationships present in examining psychological
well-being. Volunteer Statement: You are a volunteer. The decision
to participate in this study is completely up to you. If you decide
to be in the study, you may stop at any time. You will not be
treated any differently if you decide not to participate or if you
stop once you have started. Confidentiality: Any information about
your participation, including your identity, will be kept
confidential to the extent possible. The following steps will be
taken to ensure this confidentiality: No identifying features will
be attached to your survey answers. The answers will only be seen
by the two researchers. Consent forms and survey answers will be
kept in separate folders. Participant Consent: I have read the
information in this consent form. I have had the chance to ask
questions about this study, and those questions have been answered
to my satisfaction. I am at least 18 years of age, and I agree to
participate in this research project. I understand that I will
receive a copy of this form after it has been signed by me and the
Principal Investigator if requested. I consent to my participation
being used in this research. I do not consent to participate in
this research.DemographicsTo ensure ample representation of all
backgrounds, please respond to a few questions about your
background.What is your age? What is your gender? Male Femals
Prefer not to answerWhat is your ethnicity? White/Caucasian Black
or African-American Hispanic or Latino Asian or Pacific Islander
American Indian or Alaskan Native Prefer not to answerWho did you
grow up with? Mother and Father together Mother or Father only, not
both Mother or Father and Step-Parent Other: Did your parents get
divorced while you were growing up? Yes No I never knew one/both of
my parents Other: Self-Esteem and Life SatisfactionI feel that I am
a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree Strongly DisagreeI feel that I have a number
of good qualities Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly
DisagreeAll in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly DisagreeI am able to do
things as well as most other people Strongly Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly DisagreeI feel I do not have much to be proud of Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree Strongly DisagreeI take a positive attitude
toward myself Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly DisagreeOn the
whole, I am satisfied with myself Strongly Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly DisagreeI wish I could have more respect for myself
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly DisagreeI certainly feel
useless at times Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly DisagreeAt
times I think I am no good at all Strongly Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly DisagreeIn most ways my life is close to my ideal Strongly
Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree
Slightly Agree Agree Strongly AgreeThe conditions of my life are
excellent Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Neither
Agree nor Disagree Slightly Agree Agree Strongly AgreeI am
satisfied with my life Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree
Neither Agree nor Disagree Slightly Agree Agree Strongly AgreeSo
far I have gotten the important things I want in life Strongly
Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree
Slightly Agree Agree Strongly AgreeIf I could live my life over, I
would change almost nothing Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly
Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Slightly Agree Agree Strongly
Agree
Thank you for participating in our Life Satisfaction and
Self-Esteem study! The focus of this study is to learn more about
the influence divorce and other significant parental transitions
later have on the childs satisfaction with life. The questions
asking about self-esteem were to throw you off so you would not
realize the true purpose of the study.The survey you completed
centered on how satisfied you were with your life and whether or
not your parents separated or went through some other significant
transition. You answered the Satisfaction with Life scale, made by
Diener, Emmons, Larsen, and Griffin in 1985.If you are interested
in learning the results of this study, please contact the
researcher after May 5, 2014.
Researcher:Faculty Advisor:Joshua HaynesKathleen Willet,
[email protected] Dept. Office Colvard
[email protected]
If anything about this survey caused you to feel uncomfortable,
health and counseling services are available to you in Atkins, room
158. You can reach Counseling Services at (704)687 0311 or get
information at http://counselingcenter.uncc.edu/. All counseling
services are free and confidential.
Appendix B: SPSS TablesIndependent samples t-test for parental
status and the childs life satisfactionGroup Statistics
Parental StatusNMeanStd. DeviationStd. Error Mean
Life SatisfactionParents Together9820.55108.14827.82310
Parents Separated5321.05666.35615.87308
Independent Samples Test
Levenes Test for Equality of Variancest-test for Equality of
Means
FSig.tdfSig. (2-tailed)Mean DifferenceStd. Error Difference95%
Confidence Interval of the Difference
LowerUpper
Life SatisfactionEqual variances
assumed6.422.012-.392149.696-.505581.29092-3.056472.04530
Equal variances not
assumed-.421130.322.674-.505581.19990-2.879391.86823