Psikologi Anak

Psikologi Anak

Pertemuan 2 Biological beginnigs, physical

development, and health

Prenatal Development

• The Course of Prenatal Development– The Germinal Period– The Embryonic Period– The Fetal Period

Prenatal Development

– Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development• Teratogen

– From the Greek word Tera, meaning “monster.” Any agent that causes a birth defect. The field of study that investigates the causes of birth defects is called teratology.

– The severity of damage and type of defect from any particular teratogen depends on dose, genetic susceptibility, and time of exposure.

Prenatal Development

Teratogens and the Timing of Their Effects on Prenatal Development

Prenatal Development

Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development• Prescription and Nonprescription Drugs• Psychoactive drugs• Alcohol• Incompatible blood types• Maternal diseases: Rubella, syphilis, genital herpes, AIDS• Maternal diet and nutrition• Emotional states and stress• Maternal age• Paternal factors• Environmental hazards

Birth• The Birth Process – Childbirth Setting and Attendants– Methods of Childbirth– The Transition from Fetus to Newborn

• Assessing the Newborn– The Apgar Scale– Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)– Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Network Neurobehavioral

Scale (NNNS)

• Low Birth Weight and Preterm Infants

The Postpartum Period

• What Is the Postpartum Period?– The period after childbirth when the mother adjusts,

both physically and psychologically, to the process of childbirth. This period lasts for about 6 weeks or until her body has completed its adjustments and returned to a nearly prepregnant state.

• Physical Adjustments• Emotional and Psychological Adjustments• Bonding

Physical Development

• Body growth and change

Changes in Proportions of the Human Body During Growth

Body Growth and Change

• Infancy and Childhood– Early Childhood• Physical problems, growth hormone deficiency, or

emotional difficulties may retard growth.• Growth hormone deficiency: The absence or deficiency

of growth hormone produced by the pituitary gland.– Can be treated with injections of growth hormone

for several years.

The BrainFour lobes of the cortex:• Frontal lobes: Govern

voluntary movement, thinking, personality, and intentionality or purpose.

• Occipital lobes: Control vision.• Temporal lobes: Govern

hearing, language processing, and memory.

• Parietal lobes: Govern spatial location, attention, and motor control.

The Brain: Infancy

• Changing Structures– The frontal lobe is immature at birth, but increased

myelination and neural connections during the first year enhance the ability to regulate physiological states and gain more control over reflexes.

– 2 months: development of motor control centers allow reaching and grabbing.

– 4 months: neural connections for depth perception begin to form.

– 12 months: speech centers ready to produce language.

The Brain: Childhood– Brain growth is slower than in infancy, but the brain and

the head grow faster than other parts of the body.• Increase, due to myelination (which is not complete

until the end of middle or late childhood), in number and size of dendrites.• Most rapid growth from age 3 to 6 is in frontal lobe

areas (planning and organizing new actions and maintaining attention to tasks).• Most rapid growth from age 6 through puberty is in

temporal and parietal lobes, especially for language and spatial relations.

Sleep• Sleep restores, replenishes, and rebuilds the brain

and body.• allows neurons that have been used during waking to

shut down and repair themselves.

Infancy– Newborns sleep 16 to 17 hours

a day, although some sleep more and others sleep less.

– By age 1 month most infants sleep longer at night.

– By age 4 months their patterns are closer to adult sleep patterns.

– Shared Sleeping– Sudden Infant Death Syndrome

Childhood– Most young children sleep through the

night and have one daytime nap– Sixth-graders go to bed an hour later

than second-graders and report more daytime sleepiness.

– Sleep problems: Nightmares (frightening dreams that awaken the sleeper) and night terrors (sudden arousal from sleep with intense fear and physiological reactions) are common sleep problems.

HealthIllnesses and Injuries among Children and Adolescents

Early Childhood: • Vaccines have nearly eradicated

many diseases.• Birth defects, cancer, and heart

disease are the disorders that are most likely to be fatal to children under age 5 today.

• Accidents are the leading cause of death in young children.

• Parental smoking puts children at risk for respiratory problems and vitamin C deficiency.

Middle and Late Childhood: • Mostly a time of excellent

health.• Motor vehicle accidents are

the most common cause of severe injury and death; this can be reduced by use of seat belts.

• Cancer is the second leading cause of death for this age group.

Health

• Nutrition and Eating Behavior: Infancy– The importance of adequate energy and nutrient intake

consumed in a loving and supportive environment during the infant years cannot be overstated (Samour, Helm, & Lang, 2000).

– Breast-feeding versus bottle-feeding: Benefits include appropriate weight gain, fewer allergies, prevention and reduction of diseases, denser bones in childhood and adulthood, reduced childhood cancer, lower incidence of SIDS, and better visual acuity.

Health

• Nutrition and Eating Behavior: Infancy– Breast-feeding versus Bottle-feeding• Avoid breast-feeding when the mother has AIDS,

tuberculosis, or is taking a drug that might not be safe for the infant.

Health

• Nutrition and Eating Behavior: Infancy– Malnutrition in Infancy• Marasmus: A wasting away of body tissues in the

infant’s first year, caused by severe protein-calorie deficiency.• Kwashiorkor: A condition caused by a deficiency in

protein in which the child’s abdomen and feet become swollen with water.• The effects of nutrition in infancy extend at least into

early childhood

Health

• Nutrition and Eating Behavior: Childhood• Children in many developing countries face

malnutrition and starvation daily.• In the U.S. 11 million preschool children are

malnourished, putting their health at risk; malnutrition is associated with problem behaviors as they get older.• Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women,

Infants, and Children (WIC) provides nutrition and counseling on nutrition to low-income participants.

HealthNutrition and Eating Behavior: Childhood• Health and Unhealthy Eating– Eating habits have shifted from healthy foods to

salty snacks, soft drinks, pizza, and high-fat• Obesity– Energy requirements depend on physical activity

and basal metabolism rate (BMR).– Obesity increases the risk of developing medical

and psychological problems.– Combining proper diet with exercise and behavior

modification.