Proximate, amino acid, fatty acid and mineral composition of raw and cooked camel (Camelus dromedarius) meat

Proximate, amino acid, fatty acidand mineral composition of rawand cooked camel (Camelus

dromedarius) meatI.T. Kadim, M.R. Al-Ani, R.S. Al-Maqbaly, M.H. Mansour,

O. Mahgoub and E.H. Johnson(Information about the authors can be found at the end of the article.)

Abstract

Purpose – The purpose of the paper is to study the effects of cooking on proximate composition,amino acids, fatty acids, minerals and total, heme and non-heme iron content of camel meat.

Design/methodology/approach – A total of ten longissimus thoracis muscles (500 grams) werecollected between the tenth and twelfth ribs of the left side. Samples were randomly collected from twoto three year old camel carcasses chilled (1-38C) for 48 hours then stored at 2208C. The first portionwas kept fresh while the second one was placed in plastic bags and cooked by immersion in a waterbath at 708C for 90 minutes. Both samples were freeze-dried, and then ground to a homogeneous massto be used for chemical analyses.

Findings – Cooked samples had significantly (p , 0:05) higher dry matter by 27.7 per cent, proteinby 31.1 per cent and fat by 22.2 per cent, but lower ash content by 8.3 per cent than the raw ones.Cooking had no significant effect on amino acid and fatty acid composition of the meat. Thecomponents of camel meat most significantly affected by cooking were macro- and micro-minerals,which ranged between 13.1 and 52.5 per cent, respectively. Cooking resulted in a significant decreasein total, heme and non-heme iron contents by 4.3, 8.7 and 4.0 per cent, respectively.

Research limitations/implications – The research is restricted to camel meat but it is anexploratory study. The issue of research outcome as only longissimus thoracic muscle is anotherlimitation. Further investigation is needed to include different muscles, temperatures, durations andcooking methods.

Practical implications – Amino acids and fatty acids of camel meat are not affected by cooking,while heating accelerated total and heme iron oxidation suggest camel meat to be a rich source of hemeiron.

Originality/value – The paper is original in its findings and useful for both researchers andacademics in the field of meat science.

Keywords Cooking, Minerals, Nutrition, Meat, Animal products

Paper type Research paper

1. IntroductionThe dromedary camel is an important animal of arid and semi-arid regions in differentparts of the world (Kadim et al., 2008). Camels have a great tolerance to hightemperature, high solar radiation, water scarcity, sandy terrain and poor vegetation.They rely on remaining unutilised feed and fodder by other domestic species either dueto their size or feed habits (Shalash, 1983). Camels can be raised as a fairly constantsource of sustenance, which is likely to produce high quality meat at comparativelylow cost in harsh environments (Tandon et al., 1988). Camels are regularly slaughtered

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

www.emeraldinsight.com/0007-070X.htm

BFJ113,4

482

British Food JournalVol. 113 No. 4, 2011pp. 482-493q Emerald Group Publishing Limited0007-070XDOI 10.1108/00070701111123961

for social and religious occasions as an essential source of protein, energy, vitaminsand minerals for human nutrition.

A camel carcass can provide a substantial amount of meat for human consumptionwith certain parts of the carcass considered a delicacy and favoured. There is evidencethat, although the marketing system for camel meat is unorganised, a strong demandfor fresh camel meat, and for camel meat in blended meat products, exists amongsocieties not herding camels (Shalash, 1979; Morton, 1984). The demand for camel meatappears to be increasing due to health reasons, as they produce meat with relativelyless fat than other animals (Elqasim et al., 1987; El-Faer et al., 1991; Elqasim andAlkanhal, 1992; Dawood and Alkanhal, 1995, Kadim et al., 2008). This is an importantfactor in reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease (Giese, 1992). Camel meat isinexpensive in countries with an abundance of camel herds, and thus, it couldcontribute to the growing need for meat in developing countries, especially for thelower income demographic (Kadim et al., 2008). However, as camels are generally usedin developing countries, studies are concentrating on improving characteristics such ascarcass and meat quality is rarely available (Skidmore, 2005). Cooking of meat isessential for palatable and safe products. However, heat treatment can lead toundesirable modifications, such decrease in the nutritional value, mainly vitamin andmineral loss and changes in the fatty acid composition (Rodriguez-Estrada et al., 1997).There is little information on proximate composition, amino acid, fatty acid, andmineral contents of camel meat. It is well established that such information is essentialto obtain if cooking can induce changes in muscle components and hence mightinfluence its nutritive value. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects ofcooking temperature on the proximate composition, amino acid, fatty acid, and mineralcontents of the dromedary longissimus thoracis muscle.

2. Materials and methods2.1 Meat sample preparationLongissimus thoracis muscle samples were randomly collected from ten maleone-humped camels (two to three years old) slaughtered at Bausher slaughterhouse,Sultanate of Oman. Animals were exposed to routine pre-slaughter handling, includingtransportation and being held in a lairage for one to two hours. Animals wereslaughtered and dressed following routine commercial Halal methods (Kadim et al.,2009). Ambient temperatures on slaughter days ranged between 25-278C. TheLongissimus thoracis muscle was removed from the left side of each carcass betweenthe 10th-12th ribs (500 g) within 20 minutes post-mortem. All connective tissues andvisible fats were removed and then placed in labeled plastic bags (Kadim et al., 2009).Samples were transported in an insulated cool box from the slaughterhouse to the meatlab at Sultan Qaboos University and kept in a chiller (2-38C) within 2-2.5 hourspost-mortem for 48 hours before chemical composition determinations were performed.

2.2 Cooking procedureLongissimus thoracis samples were divided into two equal portions. The adjacentportions from each muscle sample were cut in order to achieve a reliable comparisonbetween the fresh and cooked samples. The first portion was kept fresh while thesecond one was prepared for cooking. Each portion was cut into four 20 mm thick slicesand each slice was trimmed to approximately 15 £ 15 mm in such a way that all

Mineralcomposition of

camel meat

483

outside surfaces of the muscle, including the epimysium, were removed. Fresh sampleswere frozen at 2208C for subsequent analysis, while the other samples were placed inplastic bags (150 £ 250 mm) in preparation for cooking by immersion in a water bathat 708C for 90 minutes. Following cooking, meat samples were cooled and frozen(2208C) for subsequent analysis.

2.3 Chemical analysis2.3.1 Proximate composition. All visible fat was removed from the muscle samplesbefore they were placed in plastic containers and then dried in an Thermo freeze dryer(Thermo-Model Modulyo-230, Milford-UK) for five days under 80-mbar pressures at2608C. They were then grounded to a homogenous mass in a grinder(Pansonic-Mixgrinder-Model MX119N-Japan) and used for chemical analyses. Theproximate chemical composition of the muscle tissue was determined according tostandard methods of AOAC (2000). Protein was determined using a Foss TecatorKjeltec 2300 Nitrogen/Protein Analyzer. Fat was determined by Soxhlet extraction ofthe dry sample, using petroleum ether. Ash content was determined by ashing samplesin a muffle furnace at 5008C for 24 hours.

2.3.2 Mineral. Evaluation of mineral levels in Longissimus thoracis muscle sampleswere carried out after complete digestion using a microwave laboratory system typeMilestone 1200 MDR (Norwalk-USA), with a maximum temperature of 2008C in closedpolytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) bombs (Kadim et al., 2006). An Inductively CoupledPlasma Optical Emission Spectrometer (ICP-OES) type Perkin Elmer Model 3300(Italy), equipped with a low- flow Gem Cone nebulizer (the type of nebulizer designed tohandle a range of inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry) inaddition to an ultrasonic nebulizer for the detection of very low concentrations wasused for mineral analyses. All reagents used were of certified analytical grade reagentand in-house reference materials were used in the analysis. A mixture of concentratedHNO3 and 30 per cent H2O2 was used for the digestion of samples. Calibration graphswere prepared by the addition of known amounts of standard metal solutions to thePTFE bombs and were subjected to the same acid digestion. The digestion procedureconsisted of the following steps: 5mL of conc. HNO3 and 1mL of 30 per cent H2O2 wereadded to each digestion bomb. The digestion bombs were placed in the microwaveoven. They were then heated to 2008C over a five-minute period, and then held at 2008Cfor another 20 minutes. The digest obtained was collected in 50mL volumetric flasks,made up to volume with deionized water and analyzed for a set of minerals.

2.3.3 Total iron. Total iron was determined by the spectrophotmetric methodexplained by Sadettin et al. (2004). One gram of the freeze-dried sample was weighedinto a Vycor crucible, placed in a muffle furnace (Gallenkamp-Size 3, UK), with thetemperature gradually increased to 4508C, and ashed for 12 hours. After cooling toroom temperature, the crucibles were placed on a hot plate and 5 ml concentrated nitricacid was added to each sample. The samples were then heated at 808C for two minutesand then cooled to room temperature. The cooled solution was filtered throughWhatman paper (no. 41) and then made up to 25 ml, with 2M nitric acid. The finalsolution was analyzed for total iron using atomic absorption spectrophotometry(Shimadzu AA-6800, Japan).

2.3.4 Heme iron. Heme iron was determined, using the acidified acetone extractionexplained by Hornsey (1956). Approximately 0.25 g of ground meat samples were

BFJ113,4

484

weighed into centrifuge tubes. Ten ml of deionized water, 0.25 ml of concentratedhydrochloric acid and 10 ml of acetone were added to remove the pigment (red colour).The mixture was then centrifuged at 3,000 g for 20 mins. The supernatant was pooledand filtered through a glass microfiber filter (Whatman filter paper GF/A) and theabsorbance of filtered product was measured at 640nm using Thermo-Helios Beta-UV(Cambridge-UK) visible Spectrophotometers against a reagent blank. The absorbancewas multiplied by the factor 6800 and then divided by the sample weight to give theconcentration of total pigments in the meat as mg hematin/g meat. The iron contentwas calculated according to the method of Merck Index (1989). Heme iron assay wasvalidated by assaying solutions containing known concentrations of porcine hematin.

2.3.5 Non-heme iron. Non-heme iron was analysed by method described by Ahnet al. (1993). Briefly, 500 mg of ground, freeze-dried meat samples were mixed in 3 ml ofcitrate phosphate buffer and 1 ml of ascorbic acid solution (The samples were mixedthoroughly then incubated at room temperature (258C) for 15 mins. Approximately 2 mlof TCA was added, and the mixture was centrifuged at 3,000 g for 10 mins. Thesupernatant was collected and filtered through a glass microfiber filter (Whatman filterpaper GF/A), then 2 ml of clear supernatant was mixed with 0.8 ml of ammoniumacetate and 2 ml of ferrozine reagent. The absorbance was measured at 562nm againsta reagent blank.

2.3.6 Amino acid. Amino acid contents of duplicate meat samples were determinedusing a Waters ion-exchange HPLC system, utilizing post-column ninhydrinderivatisation and fluorescence detection, following hydrolysis in 6M glass-distilledhydrochloric acid containing 0.1 per cent phenol for 24 h at 110 ^ 28C in evacuatedsealed tubes (Kadim et al., 2002a). Lysozyme was used as an external standard for theamino acid analysis. Performic acid oxidization was not used in the study and cysteinein the samples was not determined. Values for glycine in the excreta are not presentedbecause uric acid is not quantitatively converted to glycine during acid hydrolysis.

2.3.7 Fatty acid. The lipids from muscle were extracted by Soxhlet extraction of thedry samples, using petroleum ether (AOAC, 2000). Fat samples (0.5 g) were mixedthoroughly with 1N KOH and 5 mg of internal standard [Tricosnoic acid (C23)] wasadded (Kadim et al., 2002b). The mixture was then heated for 30 mins at 1508C,followed by cooling at room temperature. The sample was transferred to a separatingfunnel with an additional 150 ml of distilled water, followed by 0.1 per cent methylorange, which was added drop-wise until the color changed to yellow. The pH of thesample was adjusted with 5N HCl until the color turned to light pink solution, whichwas partitioned vigorously for 5 mins with 100 ml of diethyl ether. The diethyl etherlayer was collected in a beaker and the colored aqueous phase was re-extracted withanother portion of 100 ml of diethyl ether and the upper layer was collected. Diethylether extracts were pooled and washed four times with 40 ml of distilled water andpassed over anhydrous Na2SO4. The diethyl ether extract was then concentrated to2 ml in a rotary vacuum evaporator at 308C and transferred to a screw-capped test tubefollowing the addition of 2 ml of hydrogen peroxide (14 per cent). The test tube wasthen heated at 1008C for 15 mins in a water bath. After cooling at ambient roomtemperature, 3 ml of hexane and 5 ml of saturated NaCl was added and the mixture wasshaken vigorously for 5 mins. The hexane layer was carefully transferred via pasteurpipette into a screw cap glass vial and stored at 2208C until analysed by GasChromatograph (GC). Fatty acids were analyzed with GC-Hewlett Packard 5890 ser II

Mineralcomposition of

camel meat

485

(USA) coupled with HP5989B mass engine. Fatty acids were separated with a 30m £0.25 mm Fused Silica capillary column (Supeclo Inc., USA). The GC temperatureprogram consisted of 708C for 1 min then increased by 58C per min until 2608, at it wasmaintained for 5 mins. The temperatures of injector and detector were set at 2508C and2708C, respectively. Mass spectrophotometer conditions consisted of optics autotunedat 69, 219 and 502 using decafluorotriphenylphosphine (DFTPP). Mass scan range wasset from 40 to 550 amu at 30 threshold. Fatty acids were identified by comparison ofretention time with their reference compound purchased from Supelco, Inc., USA.Concentration of individual fatty acids was calculated by using tricosanoic acid (C23)as internal standard.

2.4 Statistical analysisThe general liner model (GLM) ANOVA procedure within SAS (1993) was used tocompare the effect of cooking on chemical composition, amino acid, fatty acid, andmineral composition of Longissimus thoracis muscles in one-humped camels. Significantdifferences between means were assessed using the least-significant-differenceprocedure.

3. Results and discussionCooking led to significant changes in meat proximate composition (see Table I), whichis likely to be attributed to protein denaturation (Brewer and Novakofski, 1999).Variations in the proximate composition mainly reflect the water loss of the meatduring cooking. Following cooking, the cooked meat samples had significantly higherdry matter (27.7 per cent), higher protein (31.1 per cent), higher fat (22.2 per cent) andlower ash (8.3 per cent) than fresh meat samples. These results are in agreement withvalues found in other studies. Greenwood et al. (1951) reported that cooked beef meathad significantly higher dry matter by 19.1 per cent, fat by 18.8 per cent and protein by27.8 per cent than fresh samples. Gerber et al. (2009) reported fat losses for grilled beefLongissimus thoracis of 22.1 per cent, Sheard et al. (1998) found fat losses for grilledpork chops of 34 per cent, and Chappell (1986) found losses for grilled sirloin steak ashigh as 53 per cent. During cooking, the loss of cooking juices, are composed of waterand molecules such as myofibrillar or sarcoplasmic proteins, collagen, lipids, minerals,polyphosphates (Bradford et al., 1984; Laroche, 1988; Love and Prusa, 1992;Ortigues-Marty et al., 2006; Gerber et al., 2009). However, the amount of protein and fatlosses were less than that of water losses, which led to a concentration in protein andfat contents.

Meat is a distinctive source of heme iron due to its iron-absorption enhancingaspects (Lee and Shimaoka, 1984). Total, heme and non-heme iron contents (mg/kg dry

Parameter (%) Fresh Cooked Per cent difference SEM Significance

Dry matter 24.3 33.6 þ27.7 0.34 * * *

Protein 19.5 28.3 þ31.1 0.59 * * *

Fat 2.1 2.7 þ22.2 0.12 * *

Ash 1.2 1.1 28.3 0.03 *

Notes: Significance: *p , 0.05; * *p , 0.01; * * *p , 0.001, SEM ¼ Standard error of the means

Table I.Proximate composition offresh and cooked camelLongissimus thoracismuscle

BFJ113,4

486

tissue) of raw and cooked camel meat are presented in Table II. The total iron valuesdid not equal the sum of heme iron and non-heme iron, probably due to a combinationof overestimate of non-heme iron and underestimate of total iron. The effects ofcooking temperature on the total, heme and non-heme iron content of camelLongissimus thoracis muscles were significant (p , 0:01). The mean total, heme andnon-heme iron losses during cooking were 4.3, 8.7 and 4.0 per cent, respectively. Mostof these decrements may be due to moisture losses that occurred on cooking. Severalinvestigators have demonstrated that heat is decreasing both total and heme iron(Buchowski et al., 1988; Carpenter and Clark, 1995; Kongkachuichai et al., 2002;Lombardi-Boccia et al., 2002; Turhan et al., 2004; Purchas et al., 2003). This effect maybe due to a release of iron from the heme iron complex by oxidative cleavage of theporphyrin ring and conversion of heme to non-heme iron (Buchowski et al., 1988;Schricker et al., 1982). In the present study, total and heme iron losses during cookingwere lower than those reported by previous researchers. This could be attributed to thedifferent cooking methods and temperatures used. The total and heme iron may be lostduring cooking and released as cooking juice. The possibility that cooking juicescontain total or heme iron was considered but was not evaluated.

The average macro- and micro-element concentrations in Longissimus thoracismuscles from camels are presented in Table III. Potassium was the most abundantelement determined which accounted for 61.0 and 55.5 per cent, on average, of the totalminerals for the raw and cooked camel meat, respectively. The mean content of1,560 mg/100 g dry matter was higher than values reported previously for camels byKadim et al. (2006, 2008) with means of 704,762 mg/100 g, respectively. Potassium was

Minerals Fresh Cooked Per cent loss SEM Significance

Calcium 5.49 3.1 43.5 0.32 * * *

Phosphorus 676 493 27.1 10.6 * * *

Magnesium 74.5 38.4 48.5 2.10 * * *

Sodium 312 148 52.6 3.80 * * *

Potassium 1560 930 40.4 29.5 * * *

Sulfur 562 520 7.5 9.6 *

Zinc 14.9 13.2 11.4 0.23 NSBarium 5.9 4.6 22.0 0.23 * *

Boron 3.8 3.3 13.2 0.11 *

Aluminum 2.4 2.3 4.2 0.34 NSCopper 0.34 0.29 14.7 0.30 NS

Notes: Significance: NS not-significant, *p , 0.05; * *p , 0.01, * * *p , 0.001, SEM ¼ Standard errorof the means

Table III.Mineral composition

(mg/100 g DM) of freshand cooked camel

Longissimus thoracismuscle

Fresh Cooked Per cent difference SEM Significance

Total iron 66.5 63.6 þ4.3 2.01 *

Heme iron 52.4 47.8 þ8.7 1.94 * *

Non-heme iron 27.1 25.9 þ4.0 1.39 * *

Notes: Significance: *p , 0.05, * *p , 0.01, SEM ¼ Standard error of the means

Table II.Total iron, heme iron and

non-heme iron contents(mg/kg DM) in fresh and

cooked camelLongissimus thoracis

muscle

Mineralcomposition of

camel meat

487

followed by phosphorus, sodium, magnesium and calcium, respectively, in addition tosmaller percentages of other trace elements. These findings are in agreement with thatof Kadim et al. (2006, 2008) for one-humped camels. In the present study, the cookedcamel meat samples had significantly lower macro- and micro-mineral content than thefresh meat samples. Results presented herein are in agreement with that of Gerber et al.(2009) who found that cooking significantly decreased various minerals in beef, porkand veal meat samples and suggested that the losses are due to the leaching ofminerals into broth. The boiling process used in the current study affected mineralcontent the most. However, according to Jansuittivechakul et al. (1985), normal cookingdoes not appreciably affect the quantity or availability of minerals in meat. Thenutritional implications of the availability of minerals in cooked meat are difficult toevaluate because variable amounts of minerals do leach into broth (Zenoble andBowers, 1977) The magnitude of mineral loss is thus dependent on the cooking mediumand utilization of the drip (Gerber et al., 2009). For calcium, phosphorus, magnesium,sodium and potassium, statistical differences were detected between raw and cookedmeat samples. The mineral with the highest loss during cooking was sodium (52.6 percent) followed by magnesium (48.5 per cent), calcium (43.5 per cent), potassium (40.4per cent), phosphorus (27.1 per cent), Barium (22.0 per cent), and Boron (13.2 per cent).The influence of cooking on mineral content may be associated with water loss.

The protein qualities of muscles lie in the extent of the availability of essentialamino acids in proportions required by humans (Casey, 1993). The amino acid valuesfor camel meat in the present study (see Table IV) were similar to values previouslyreported for camel meat by Kadim et al. (2008). The most abundant essential aminoacid in camel meat is lysine, leucine and arginine, respectively. The amino acidcomposition of the protein of cooked meat is similar to that for fresh camel meat. Thesefindings indicate that the average amino acid composition of the muscle is quiteunmodified and is not unduly influenced as a result of cooking. This was confirmed bycomparing the total amount of each amino acid in camel meat samples before and after

Fresh Cooked Per cent difference SEM Significance

Leucine 6.65 6.82 þ2.4 0.09 NSValine 4.49 4.52 þ0.6 0.08 NSIsoleucine 3.82 3.82 þ0.0 0.08 NSThrenonine 3.57 3.79 þ5.8 0.11 NSArginine 5.29 5.46 þ3.1 0.08 NSHistidine 3.53 3.21 23.2 0.10 NSLysine 7.50 7.61 þ1.4 0.12 NSMethionine 2.34 2.32 20.8 0.8 NSGlycine 3.44 3.64 þ5.4 0.10 NSAlanine 5.24 5.26 þ0.3 0.13 NSProline 3.17 3.39 þ6.4 0.11 NSPhenylalanine 3.47 3.52 þ1.4 0.08 NSSerine 2.86 2.97 þ3.7 0.07 NSGultamic A. 12.8 12.7 20.7 0.13 NSAspartic A. 7.49 7.87 þ4.8 0.14 NSTyrosine 2.81 2.91 þ3.4 0.11 NS

Notes: Significance: NS not-significant, SEM ¼ Standard error of the means

Table IV.Amino acid composition(mg/100 g DM) of freshand cooked camelLongissimus thoracismuscles

BFJ113,4

488

cooking. These results are consistent with those obtained for the same amino acids inbeef (Greenwood et al., 1951), pork and lamb cuts (Schweigert et al., 1949).

The literature mainly describes the fatty acid composition of fresh meat from meatproducing animals (Nuernberg et al., 2006). The effect of cooking on fatty acidcomposition of meat has been reported with contradictory results due to differentanimal species, meat cuts, cooking methods and temperatures ( Janicki and Appledorf,1974; Ono et al., 1985; Slover et al., 1987; Smith et al., 1989; Heymann et al., 1990; Zirpinand Rhee, 1990; Scheeder et al., 2001, Sarries et al., 2009, Gerber et al., 2009). Howeverthe effect of cooking is dependent on meat type and fat content (Rhee, 2000). In thepresent study, cooking exerted no significant effect on fatty acid composition (seeTable V). This is in agreement with Sarries et al. (2009) who reported no changes in therelative distribution of fatty acids of beef Longissimus muscles on cooking at 1408C for30 mins. However, Gerber et al. (2009) reported that the total saturated, unsaturatedand polyunsaturated fatty acids of beef muscles decreased significantly by grilling.They attributed these differences to the melting of fat during cooking. Ono et al. (1985)stated that unsaturated fatty acids are less affected by cooking since they are part ofthe membrane structure. As shown in Table V, Oleic acid is the most abundantmonounsaturated fatty acid found in camel meat (33.5 per cent) followed by palmeticacid (28.5 per cent), and stearic acid (19.3 per cent). The percentage of polyunsaturatedfatty acids in camel meat (5.6 per cent), were lower than that of beef (8.8 per cent),buffalo (28.6 per cent) and deer (31.4 per cent) (Sinclair et al., 1982). The present studyrevealed no significant difference between the fresh and cooked meat samples, which isin agreement with that of Suzuki et al. (1988), and Sarries et al. (2009).

4. ConclusionCamel meat is rich in minerals, amino acids, fatty acids and heme iron. Cookingresulted in a greater increase in dry matter, protein and fat contents and significantchanges in the proportions of macro- and micro-minerals occurred. Amino acids andfatty acids were not significantly affected by cooking. Further studies in sensory andphysical properties of the processed camel meat may improve its consumption.

Fatty acid (%) Fresh Cooked Per cent difference SEM Signficance

Myristic (C14:0) 3.1 3.2 þ3.1 0.36 NSPentadecanoic (C15:0) 2.1 2.2 þ4.5 0.27 NSPalmitic (C16:0) 28.5 28.6 þ0.4 2.99 NSStearic (C18:0) 19.3 19.4 þ0.5 2.59 NSMyristoleic (C14:1) 1.6 1.5 26.3 0.18 NSPalmitoleic (C16:1) 6.3 6.2 21.6 0.84 NSOleic (C18:1) 33.5 33.4 20.3 0.91 NSLinoleic (C18:2) 3.2 3.1 23.1 0.21 NSLinolenic (C18:3) 1.2 1.2 0.0 0.74 NSArachidonic (C20:4) 1.2 1.2 0.0 0.53 NSTotal saturated fatty acids 53.0 53.4 þ0.7 10.21 NSTotal mono-unsaturated fatty acids 41.4 41.1 20.7 4.82 NSTotal poly-unsaturated fatty acids 5.6 5.5 21.8 0.67 NS

Notes: Significance: NS not-significant, SEM ¼ Standard error of the means; values are on dry-basis

Table V.Least square mean

percentages of fatty acidcomposition of fresh and

cooked camel longissimusthoracis muscle

Mineralcomposition of

camel meat

489

References

Ahn, D.U., Wolfe, F.H. and Sim, J.S. (1993), “Three methods for determining non heme iron inturkey meat”, Journal of Food Science, Vol. 58, pp. 288-91.

AOAC (2000), Official Methods of Analysis of Association of Analytical Chemist, 17th ed., AOACInternational, Gaithersburg, MD.

Bradford, W., Berry, P.D. and Leddy, K. (1984), “Beef fatty composition: effect of fat content andcooking method”, Journal of American Dietetic Association, Vol. 84, pp. 654-8.

Brewer, M.S. and Novakofski, J. (1999), “Cooking rate, pH and final endpoint temperature effectson color and cook loss of a lean ground beef model system”, Meat Science, Vol. 52,pp. 443-51.

Buchowski, M.S., Mahoney, A.W., Carpenter, C.E. and Cornforth, D.P. (1988), “Heating anddistribution of total and heme iron between meat and broth”, Journal of Food Science,Vol. 53, pp. 43-5.

Carpenter, C.E. and Clark, E. (1995), “Evaluation of methods used in meat iron analysis and ironcontent of raw and cooked meats”, Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, Vol. 43,pp. 1824-7.

Casey, N.H. (1993), “Carcass and meat quality”, in Maree, C. and Casey, N.H. (Eds), LivestockProduction Systems; Principles and Practice, Agri-Development Foundation, Brooklyn,South Africa, pp. 306-33.

Chappell, A. (1986), “The effect of cooking on the chemical composition of meat with specialreference to fat loss”, MSc thesis, University Bristol, Bristol.

Dawood, A. and Alkanhal, M.A. (1995), “Nutrient composition of Najdi-Camel meat”, MeatScience, Vol. 39, pp. 71-8.

El-Faer, M.Z., Rawdah, T.N., Attar, K.M. and Dawson, M.V. (1991), “Mineral and proximatecomposition of the meat of the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedaries)”, FoodChemistry, Vol. 42, pp. 139-43.

Elqasim, E.A. and Alkanhal, M.A. (1992), “Proximate composition, amino acids and inorganicminerals content of Arabian camel meat: comparative study”, Food Chemistry, Vol. 45,pp. 1-4.

Elqasim, E.A., Elhag, G.A. and Elnawawi, F.A. (1987), Quality Attributes of Camel Meat, SecondCongress Report, The Scientific Council, King Fasil University, Alhash.

Gerber, N., Scheeder, M.R.L. and Wenk, C. (2009), “The influence of cooking and fat trimming onthe actual nutrient intake from meat”, Meat Science, Vol. 81, pp. 148-54.

Giese, J. (1992), “Developing low fat meat products”, Food Technology, Vol. 46, pp. 100-8.

Greenwood, D.A., Kraybill, H.R. and Schweigert, B.S. (1951), “Amino acid composition of freshand cooked beef cuts”, The Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 191, pp. 23-8.

Heymann, H., Hendrick, H.B., Karrasch, M.A., Eggeman, M.K. and Ellersieck, M.R. (1990),“Sensory and chemical characteristics of fresh pork roasts cooked to different endpointtemperatures”, Journal of Food Science, Vol. 55, pp. 613-7.

Hornsey, H.C. (1956), “The colour of cooked cured pork. 1. Estimation of the nitric oxide-haempigments”, Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, Vol. 7, pp. 534-40.

Janicki, L.J. and Appledorf, H. (1974), “Effect of boiling, grill frying and microwave cooking onmoisture, some lipid components and total fatty acids of ground beef”, Journal of FoodScience, Vol. 39, pp. 715-7.

BFJ113,4

490

Jansuittivechakul, O., Mahoney, A.W., Cornforth, D.P., Hendricks, D.G. and Kangsadalampai, K.(1985), “Effect of heat treatment on bioavailability of meat and hemoglobin iron fed toanemic rats”, Journal of food Science, Vol. 50, pp. 407-9.

Kadim, I.T., Mahgoub, O. and Purchas, R.W. (2008), “A review of the growth, and of the carcassand meat quality characteristics of the one-humped camel (Camelus dromedaries)”, MeatScience, Vol. 80, pp. 555-69.

Kadim, I.T., Moughan, P.J. and Ravindran, V. (2002a), “Ileal amino acid digestibility for thegrowing meat chicken-composition of ileal and extra amino acid digestibility in thechicken”, British Poultry Science, Vol. 43, pp. 588-97.

Kadim, I.T., Mahgoub, O., Al-Maqbaly, R.S., Annamalai, K. and Al-Ajmi, D.S. (2002b), “Effects ofage on fatty acid composition of the hump and abdomen depot fats of the Arabian camel(Camelus dromedarius)”, Meat Science, Vol. 62, pp. 245-51.

Kadim, I.T., Mahgoub, O., Al-Marzooqi, W., Al-Zadgali, S., Annamali, K. and Mansour, M.H.(2006), “Effects of age on composition and quality of muscle Longissimus thoracis of theOmani Arabian camel (Camelus dromedaries)”, Meat Science, Vol. 73, pp. 619-25.

Kadim, I.T., Al-Hosni, Y., Mahgoub, O., Al-Marzooqi, W., Khalaf, S.K., Al-Sinawi, S.S.H.,Al-Lawati, A.M. and Al-Amri, I.S. (2009), “Effect of low voltage electrical stimulation onpost mortem biochemical and quality characteristics of Longissimus thoracis muscle fromone-humped camel (Camelus dromedaries)”, Meat Science, Vol. 82, pp. 77-85.

Kongkachuichai, R., Napatthalung, P. and Charoensiri, R. (2002), “Heme and non-heme ironcontent of animal products commonly consumed in Thailand”, Journal of FoodComposition and Analysis, Vol. 15, pp. 389-93.

Laroche, M. (1988), “La caisson, technologie de la viande et des produits carnes”, in Girard, J.P.(Ed.), Technique & Documentation, Lavoisier, Paris, pp. 33-75.

Lee, K. and Shimaoka, J.E. (1984), “Forms of iron in meats cured with nitrate and erythorbate”,Journal of Food Science, 49, pp., Vol. 49, pp. 284-85-287.

Lombardi-Boccia, G., Dominguez, B.M. and Aguzzi, A. (2002), “Total heme and non-heme iron inraw and cooked meat”, Journal of Food Science, Vol. 67, pp. 1738-41.

Love, J.A. and Prusa, K.J. (1992), “Nutrient composition and sensory attributes of cooked groundbeef: effects of fat content, cooking method and water rinsing”, Journal of Anerican DieteticAssociation, Vol. 92, pp. 1367-71.

Merck Index (1989), An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs and Biological, 11th ed., Merck andCompany, Rahway, NJ.

Morton, R. (1984), “Camels for meat and milk production in sub-Sahara Africa”, Journal DairyScience, Vol. 67, pp. 1548-53.

Nuernberg, K., Kuechenmeister, U., Nuernberg, G., Hartung, M., Dannenberger, D. and Ender, K.(2006), “Effect of storage and grilling on fatty acids in muscle of pigs fed plant oils”,European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology, Vol. 108, pp. 554-60.

Ono, K., Berry, B.W. and Paroczay, E. (1985), “Contents and retention of nutrients in extra lean,lean and regular ground beef”, Journal of Food Science, Vol. 50, pp. 701-6.

Ortigues-Marty, I., Thomas, E., Preveraud, D.P., Girard, C.L., Bauchart, D., Durand, D. andPeyron, A. (2006), “Influence of maturation and cooking treatments on the nutritionalvalue of bovine meats: water losses and Vitamin B12”, Meat Science, Vol. 73, pp. 451-8.

Purchas, R.W., Simcock, D.C., Knight, T.W. and Wilkinson, B.H.P. (2003), “Variation in the formof iron in beef and lamb meat and losses of iron during cooking and storage”, InternationalJournal of Food Science and Technology, Vol. 38, pp. 827-37.

Mineralcomposition of

camel meat

491

Rhee, K.S. (2000), “Fatty acids in meats and meat products”, in Chow, C.K. (Ed.), Fatty Acids inFoods and their Health Implications, Marcel Dekker, New York, NY.

Rodriguez-Estrada, M.T., Penazzi, G., Caboni, M.F., Bertacco, G. and Lercker, G. (1997), “Effect ofdifferent cooking methods on some lipid and protein components of hamburger”, MeatScience, Vol. 45, pp. 365-75.

Sadettin, T., Sule Ustun, N. and Bogachan Altunkaynak, T. (2004), “Effect of cooking methods ontotal and heme iron contents of anchovy (Engraulis encrasicholus)”, Food Chemistry,Vol. 88, pp. 169-72.

Sarries, M.V., Murray, B.E., Moloney, A.P., Troy, D. and Beriain, M.J. (2009), “The effect ofcooking on the fatty acid composition of longissimus muscle from beef heifer fed rationsdesigned to increase the concentration of conjugated linoleic acid in tissue”, Meat Science,Vol. 81, pp. 307-12.

SAS (1993), Statistical Analysis System. SAS/STAT Users Guide, Volume 2, Version 6, SAS,Cary, NC.

Scheeder, M.R.L., Casutt, M.M., Roulin, M., Escher, F., Dufey, P.A. and Kreuzer, M. (2001), “Fattyacid composition cooking loss and texture of beef patties from meat of bulls fed differentfats”, Meat Science, Vol. 58, pp. 321-8.

Schricker, B.R., Miller, D.D. and Stouffer, J.R. (1982), “Measurement and content of non-heme andtotal iron in muscle”, Journal of Food Science, Vol. 47, pp. 741-3.

Schweigert, B.S., Gutheneck, B.T., Kraybill, H.R. and Greenwood, D.A. (1949), “The amino acidcomposition of pork and lamb cuts”, The Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 180,pp. 1077-83.

Shalash, M.R. (1979), “Effect of age on quality of camel meat”, paper presented at First Workshopon Camel, Khartoum International Foundation for Science, Khartoum.

Shalash, M.R. (1983), “The role of camels in overcoming world meat shortage”, Egyptian Journalof Veterinary Science, Vol. 20, pp. 101-10.

Sheard, P.R., Wood, J.D., Nute, G.R. and Ball, R.C. (1998), “Effects of grilling to 808C on thechemical composition of pork loin chops and some observations on the UK national foodsurvey estimate of fat consumption”, Meat Science, Vol. 49, pp. 193-204.

Sinclair, A.J., Slattery, W.J. and O’Dea, K. (1982), “The analysis of polyunsaturated fatty acids inmeat by capillary gas-liquid chromatography”, Journal of Science and Food Agriculture,Vol. 33, pp. 771-6.

Skidmore, J.A. (2005), “Reproduction in dromedary camels: an update”, Animal Reproduction,Vol. 2, pp. 161-71.

Slover, H.T., Lanza, E., Thompson, R.H. Jr, Davis, C.S. and Merola, G.V. (1987), “Lipids in rawand cooked beef”, Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, Vol. 1, pp. 26-37.

Smith, D.R., Savell, J.W., Smith, S.B. and Cross, H.R. (1989), “Fatty acid and proximatecomposition of raw and cooked retail cuts of beef trimmed to different external fat levels”,Meat Science, Vol. 26, pp. 295-311.

Suzuki, H., Chung, S., Isobe, S., Hayakawa, S. and Wada, S. (1988), “Changes in v-3polyunsaturated fatty acids in the chum salmon muscle during spawning migration andextrusion cooking”, Journal of Food Science, Vol. 53, pp. 1659-61.

Tandon, S.N., Bissa, U.K. and Khanna, N.D. (1988), “Camel meat: present status and futureprospects”, Annals of Arid Zone, Vol. 27, pp. 23-8.

Turhan, S., Ustun, N.S. and Altunkaynak, T.B. (2004), “Effect of cooking methods on total andheme iorn contents of anchovy (Engraulis encrasicholus)”, Food Chemistry, Vol. 88,pp. 169-72.

BFJ113,4

492

Zenoble, O.C. and Bowers, J.A. (1977), “Copper, zinc and iron content of turkey muscles”, Journalof Food Science, Vol. 42, p. 1408.

Zirpin, Y.A. and Rhee, K.S. (1990), “Characteristics of pork products from swine fed a highmonounsaturated fat diet. Part 3. A high-fat cured product”, Meat Science, Vol. 28,pp. 171-80.

About the authorsI.T. Kadim is based at the Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, College ofAgricultural and Marine Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Al-Khoud, Muscat, Sultanate ofOman. I.T. Kadim is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: [email protected]

M.R Al-Ani is based at the Department of Food Science and Nutrition, College of Agriculturaland Marine Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Al-Khoud, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman.

R.S. Al-Maqbaly is based at the Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, College ofAgricultural and Marine Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Al-Khoud, Muscat, Sultanate ofOman.

M.H. Mansour is based at the Department of Soil, Water and Agricultural Engineering,College of Agricultural and Marine Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Al-Khoud, Muscat,Sultanate of Oman.

O. Mahgoub is based at the Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, College ofAgricultural and Marine Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Al-Khoud, Muscat, Sultanate ofOman.

E.H. Johnson is based at the Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, College ofAgricultural and Marine Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Al-Khoud, Muscat, Sultanate ofOman.

Mineralcomposition of

camel meat

493

To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: [email protected] visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints