Provenancing Merovingian Garnets by PIXE....

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Provenancing Merovingian garnets by PIXE andµ-Raman spectrometry

PATRICK PÉRIN, THOMAS CALLIGARO, FRANÇOISE VALLET, JEAN-PAUL POIROT & DOMINIQUE BAGAULT

Abstract

PIXE and µ-Raman spectrometry provide non-destructive, non-invasive, rapid and sensitive analyses of artefacts in order to answer three major issues in the field of art and archaeology: 1) identification of the material; 2) determination of provenance; and 3) the study of surface modification (ageing, alteration). We present here the study of the red gemstones mounted on jewels unearthed from the Merovingian necropolis of Saint-Denis (fifth-seventh century) and other excavations in France in order to determine their provenance. The composition of the major elements obtained by PIXE allowed us to identify these gemstones as garnets of the pyraldine family (X3Al2Si3O12, X=Fe, Mg, Mn). The trace element content of these garnets combined with the characterisation of microscopic mineral inclusions using Raman spectrometry and PIXE with a nuclear microprobe allowed us to determine their origin. The majority of the archaeological garnets appear to be almandines originating from India, while pyropes from East Europe were employed for the latest jewels (seventh century). On a few artefacts we observed intermediate pyraldines garnets originating from Ceylon (Sri Lanka), a type of garnet usually found on Roman jewels. This study yields interesting historical implications concerning the evolution of gem routes during the early Middle Ages.

1. Introduction

The Germanic peoples who settled in Western Europe during the fall of the Roman Empire introduced a very specific style of jewellery referred to as “Cloisonné Polychrome”.1 The gemstones used for these jewels were mostly red garnets, as thin and polished slices (<1 mm) inserted in a metallic cell structure, as shown in Pl. 5.1. The provenance

1 Scukin/Bazan 1993; Kazanski/Périn/Calligaro 2000.

Périn, Calligaro, Vallet, Poirot & Bagault70

of these garnets is an important archaeological issue. This is particularly the case if we consider the large amounts of garnets needed to manufacture these artefacts, which were not re-employed but eventually buried in tombs according to Barbarian custom. The determination of their origin could also shed some light on the establishment and evolution of the routes for precious goods during the early Middle Ages. During the past forty years, several studies have been undertaken and they have generally concluded that these garnets issued from long distance trade with Asia or with Northern or Eastern Europe.2 The present work, dealing with an unprecedented large number of garnets set on Merovingian objects (more than 1000) aims to confirm these conclusions and to locate precisely the deposits used and the way the garnets were employed on the objects. The artefacts investigated span the entire Merovingian era (fifth-seventh century) and include those unearthed from the necropolis of the basilica of Saint-Denis near Paris, with the famous jewels of the Frankish queen Aregonde exhibited in the Louvre Museum.3 As in previous studies, the fingerprinting of the garnets used for this work relies on their mineralogical and chemical characterisation, and we have taken advantage of two highly-performing, non-destructive analytical techniques, namely analysis with ion beams4 and Raman spectrometry.5

Mineralogically speaking, garnets form a large family. The most common garnets belong to the pyraldine series whose chemical formula is X3Al2(SiO4)3, where X is a divalent ion like Fe (almandine), Mg (pyrope) or Mn (spessartite), with each combina-tion corresponding to an end-member. The situation is actually more complex as natural garnets are a solid solution of end-members in varying proportions. Because garnets are relatively widespread minerals and their composition is highly variable, we had to combine several criteria to determine their origin.

2. Experimentation

The first criterion of provenance relies on the composition of the garnet crystal, which is strongly related to the conditions of formation of the host rock. The major constituents (Mg, Al, Si, Ca, Mn, Fe) and trace elements (Ti, V, Cr, Y) were determined by PIXE (Particle induced x-ray emission) using the external micro-beam line of the AGLAE (Accélerateur Grand Louvre d’Analyse Elémentaire) accelerator of the Centre de Recherche et de Restauration des Musées de France.6 The identification of microscopic

2 Greiff 1999; Mellis 1963; Roth 1980; Bimson 1982; Arrhenius 1985; Van Roy/Vanhaeke 1997; Farges 1998, Quast/Schüssler 2000.

3 Fleury/France-Lanord 1998.4 Dran/Calligaro/Salomon 2000.5 Schubnel/Pinet/Smith/Lasnier 1992.6 Dran/Salomon/Calligaro/Walter 2004.

Provenancing Merovingian garnets 71

mineral inclusions was achieved by micro-Raman spectrometry with a Horiba-Jobin-Yvon Infinity spectrometer with a 532 nm laser in confocal mode.7 In a few cases, the elemental composition of inclusions was obtained with the nuclear microprobe in PIXE mode.

3. Results and discussion

The first criterion of provenance is based on the chemical composition of the Merovingian garnets. In the CaO versus MgO plot of Pl. 5.2, the composition of garnets markedly clusters in five groups. Table 1 summarises the mean composition of the five types observed. The majority of Merovingian garnets are almandine (Fe-rich) which are labelled type I and II (48 % and 32 %, respectively). Type I and II exhibit slightly different calcium and magnesium concentrations and as shown in Pl. 6.1; they can also be separated according to their trace element composition (chromium and yttrium). We have observed that type I and II are often mixed in various proportions in the same archaeological object. Type III garnets, with an intermediate almandine-pyrope composition (sometimes called rhodolites) were only found on a few artefacts. The last two types labelled type IV and V correspond to pyrope garnets (Mg-rich), respectively without and with chromium. Type IV and V were only observed on the latest jewels (end of the sixth-beginning of

oxidesType I48%

Type II32%

Type III6%

Type IV8%

Type V7%

% σ % σ % σ % σ % σSiO2 36.0 1.2 37.3 0.8 39.3 1.1 41.2 0.8 41.5 0.7TiO2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.04 0.45 0.16Al2O3 20.8 1.2 21.5 0.7 22.5 0.6 23.1 0.4 21.6 0.6Cr2O3 0.0 0.0 0.06 0.04 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.2 0.7FeO 37.5 2.2 32.1 1.5 23.0 2.6 12.7 1.6 8.9 0.5MnO 0.4 0.5 1.2 0.9 0.6 0.4 0.4 0.03 0.3 0.03MgO 4.4 0.7 6.2 0.9 11.7 2.3 16.3 0.9 19.8 0.5CaO 0.7 0.3 1.4 0.6 2.6 1.5 5.4 0.2 4.3 0.28

End-membersalmandine 80.43 69.58 48.12 25.82 16.38pyrope 16.82 23.86 43.66 59.28 64.94

spessartite 0.82 2,70 1.33 0.74 0.65grossular 1,92 3.60 6.89 14.16 10.2uvarovite 0.00 0.25 0.00 0.00 7.82

Table 1

7 Calligaro/Colinart/Poirot/Sudres 2002.


the seventh century). The high chromium content of type V is typical for garnets from East Europe (Bohemian deposits).

The comparison of the composition of the Merovingian garnets with the composition of reference garnets published in previous studies allows us to propose a provenance.8 For instance, type I and II almandines might originate from India. The very peculiar composition of type III is typical of the garnets from Ceylon. We have noted that type III often occurs in Roman and Byzantine jewellery. The source of type V pyrope garnets likely corresponds to the Bohemian deposits located in East Europe. The origin of type IV is still being investigated. However, closer sources of almandine garnets that would fit with type I or II are reported in Gaul (Pyrenees, central massif) and in the Iberian Peninsula (Alméria), and their use cannot be a priori excluded. Some additional arguments must be employed to restrict the possible sources to the almandines.

The second criterion of provenance relies on the identification the microscopic mineral inclusions embedded in the garnet crystal. The Raman spectra collected on

Fig. 1. PIXE spectrum of a radioactive inclusion allows us to date the almandine crystal. The relative uranium and lead content yields an approximate crystal age of 1.5 billion years

8 Quast/Schüssler 2000; Greiff 1999.


inclusions of type I and II garnets allowed us to identify apatite, zircon, monazite, calcite, quartz, etc. Among these inclusions, two appeared particularly significant: curved needles of sillimanite (Al2SiO5) and rounded radioactive crystals with a 10 µm diameter. Pl. 6.2 shows the Raman spectra of a sillimanite needle, which is a mineral only formed under a high-temperature and high-pressure metamorphism. This type of peculiar metamorphism is usually found in very ancient rocks. The radioactive crystal was analysed by PIXE with an external micro-beam with a 20 µm diameter. As shown in the PIXE spectrum of Fig. 1, uranium and lead were found in this inclusion. The presence of lead is due to the radioactive decay of 235U and 238U (0.7 and 4.46 billion-year half life, respectively) and this inclusion can therefore be used to determine the age of the crystal. The Pb/U ratio indicates that the garnet crystallised between 1 to 1.5 billion years ago, during the Precambrian period. Thus, the almandine composition of the garnets, the presence of sillimanite and the very ancient age of the crystal (~1.5 Ga) converge towards highly metamorphosed rocks of the Proterozoic (Precambrian period). From the map in Fig. 2, we can see that among the rare exposed rocks from that period are the Baltic and Indian shields. Since the composition of Scandinavian garnets is markedly different from that of the almandine considered in this study, we can discard all European sources of garnets. The only possibilities left are the Indian metamorphic

Fig. 2. Map of exposed rocks dating from the Proterozoic period (Precambrian). Among the few outcrops, note the Baltic shield in the north of Europe and the Indian shield, which notably contains famous garnet deposits


belts located in the Rhajastan and on the East cost, which notably contain famous garnet deposits of gem quality.

4. Conclusion and outlook

By confirming that a majority of garnets used in Merovingian jewellery originated from India, this work brings a decisive contribution to the mineralogical and gemmological investigations carried out over the course of forty years to determine the provenance of these gems. The other type of garnets (set on a few early artefacts) are pyraldine garnets from Ceylon, which are similar to those employed by the Romans; and pyrope garnets from Bohemia for the latest jewels. The presence of pyrope garnet from Europe might be explained by the closing of the garnet route to the East due to the invasion of the Arabic peninsula by the Sassanids at the end of the sixth century.9 From that period onwards, Merovingians would have had to employ European garnets instead of Asian ones. Unfortunately, the limited size of the pyrope crystals and the weak production of these mines eventually led to the disappearance of this particular style of jewellery. Al-though some artefacts bore a single type of garnet, most of the time two or three types were mixed on the objects. Craftsmen combined various sources, although the motiva-tion for this decision is undetermined (availability of the gems, location of workshops, symbolic or aesthetic considerations?). It would be interesting to extend this extensive work on the French Merovingian collections to Germanic jewellery collections from other European countries for a better understanding of the establishment and the evo-lution of the garnet route between Asia and Western Europe during the early Middle Ages.

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Périn, Calligaro, Vallet, Poirot & Bagault • Merovingian garnets Plate 5

1. Brooch of the Frankish queen Are-gonde with garnets set in “cloisonné” style placed in the external beam of the AGLAE accelerator

2. The CaO vs MgO plot shows that the Merovingian garnets cluster five types corresponding to different sources: type I and type II are almandines from India, type III are pyraldines from Ceylon and type IV and

type V correspond to pyropes likely originating from Europe

Périn, Calligaro, Vallet, Poirot & Bagault • Merovingian garnetsPlate 6

1. The Cr2O3 vs MgO plot confirms the use of five garnet sources. The high chromium content of type V is typical for East European garnets (Bohemian deposits)

2. Raman spectrum of a sillimanite inclusion, indicating a high grade metamorphism, which is characteristic of Precambrian rocks

Picture credits

BUKO

1: Bogucki, 2005; 2: drawing by M. Trzeciecki; 3: Filipowiak/Gundlach 1992; 4: Bartczak/Jagodziński/Suchodolski 2004; 5: Moździoch 2002 (left) and Kurnatowska 2002b (right); 6: Wa-chowski 1997; 7: Radwański 2000; 8: Zoll-Adamikowa/Dekówna/Nosek 1999; 9: Buko 2005; 10: ibid

BURNOUF

1-2: designed by Nathalie Carcaud and the cartographic laboratory of the University of Angers; 3: photograph courtesy of Manuel Garcin-BRGM; 4-5: photograph courtesy of Nicolas Fouillet INRAP and Samuel David INRAP; 6: author; 7: designed by Manuel Garcin-BRGM

BRATHER

1: after Wiechmann 1996, 168, table 17, slightly altered after Hårdh 1976, 130, fig.8; 2: modified after Wiechmann 1996, 181, fig.115; 3: compiled after Kilger 2000, 358-364; 4: compiled after Czapkiewicz/Gupieniec/Kmietowicz/Kubiak 1964; Wiechmann 1996, 241-255; Kiersnowska/Kiersnowski 1959, no. 91; Gupieniec/Kiersnowska/Kiersnowski 1965, no. 57; 5: after Hårdh 1996, 87-88; Giekau added after Wiechmann 1996, 241-255; 6: after Hårdh 1996, 217-218, tab. 35-36; 7: after Sperber 1996, 105, fig. 9.2; 8: compiled after Kiersnowski 1964, no. 143; 1966, no. 3, no. 13; Kiersnowska/Kiersnowski 1959, no. 103; 9: compiled after Kiersnowska/Kiersnowski 1959, no. 67, no. 123; Reyman 1966, no. 6; Gupieniec/Kiersnowska/Kiersnowski 1955, no. 24; Kmietowicz 1970; 10: modified after Malmer 1985, 189 fig. 8; 11: after Bartczak/Jagodziński/Suchodolski 2004, 31-32; A. Czapkiewicz/Lewicki/Nosek/Opozda-Czapkiewicz 1957; Kmietowicz 1970; M. Czapkiewicz/Gupieniec/Kmietowicz/Kubiak 1964; Wiechmann 1996, 241-255

CALLMER

1-2, 5-7, 9: author; 3: Schietzel 1969; 4: Petterson 1995; 8: Hupalo/Ivakin/Sahadjak 1979

VON CARNAP-BORNHEIM & HILBERG

1: drawing by Reinhard Kühn* after S. Lebecq, Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde X, 1998, 76, fig. 9; 2-4: maps by Volker Hilberg*; 6-7: photographs by Claudia Franz*;*Stiftung Schleswig-Holsteinische Landesmuseen SchleswigPl. 18: map by Matthias Keßler, Stiftung Schleswig-Holsteinische Landesmuseen Schleswig

ETTEL

1, 3-7: author; 2: photograph courtesy of K. Leidorf

FRANCOVICH

1-2: author; Pls 7-13: author; Pls 14-17: drawing by Studio Inklink – Università di Siena

Picture credits564

FUSEK

1-8: Autor

GELICHI

1: modified after Ward-Perkins 1988; 2-5, 7, 9, 14-16: author; 6: aerial photograph courtesy of Parco Regionale Delta del Po – Emilia Romagna; 8: after Francesco Proni 1924 – Manuscript, Soprintendenza Archeologica Emilia Romagna, Biblioteca Museo di Ferrara; 10: Tozzi-Harari 1984; 11-12, 17: Diego Calaon; 13: De Min 2000b

HAMEROW

1: author; 2: after Blackmore 2002; 3: after Scull 2002; 4: photograph reproduced with kind permission of Suffolk County Council; 5: after Blinkhorn 1999; Pl. 19: John Hodgson; reproduced with kind permission of Southampton City Museums and Southampton City Council

HENNING & KORWISI (FOREWORD)1-2: photographs courtesy of Guntram Bay;Pl. 1: Excavation data: © University of Frankfurt, b: original profile drawing and digital enhancement: J. Henning; computer design: A. Schweitzer

HENNING 1-4: author; 5: cover illustration from: Pierre Demolon/Henri Galinié/Frans Verhaeghe (Eds), Archéologie des villes dans le Nord-Ouest de l’Europe (7e-13e siècle): Actes du 4e Congrès International d’Archéologie Médiévale (Archaeologia Duacensis 11), Douai 1994;Pl. 2: 1-7, 9-23 – with kind permission of Thomas Fischer (Prähistorische Staatssammlung München), publ. in prep.; 8 – with kind permission of Klaus Georg Kokkotidis (Württembergisches Landesmuseum Stuttgart) publ.: U. Koch, Arch. Korrbl. 18, 1988, 205-208; digital enhancement A. Ehrlich; Pl. 3: photos: author, © University of Frankfurt; Pl. 4: Excavation data: © University of Frankfurt, 4a-c: computer design and photos – author; 4a: contour plan after N. Wand

KIND 1: nach Vonderau 1931, 56 Abb. 23, Ergänzungen durch Th. Kind; 2: nach Vonderau 1899, Plan I, Ergänzungen durch Th. Kind; 3: Zeichnungen: A. Ehrlich; Bildmontage: Th. Kind. Nr. 1: Von-derau-Museum Fulda (VMF) Inv.-Nr. I AF 11, Nr. 2: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AF 12, Nr. 3: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AG 8, Nr. 4: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AG 1, Nr. 5: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AF 16, Nr. 6: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AF 15, Nr. 7: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AF 14; 4: Zeichnungen: A. Ehrlich; Bildmontage: Th. Kind. Nr. 1: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AC 39, Nr. 2: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AC 38-2, Nr. 3: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AC 88, Nr. 4: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AC 91, Nr. 5: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AC 30, Nr. 6: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AC 98, Nr. 7: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AB 25, Nr. 8: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AB 13, Nr. 9: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AC 93, Nr. 10: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AC 89, Nr. 11: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AC 27, Nr. 12: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AC 37, Nr. 13: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AC 22, Nr. 14: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AC 28, Nr. 15: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AC 24, Nr. 16: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AC 23, Nr. 17: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AC 29, Nr. 18: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AC 79, Nr. 19: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AC 34, Nr. 20: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AC 26, Nr. 21: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AC 6+7, Nr. 22: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AC 38, Nr. 23: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AC 48, Nr. 24: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AC 47, Nr. 25: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AC 49, Nr. 26: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AC 33, Nr. 27: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AC 37; 5: Entwurf: Th. Kind; 6: Zeichnungen: A. Ehrlich; Bildmontage: Th. Kind. Nr. 1: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AD 1 , Nr. 2: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AD 134, Nr. 3: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AD 132, Nr. 4: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AD 84, Nr. 5: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AD 131, Nr. 6: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AD 133, Nr. 7: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AD 3, Nr. 8: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AD 2, Nr. 9: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AD 139, Nr. 10: VMF Inv.-Nr.

Picture credits 565

I AD 74, Nr. 11: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AD135, Nr. 12: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AD 4, Nr. 13: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AD 5, Nr. 14: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AD 11, Nr. 15: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AD 78, Nr. 16: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AD 85, Nr. 17: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AD 6, Nr. 18: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AD 137, Nr. 19: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AD 140, Nr. 20: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AD 144; 7: Funde nach Wolfgang Czysz, „Eine bajuwarische Wassermühle im Paartal bei Dasing“, in: Das Archäologische Jahr in Bayern 1993 (1994), 126 Abb. 89, der Quer-schnitt nach Uta v. Freeden, „Die Wassermühle. Ein antikes Erbe“, in: Wilfried Menghin/Dieter Planck (Hrsg.), Menschen, Zeiten, Räume – Archäologie in Deutschland, Stuttgart 2002, 331 Abb. 2, die Rekonstruktion nach Uta v. Freeden, „Reich der Franken – eine Grundlage Europas“, in: Uta v. Freeden/Siegmar v. Schnurbein (Hrsg.), Spuren der Jahrtausende. Archäologie und Geschichte in Deutschland, Stuttgart 2002, 333 Abb. 580; 8: Entwurf Th. Kind unter Verwendung der Angaben bei Böhme 1999, Pascal Rohmer, „Le moulin carolingien d’Audun-le-Tiche“, in: L’Archéologique, no. 22, Juin 1996 (1996), S. 6-8, Karine Berthier/Paul Benoît, „Les moulins hydrauliques de l’Antiquité à la fin du Moyen Age en France d’apres les données archéologiques“, in: Zeitschrift für Archäologie des Mittelalters 31, 2003 (2004), S. 3-9, Philip Rahtz/Robert Meeson, „An Anglo-Sa-xon Watermill at Tamworth. Excavations in the Bolebridge Street area of Tamworth, Staffordshire, in 1971 and 1978“, Council for British Archaeology, Research Report 83, London 1992, Axel Steensberg, „The horizontal water mill. A contribution to its early history“, in: Prace i Materiały Muzeum archeologicznego i etnograficznego w Łodzi. Seria Archeologiczna 25, 1978 (1979), S. 345-356, Hartwig Löhr/Mechthild Neyses, „Späteiszeitliche bis mittelalterliche Ablagerungen im Alfbachtal zwischen Udler und Saxler (Kreis Daun) und ihre dendrochronologische Datierung“, in: Funde und Ausgrabungen im Bezirk Trier 29, 1997, S. 51-66, Petra Tutlies, „Überraschungsfund: Frühester Nachweis einer karolingischen Wassermühle im Rheinland“, in: Archäologie in Deutsch-land 2005, f. 5, S. 4 und einem mündlichen Hinweis von Jörn Schuster, Salisbury; 9: Zeichnungen: A. Ehrlich; Bildmontage: Th. Kind. Nr. 1: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 97, Nr. 2: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 96, Nr. 3: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 88, Nr. 4: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 67, Nr. 5: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 111, Nr. 6: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 49-418, Nr. 7: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 49-417, Nr. 8: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 87, Nr. 9: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 93, Nr. 10: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 49-419, Nr. 11: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 30, Nr. 12: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 49-344, Nr. 13: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 49-318; 10: Zeichnungen: A. Ehrlich; Bildmonta-ge Th. Kind. Nr. 1: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 68, Nr. 2: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 171, Nr. 3: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 172, Nr. 4: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 70, Nr. 5: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 174, Nr. 6: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 173, Nr. 7: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 49-77, Nr. 8: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 49-155, Nr. 9: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 181, Nr. 10: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 160, Nr. 11: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 175, Nr. 12: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 176, Nr. 13: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 224, Nr. 14: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 72; 11: Zeichnungen: A. Ehrlich; Bildmontage: Th. Kind. Nr. 1: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 34, Nr. 2: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 29, Nr. 3: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 33, Nr. 4: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 71, Nr. 5: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 94, Nr. 6: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 205, Nr. 7: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 17, Nr. 8: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 21, Nr. 9: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 209, Nr. 10: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 37, Nr. 11: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 38, Nr. 12: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 213, Nr. 13: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 104, Nr. 14: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 206, Nr. 15: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 177, Nr. 16: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 49-441, Nr. 17: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 49-437, Nr. 18: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 241, Nr. 19: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 49-442, Nr. 20: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 49-440, Nr. 21: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 49-438, Nr. 22: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 201, Nr. 23: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 99, Nr. 24: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 243; 12: Zeichnungen: A. Ehrlich; Bildmontage: Th. Kind. Nr. 1: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 14/2, Nr. 2: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 22/2, Nr. 3: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 210, Nr. 4: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 202, Nr. 5: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 69, Nr. 6: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 27, Nr. 7: VMF Inv.-Nr. I AE 19; 13: Entwurf: Th. Kind unter Verwendung der Angaben bei Steppuhn 1998, 106-110 Tab. 7 Abb. 28, Stephan 1994, Wedepohl 2003, 125-132, Wedepohl 2003a, 85-88, Mitchell 1996, Eleonora Tabaczyńska, „L’Officina vetraria“, „Oggetti vari“, in: Lech Leciejewicz/Eleonora Tabaczyńska/Stanisław Tabaczyński (Hrsg.), Torcello, scavi 1961-62. Istituto nazionale d’Archeologia e storia dell’Arte,

Picture credits566

monografie 3, Roma 1977, S. 89-153 und 239-259, Gerhard Pohl, „Frühmittelalterliche Glaswerk-statt bei St. Ulrich und Afra in Augsburg“, in: Bayerische Vorgeschichtsblätter 37, 1972, S. 60-72, Zdenĕk Farkaš/Vladimír Turčan, „Včasnostredoveká sklárska pec v Bratislave na Devínskej Koby-le“, in: Slovenská Archeológia 46, f. 1, 1998, S. 31-54, Viviane Aubourg/Didier Josset, „Les habi-tants du promontoire“, in: Blois, un château en l’an Mil, Blois 2000, 96-97 und einem mündlichen Hinweis von Wolfram Giertz; 14: nach Willerding 1984, 52 Abb. 2.2, überarbeitet und ergänzt von Th. Kind unter Verwendung von Franz Zauner, „Die Pflanzenfunde von Oberflacht“, in: Siegwalt Schiek, Das Gräberfeld der Merowingerzeit bei Oberflacht (Gemeinde Seitingen-Oberflacht, Lkr. Tuttlingen). Forschungen und Berichte zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte in Baden-Württemberg 41/1, Stuttgart 1992, 131, 140, Folke Damminger, „Die Merowingerzeit im südlichen Kraichgau und in den angrenzenden Landschaften. Untersuchungen zur Siedlungsgeschichte des 5.-8. Jahrhunderts im Gebiet zwischen Oberrhein, Stromberg und Nordschwarzwald“, in: Materialhefte zur Archäolo-gie in Baden-Württemberg 61, Stuttgart 2002, 126-127, 131, Willerding 2000, S. 596-597, Josef Baas, „Römerzeitliche Kultur- und Nutzpflanzen aus Windisch, Avenches und Cham in der Schweiz”, in: Saalburg-Jahrbuch 43, 1987, 108-111, Angela Kreuz, „Vorbericht zur archäobotani-schen Untersuchung“, in: Germania 71, 1993 (1993), H. 2, 498-509, Angela Kreuz, „Landwirt-schaft im Umbruch? Archäobotanische Untersuchungen zu den Jahrhunderten um Christi Geburt in Hessen und Mainfranken“, in: Berichte der Römisch-Germanischen Kommission 85, 2004 (2005), 97-292, Taf. 5,3, Maren Hellwig, Paläoethnobotanische Untersuchungen an mittelalterlichen und frühneuzeitlichen Pflanzenresten aus Braunschweig, Dissertationes botanicae 156, Berlin/Stuttgart 1990, 40, 168, Udelgard Körber-Grohne, „Pollen-, Samen- und Holzbestimmungen aus der mittel-alterlichen Siedlung unter der Oberen Vorstadt in Sindelfingen (Württemberg)“, in: Barbara Scholk-mann, Sindelfingen/Obere Vorstadt. Eine Siedlung des hohen und späten Mittelalters. Forschungen und Berichte der Archäologie des Mittelalters in Baden-Württemberg 3, Stuttgart 1978, 184-198, Tab. 2, Stefanie Jacomet, „Die Hölzer und Früchte im Sohlbrunnen“, 69-77 in: Felix Müller u.a., „Die Burgstelle Friedberg bei Meilen am Zürichsee“, in: Zeitschrift für die Archäologie des Mittel-alters 9, 1981, 69-77 Abb. 48, Stefanie Jacomet/Nidija Felice/Barbara Füzesi, „Teil III. Verkohlte Samen und Früchte aus der hochmittelalterlichen Grottenburg Riedfluh bei Eptingen, Kanton Ba-selland (Nordwest-Schweiz). Ein Beitrag zum Speisezettel des Adels im Hochmittelalter“, in: Peter Degen u.a., Die Grottenburg Riedfluh, Eptingen BL. Bericht über die Ausgrabungen 1981-1983. Schweizer Beiträge zur Kulturgeschichte und Archäologie des Mittelalters 15, Olten/Freiburg im Breisgau 1988, 169-243 Tab. 11 Abb. 18,17, Sabine Karg/Stefanie Jacomet, „Pflanzliche Makrore-ste als Informationsquelle zur Ernährungsgeschichte des Mittelalters in der Schweiz und Süd-deutschlands mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Verhältnisse in der Schweiz“, in: Jürg Tauber (Hrsg.), Methoden und Perspektiven der Archäologie des Mittelalters. Tagungsberichte zum inter-disziplinären Kolloquium vom 27.-30. September 1989 in Liestal (Schweiz) [= Archäologie und Museum 20], Liestal 1991, 121-143 Tab. 5, Holger Göldner/Angela Kreuz, „Begraben an einem ‚stillen Ort‘: Botanische und archäologische Funde als neue Hinweise zum Leben im römischen Dieburg“, in: Denkmalpflege und Kulturgeschichte 2, 1999, 10-17 Abb. 6, Hans-Peter Stika, „Rö-merzeitliche Pflanzenreste aus Baden-Württemberg“, in: Materialhefte zur Archäologie in Baden-Württemberg 36, Stuttgart 1996, 28, 44, 87, 105 Tab. 12 Listen 1, 4, 10, 13 Taf. 7, 5; 15, Entwurf: Th. Kind; 16: Befund nach Vonderau 1931, 53-58 Abb. 19, der Kamm in einer Zeichnung von A. Ehrlich (VMF Inv.-Nr. I Aa1) und der Kamm aus Goltho nach Arthur Mac Gregor, „Objects of bone and antler“, in: Guy Beresford, Goltho: the development of an early medieval manor c. 850 – 1150. English Heritage Archaeological Report 4, London 1987, S. 191 Abb. 161, 5; 17: Montage: Th. Kind unter Verwendung von Vonderau 1944, 33-37 Abb. 24-25; 18: Entwurf: Th. Kind unter Ver-wendung der Angaben bei Lohrmann 1992, Hägermann 1991, S. 373-379, Elmshäuser 1992, Diet-rich Lohrmann, „Le Moulin à eau dans le cadre de l’economie rurale de la Neustrie (VIIe-IXe siè-

Picture credits 567

cles)“, in: Hartmut Atsma (Hrsg.), La Neustrie. Les pays au nord de la Loire de 650 à 850. Colloque histrorique international. Bd. 1. Beihefte der Francia 16/I, Sigmaringen 1989, S. 367-404 und Frans-Arne Stylegar/Oliver Grimm, „Ein spätkaiser- und völkerwanderungszeitlicher Kanal in Spangereid, Südnorwegen“, in: Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt 33, 2003, S. 445-455; 19: Entwurf: Th. Kind unter Verwendung von Hahn 1985, Abb. 3; 7-8, Joseph Vonderau, „Die Ausgra-bungen am Dome zu Fulda in den Jahren 1908-1913“, 16. Veröffentlichung des Fuldaer Geschichts-vereins, Fulda 1919, 7, 32 Plan V, Joseph Vonderau, „Die Ausgrabungen am Dome zu Fulda in den Jahren 1919-1924“, 17. Veröffentlichung des Fuldaer Geschichtsvereins, Fulda 1924, 37-38, 41-57 Plan V und Gregor Richter/Albert Schönfelder (Hrsg.), „Sacramentarium Fuldense saeculi“, X. Festgabe des Historischen Vereins der Diözese Fulda zum 50jährigen Priesterjubiläum. KoS. Quellen und Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der Abtei und der Diözese Fulda 9, Fulda 1912, 371-377; 20: Entwurf: Th. Kind unter Verwendung von Vonderau 1946, 12-13, 15 Abb. 7; 9 Plan I, Hahn 1954, 37-41, Abb. ohne Nummer auf S. 40, Heinrich Hahn, „Die drei Vorgängerbauten des Fuldaer Domes“, in: Fuldaer Geschichtsblätter 61, 1985, S. 180-202, Abb. 2; 5-6, Jacobsen 1992, 145-146 Abb. 64 und Werner Jacobsen, „Die Abteikirche in Fulda von Sturmius bis Eigil – kunstpolitische Positionen und deren Veränderungen“, in: Gangolf Schrimpf (Hrsg.), Kloster Fulda in der Welt der Karolinger und Ottonen. Fuldaer Studien 7, Frankfurt am Main 1996, 105-108 Abb. 1-2.

MACHÁČEK

1: after Staňa 1985; 2: after Goláň/Macháček 2004; 3, 5, 7-9, 11-14: author; 4: reconstruction after Dostál 1975; drawn by Oto Šik; 6: after Dostál 1979; idem 1984; 10: after Andrews 1997; 15: after McCormick 2001; Pls 22-23: author; Pl. 24: after R. Křivánek, AÚ AV ČR Praha

MACPHAIL/CROWTHER/CRUISE

Pls 20-21: authors

MCCORMICK

1: author

MEIBORG

1-13, 15: author; 14: after Görich 1980, 117

OLMO ENCISO

1-8: author

PÉRIN/CALLIGARO/VALLET/POIROT/BAGAULT

1: authors; 2: after H. L. Levin 1988; Pls 5-6: authors

POLÁČEK

1: after Kučerovská 1998; 2: after Szameit 1995 (A), Marešová 1983 (B) and Hrubý 1955 (C), unpublished (D); 3: after Kučerovská 1989; 4: after Marešová 1976; 5: after Staňa 1961 (A), Kouřil 1994 (B) and Galuška 2003 (C); 6: drawing by M. Cimflová; 7: after Himmelová 1995; 8-9: photograph by J. Škvařil; 10-12: drawing by O. Marek; 13: drawing by R. Skopal

SZőKE

1, 3-5: author; 2a: Wien, Kriegsarchiv; 2b, 7: after Sós 1969; 6: after Radnóti 1948; 8. after Müller 1995

Picture credits568

TEREYGEOL

1-4: author

THEUWS

1-6: author

WAMERS

1, 6: Institut für Stadtgeschichte Frankfurt am Main; 2: after Schwind 1984; 3: Historisches Museum Frankfurt am Main; 4: after Wamers 2001; 5: after Ellmers 1984; 7: based on Schwind’s plan of 1984

WEBER

1-5, 7-17: author; 6. after Merchand (Ed.) 1993, 86

Provenancing Merovingian Garnets by PIXE....

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