STUDY OF FREE CONVECTION APPARATUS
S.NOnAME OF THE EXPERIMENTPAGE NO
1STUDY OF PISTON ENGINES2
2STUDY OF JET ENGINES6
3STUDY OF PERFORMANCE OF PROPELLER12
4STUDY OF wall jet17
5FREE JET23
6PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION OVER A SYMMETRICAL AEROFOIL26
7CASCADE TESTING OF MULTIPLE AEROFOIL SECTION OF TURBINE
BLADES29
8NOZZLE PERFORMANCE TEST31
9nOZZLE PERFORMANCE DISTRIBUTION TEST34
10bOMB CALORIMETER37
exp NO: 1STUDY OF PISTON ENGINES
AIMTo study the piston engine including study of assembly of
subsystems, various components and their functions and operating
principles. IntroductionA piston engine is a heat engine that uses
one or more pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion. The
main types are the internal combustion engine used extensively in
motor vehicles, the steam engine which was the mainstay of the
industrial revolution and the niche application stirling
engine.There may be one or more pistons. Each piston is inside a
cylinder, into which a gas is introduced, either already hot and
under pressure (steam engine), or heated inside the cylinder either
by ignition of a fuel air mixture (internal combustion engine) or
by contact with a hot heat exchanger in the cylinder (stirling
engine). The hot gases expand, pushing the piston to the bottom of
the cylinder. The piston is returned to the cylinder top (top dead
centre) either by a flywheel or the power from other pistons
connected to the same shaft. In most types the expanded or
"exhausted" gases are removed from the cylinder by this stroke. The
exception is the stirling engine, which repeatedly heats and cools
the same sealed quantity of gas.In some designs the piston may be
powered in both directions in the cylinder in which case it is said
to be double acting.Components and their functionsThe major
components seen are connecting road, crank shaft(swash plate),
crank case, piston rings, spark plug, cylinder, flywheel, crank pin
and valves or ports. In all types the linear movement of the piston
is converted to a rotating movement via a connecting rod and a
crankshaft or by a swash plate. A flywheel is often used to ensure
smooth rotation. The more cylinders a reciprocating engine has, the
more vibration-free (smoothly) it can run also the higher the
combined piston displacement volume it has the more power it is
capable of producing.A seal needs to be made between the sliding
piston and the walls of the cylinder so that the high pressure gas
above the piston does not leak past it and reduce the efficiency of
the engine. This seal is provided by one or more piston rings.
These are rings made of a hard metal which are sprung into a
circular grove in the piston head. The rings fit tightly in the
groove and press against the cylinder wall to form a seal.Engine
terminologyStroke: Either the up or down movement of the piston
from the top to the bottom or bottom to top of the cylinder (So the
piston going from the bottom of the cylinder to the top would be 1
stroke, from the top back to the bottom would be another
stroke)
Induction: As the piston travels down the cylinder head, it
'sucks' the fuel/air mixture into the cylinder. This is known as
'Induction'.
Compression: As the piston travels up to the top of the cylinder
head, it 'compresses' the fuel/air mixture from the carburetor in
the top of the cylinder head, making the fuel/air mix ready for
ignighting by the spark plug. This is known as 'Compression'.
Ignition: When the spark plug ignites the compressed fuel/air
mixture, sometimes referred to as the power stroke.
Exhaust: As the piston returns back to the top of the cylinder
head after the fuel/air mix has been ignited, the piston pushes the
burnt 'exhaust' gases out of the cylinder & through the exhaust
system.
The following is an additional parameter for a 2 stroke
engine
Transfer Port: The port (or passageway) in a 2 stroke engine
that transfers the fuel/air mixture from the bottom of the engine
to the top of the cylinder
Types of piston enginesIt is common for such engines to be
classified by the number and alignment of cylinders and the total
volume of displacement of gas by the pistons moving in the
cylinders usually measured in cubic centimeters (cc). In-line
engineThis type of engine has cylinders lined up in one row. It
typically has an even number of cylinders, but there are instances
of three- and five- cylinder engines. An in-line engine may be
either air cooled or liquid cooled. It is better suited for
streamlining. If the engine crankshaft is located above the
cylinders, it is called an inverted engine. Advantages of mounting
the crankshaft this way include shorter landing gear and better
pilot visibility. An in-line engine has a higher
weight-to-horsepower ratio than other aircraft engines. A
disadvantage of this type of engine is that the larger it is, the
harder it is to cool. Due to this, airplanes that use an inline
engine use a low- to medium-horsepower engine, and are typically
used by light aircraft.Opposed engineAn opposed-type engine has two
banks of cylinders opposite each other. The crankshaft is located
in the center and is being driven from both sides. The engine is
either air cooled or liquid cooled, but air cooled versions are
used mostly in aviation. It can be mounted either vertically or
horizontally. The advantage of a horizontally-opposed engine is
that it allows better visibility and eliminates fluid lock
typically found on bottom cylinders. An opposed engine also has a
relative advantage in being mostly free of vibration. This is due
to the fact that the pistons are located left and right of the
crankshaft and act as balance weights for each other.V-type
engineCylinders in this engine are arranged in two in-line banks,
tilted 30-60 degrees apart from each other. The engine can be
either air cooled or liquid cooled.Radial engineThis type of engine
has a row of cylinders arranged in a circle around a crankcase
located in the middle. The combination of cylinders must be an odd
number in each row and may contain more than one row. The odd
number of cylinders allows for every other cylinder to be on a
power stroke, allowing for smooth operation. The power output is
anywhere from 100 to 3,800 hp.4 Stroke engine
Engines based on the four-stroke or Otto cycle have one power
stroke for every four strokes (up-down-up-down) and are used in
cars, larger boats, and many light aircraft. They are generally
quieter, more efficient, and larger than their two-stroke
counterparts. There are a number of variations of these cycles,
most notably the Atkinson and Miller cycles. Most truck and
automotive diesel engines use a four-stroke cycle, but with a
compression heating ignition system. This variation is called the
diesel cycle. The four strokes refer to intake, compression,
combustion and exhaust strokes that occur during two crankshaft
rotations per working cycle of Otto Cycle and Diesel engines. The
four steps in this cycle are often informally referred to as "suck,
squeeze (or squash), bang, blow."2 Stroke engine
The two-stroke internal combustion engine differs from the more
common four-stroke engine by completing the same four processes
(intake, compression, combustion, exhaust) in only two strokes of
the piston rather than four. This is accomplished by using the
beginning of the compression stroke and the end of the combustion
stroke to perform the intake and exhaust functions. This allows a
power stroke for every revolution of the crank, instead of every
second revolution as in a four-stroke engine. For this reason,
two-stroke engines provide high specific power, so they are valued
for use in portable, lightweight applications such as chainsaws as
well as large-scale industrial applications like locomotives.
Two-stroke engines are still commonly used in high-power, handheld
applications where light weight is essential, primarily string
trimmers and chainsaws. To a lesser extent, these engines may still
be used for certain small, portable, or specialized machine
applications. These include outboard motors, high-performance,
small-capacity motorcycles, mopeds, under bones, scooters,
snowmobiles, karts, ultra lights, model airplanes (and other model
vehicles) and lawnmowers. In the past, two-stroke cycles were
experimented with for use in diesel engines, most notably with
opposed piston designs, low-speed units such as large marine
engines, and V8 engines for trucks and heavy machinery
A Very Basic 2 Stroke Engine CycleStrokePiston DirectionActions
Occurring during This StrokeExplanation
Stroke 1Piston travels up the cylinder barrelInduction &
CompressionAs the Piston travels up the barrel, fresh fuel/air mix
is sucked into the crankcase (bottom of the engine) & the
fuel/air mix in the cylinder (top of the engine) is compressed
ready for ignition
Stroke 2Piston travels down the cylinder barrel Ignition &
ExhaustThe spark plug ignites the fuel/air mix in the cylinder, the
resulting explosion pushes the piston back down to the bottom of
the cylinder, as the piston travels down, the transfer port
openings are exposed & the fresh fuel/air mix is sucked from
the crankcase into the cylinder. As the fresh fuel/air mix is drawn
into the cylinder, it forces the spent exhaust gases out through
the exhaust port.
A Very Basic 4 Stroke Engine Cycle
StrokePiston DirectionInlet & Exhaust Valve PositionsActions
Occurring During This StrokeExplanation
Stroke 1Piston travels down the cylinder barrelInlet valve
open/Exhaust valve colsedInduction strokeAs the Piston travels down
the cylinder barrel, the inlet valve opens & fresh fuel/air
mixture is sucked into the cylinder
Stroke 2Piston travels up the cylinder barrel Inlet &
exhaust valve closedCompression strokeAs the piston travels back up
the cylinder, the fresh fuel/air mix is compressed ready for
ignition
Stroke 3Piston travels down the cylinder barrelInlet &
exhaust valve closedIgnition (power) strokeThe spark plug ignites
the compressed fuel/air mix, the resulting explosion pushes the
piston back to the bottom of the cylinder
Stroke 4Piston travels up the cylinder barrelInlet valve
closed/Exhaust valve open Exhaust strokeAs the piston travels back
up the cylinder barrel, the spent exhaust gases are forced out of
the exhaust valve
RESULTThus the study of piston engine including study of
assembly of subsystems, various components and their functions and
operating principles is done successfully. EXP NO: 2 STUDY OF JET
ENGINESAIM
To study about the jet engines and its
components.INTRODUCTION
A jet engine is a reaction engine that discharges a fast moving
jet of fluid to generate thrust in accordance with Newton's third
law of motion. This broad definition of jet engines includes
turbojets, turbofans, rockets, ramjets, pulse jets and pump-jets,
but in common usage, the term generally refers to a gas turbine
Brayton cycle engine, an engine with a rotary compressor powered by
a turbine, with the leftover power providing thrust. Jet engines
are so familiar to the modern world that gas turbines are sometimes
mistakenly referred to as a particular application of a jet engine,
rather than the other way around. Most jet engines are internal
combustion engines but non combusting forms exist also.
Jet engines are primarily used by jet aircraft for long distance
travel. The early jet aircraft used turbojet engines which were
inefficient. Modern jet aircraft usually use high-bypass turbofan
engines which help give high speeds as well as, over long
distances, better fuel efficiency than many other forms of
transport. A large proportion of the worlds oil consumption (about
7.2% in 2004) is burnt in jet engines.
Major Components Of A Jet Engine And Their FunctionsThe major
components of a jet engine are similar across the major different
types of engines, although not all engine types have all
components.
Cold Section:
Air intake (Inlet) The standard reference frame for a jet engine
is the aircraft itself. For subsonic aircraft, the air intake to a
jet engine presents no special difficulties, and consists
essentially of an opening which is designed to minimize drag, as
with any other aircraft component. However, the air reaching the
compressor of a normal jet engine must be traveling below the speed
of sound, even for supersonic aircraft, to sustain the flow
mechanics of the compressor and turbine blades. At supersonic
flight speeds, shockwaves form in the intake system and reduce the
recovered pressure at inlet to the compressor. So some supersonic
intakes use devices, such as a cone or ramp, to increase pressure
recovery, by making more efficient use of the shock wave
system.
Compressor or Fan The compressor is made up of stages. Each
stage consists of vanes which rotate, and stators which remain
stationary. As air is drawn deeper through the compressor, its heat
and pressure increases. Energy is derived from the turbine (see
below), passed along the shaft. Common:
Shaft The shaft connects the turbine to the compressor, and runs
most of the length of the engine. There may be as many as three
concentric shafts, rotating at independent speeds, with as many
sets of turbines and compressors. Other services, like a bleed of
cool air, may also run down the shaft.
Hot section:
Combustor or Can or Flame holders or Combustion Chamber This is
a chamber where fuel is continuously burned in the compressed
air.
Turbine The turbine is a series of bladed discs that act like a
windmill, gaining energy from the hot gases leaving the combustor.
Some of this energy is used to drive the compressor, and in some
turbine engines (i.e. turboprop, turbo shaft or turbofan engines),
energy is extracted by additional turbine discs and used to drive
devices such as propellers, bypass fans or helicopter rotors. One
type, a free turbine, is configured such that the turbine disc
driving the compressor rotates independently of the discs that
power the external components. Relatively cool air, bled from the
compressor, may be used to cool the turbine blades and vanes, to
prevent them from melting.
Afterburner or reheat (chiefly UK) (mainly military) Produces
extra thrust by burning extra fuel, usually inefficiently, to
significantly raise Nozzle Entry Temperature at the exhaust. Owing
to a larger volume flow (i.e. lower density) at exit from the
afterburner, an increased nozzle flow area is required, to maintain
satisfactory engine matching, when the afterburner is alight.
Exhaust or Nozzle hot gases leaving the engine exhaust to
atmospheric pressure via a nozzle, the objective being to produce a
high velocity jet. In most cases, the nozzle is convergent and of
fixed flow area.
Supersonic nozzle if the Nozzle Pressure Ratio (Nozzle Entry
Pressure/Ambient Pressure) is very high, to maximize thrust it may
be worthwhile, despite the additional weight, to fit a
convergent-divergent (de Laval) nozzle. As the name suggests,
initially this type of nozzle is convergent, but beyond the throat
(smallest flow area), the flow area starts to increase to form the
divergent portion. The expansion to atmospheric pressure and
supersonic gas velocity continues downstream of the throat, whereas
in a convergent nozzle the expansion beyond sonic velocity occurs
externally, in the exhaust plume. The former process is more
efficient than the latter.
The various components named above have constraints on how they
are put together to generate the most efficiency or performance.
The performance and efficiency of an engine can never be taken in
isolation; for example fuel/distance efficiency of a supersonic jet
engine maximizes at about mach 2, whereas the drag for the vehicle
carrying it is increasing as a square law and has much extra drag
in the transonic region. The highest fuel efficiency for the
overall vehicle is thus typically at Mach ~0.85.
For the engine optimization for its intended use, important here
is air intake design, overall size, number of compressor stages
(sets of blades), fuel type, number of exhaust stages, metallurgy
of components, amount of bypass air used, where the bypass air is
introduced, and many other factors. For instance, let us consider
design of the air intake.
Types, Description, Advantages And Disadvantages Of Jet
EnginesThere are a large number of different types of jet engines,
all of which achieve propulsion from a high speed exhaust
jet.TypeDescriptionAdvantagesDisadvantages
Water jetSquirts water out the back through a nozzleCan run in
shallow water, powerful, less harmful to wildlife, (indeed used by
squid)Can be less efficient than a propeller, more vulnerable to
debris
Motor jetMost primitive air breathing jet engine. Essentially a
supercharged piston engine with a jet exhaust.Higher exhaust
velocity than a propeller, offering better thrust at high
speedHeavy, inefficient and underpowered
TurbojetGeneric term for simple turbine engineSimplicity of
design, efficient at supersonic speeds (~M2)A basic design, misses
many improvements in efficiency and power for subsonic flight,
relatively noisy.
TurbofanFirst stage compressor greatly enlarged to provide
bypass airflow around engine core, and it provides significant
amounts of thrust. Most common form of jet engine in use today-
used in airliners like the Boeing 747 and military jets, where an
afterburner is often added for supersonic flight.Quieter due to
greater mass flow and lower total exhaust speed, more efficient for
a useful range of subsonic airspeeds for same reason, cooler
exhaust temperature.Greater complexity (additional ducting, usually
multiple shafts), large diameter engine, need to contain heavy
blades. More subject to FOD and ice damage. Top speed is limited
due to the potential for shockwaves to damage engine.
RocketCarries all propellants and oxidants on-board, emits jet
for propulsionVery few moving parts, Mach 0 to Mach 25+, efficient
at very high speed (> Mach 10.0 or so), thrust/weight ratio over
100, no complex air inlet, high compression ratio, very high speed
(hypersonic) exhaust, good cost/thrust ratio, fairly easy to test,
works in a vacuum-indeed works best exoatmospheric which is kinder
on vehicle structure at high speed, fairly small surface area to
keep cool, and no turbine in hot exhaust stream.Needs lots of
propellant- very low specific impulse typically 100-450 seconds.
Extreme thermal stresses of combustion chamber can make reuse
harder. Typically requires carrying oxidizer on-board which
increases risks. Extraordinarily noisy.
RamjetIntake air is compressed entirely by speed of oncoming air
and duct shape (divergent)Very few moving parts, Mach 0.8 to Mach
5+, efficient at high speed (> Mach 2.0 or so), lightest of all
air-breathing jets (thrust/weight ratio up to 30 at optimum speed),
cooling much easier than turbojets as no turbine blades to
cool.Must have a high initial speed to function, inefficient at
slow speeds due to poor compression ratio, difficult to arrange
shaft power for accessories, usually limited to a small range of
speeds, intake flow must be slowed to subsonic speeds, noisy,
fairly difficult to test, finicky to keep lit.
Turboprop (Turbo shaft similar)Strictly not a jet at all a gas
turbine engine is used as power plant to drive propeller shaft (or
rotor in the case of a helicopter)High efficiency at lower subsonic
airspeeds (300 knots plus), high shaft power to weightLimited top
speed (airplanes), somewhat noisy, complex transmission
Propfan/Unducted FanTurboprop engine drives one or more
propellers. Similar to a turbofan without the fan cowling.Higher
fuel efficiency, potentially less noisy than turbofans, could lead
to higher-speed commercial aircraft, popular in the 1980s during
fuel shortagesDevelopment of prop fan engines has been very
limited, typically more noisy than turbofans, complexity
PulsejetAir is compressed and combusted intermittently instead
of continuously. Some designs use valves.Very simple design,
commonly used on model aircraftNoisy, inefficient (low compression
ratio), works poorly on a large scale, valves on valved designs
wear out quickly
Pulse detonation engineSimilar to a pulsejet, but combustion
occurs as a detonation instead of a deflagration, may or may not
need valvesMaximum theoretical engine efficiencyExtremely noisy,
parts subject to extreme mechanical fatigue, hard to start
detonation, not practical for current use
Air-augmented rocketEssentially a ramjet where intake air is
compressed and burnt with the exhaust from a rocketMach 0 to Mach
4.5+ (can also run exoatmospheric), good efficiency at Mach 2 to
4Similar efficiency to rockets at low speed or exoatmospheric,
inlet difficulties, a relatively undeveloped and unexplored type,
cooling difficulties, very noisy, thrust/weight ratio is similar to
ramjets.
ScramjetSimilar to a ramjet without a diffuser; airflow through
the entire engine remains supersonicFew mechanical parts, can
operate at very high Mach numbers (Mach 8 to 15) with good
efficiencies[5]Still in development stages, must have a very high
initial speed to function (Mach >6), cooling difficulties, very
poor thrust/weight ratio (~2), extreme aerodynamic complexity,
airframe difficulties, testing difficulties/expense
Turbo rocketA turbojet where an additional oxidizer such as
oxygen is added to the air stream to increase maximum altitudeVery
close to existing designs, operates in very high altitude, wide
range of altitude and airspeedAirspeed limited to same range as
turbojet engine, carrying oxidizer like LOX can be dangerous. Much
heavier than simple rockets.
The motion impulse of the engine is equal to the air mass
multiplied by the speed at which the engine emits this mass:
I = m c
where m is the air mass per second and c is the exhaust speed.
In other words, the plane will fly faster if the engine emits the
air mass with a higher speed or if it emits more air per second
with the same speed. However, when the plane flies with certain
velocity v, the air moves towards it, creating the opposing ram
drag at the air intake:m v
Most types of jet engine have an air intake, which provides the
bulk of the gas exiting the exhaust. Conventional rocket motors,
however, do not have an air intake, the oxidizer and fuel both
being carried within the airframe. Therefore, rocket motors do not
have ram drag; the gross thrust of the nozzle is the net thrust of
the engine. Consequently, the thrust characteristics of a rocket
motor are completely different from that of an air breathing jet
engine.
The air breathing engine is only useful if the velocity of the
gas from the engine, c, is greater than the airplane velocity, v.
The net engine thrust is the same as if the gas were emitted with
the velocity c-v. So the thrust is actually equal to
S = m (c-v)
Turboprops have a wide rotating fan that takes and accelerates
the large mass of air but by a relatively small amount. This low
speed limits the speed of any propeller driven airplane. When the
plane speed exceeds this limit, propellers no longer provide any
thrust (c-v < 0).
Turbojets and other similar engines accelerate a much smaller
mass of the air and burned fuel, but they emit it at the much
higher speeds possible with a de Laval nozzle. This is why they are
suitable for supersonic and higher speeds.
Low bypass turbofans have the mixed exhaust of the two air
flows, running at different speeds (c1 and c2). The thrust of such
engine is
S = m1 (c1 - v) + m2 (c2 - v)
Where m1 and m2 are the air masses, being blown from the both
exhausts. Such engines are effective at lower speeds, than the pure
jets, but at higher speeds than the turbo shafts and propellers in
general. For instance, at the 10 km attitude, turbo shafts are most
effective at about 0.4 mach, low bypass turbofans become more
effective at about 0.75 mach and true jets become more effective as
mixed exhaust engines when the speed approaches 1 mach - the speed
of sound.
Rocket engines are best suited for high speeds and altitudes. At
any given throttle, the thrust and efficiency of a rocket motor
improves slightly with increasing altitude (because the
back-pressure falls thus increasing net thrust at the nozzle exit
plane), whereas with a turbojet (or turbofan) the falling density
of the air entering the intake (and the hot gases leaving the
nozzle) causes the net thrust to decrease with increasing altitude.
Rocket engines are more efficient than even scramjets above roughly
Mach 15.
For all jet engines the propulsive efficiency (essentially
energy efficiency) is highest when the engine emits an exhaust jet
at a speed that is the same as the airplane velocity. RESULTThus
the study of the jet engines and its components is completed.exp
NO: 3
STUDY OF PERFORMANCE OF PROPELLER
AIM
To study the performance of the propeller.BASIC PROPELLER
PRINCIPLE
The aircraft propeller consists of two or more blades and a
central hub to which the blades and are attached. Each blade is
essentially of rotating wing. As a result of their construction,
propeller blade produce forces/thrust to pull or push the aeroplane
through air.
Power to rotate the propeller blades is furnished by the
engines. Low powered engine propeller is mounted on the propeller
shaft and that is geared to the engine crank shaft.
PROPELLER NOMENCLATURE
In order to explain the theory and construction of propellers it
is necessary first to define the parts of various types of
propellers and give the nomenclature associated with the
propeller.
The cross section of a propeller blade is shown in the figure
the leading edge of the blade trailing edge, the cambered side, or
back and the flat side or face. The blade has an aerofoil shape
similar to that of an aeroplane wing; it is through that it is a
small wing; which has been reduced in length, width and thickness
(small wing shape). When the blade start rotating, airflows around
the blade fast as it flows around the wing of an aeroplane and
blade is lifted forward
The nomenclature of an adjustable propeller is illustrated in
the figure. This is metal propeller with two blades clamped into a
steel hub assembly. The hub assembly is supporting unit for the
blades, and it provides mounting structure in which propeller is
attached to the engine propeller shaft. The propeller hub is split
on a plane parallel to the plane of rotation of the propeller to
allow for the installation of the blades. The sections of the hubs
are held in place by means of clamping rings secured by means of
bolts.
NOMENCLATURE FOR A CROUND ADJUSTABLLE PROPELLER
The figure shows two views of various cross sections of
propeller blades. The blade shank is that portion of the blade near
the butt of the blade it is usually made thick to give its
strength, and it is cylindrical where it fits the hub barrel, but
the cylindrical portion of the shank contributes little or no
thrust. In order designs, the aero foil shape is carried to the hub
by means of blade cuffs which are thin sheet metals and it function
like cowling.
BLADE ELEMENT THEORY
The theory for the design of aircraft propeller was known as
blade element theory. IT Is some time referred to as the DRYE
WIECKI theory as the polish scientist name is DRYE WIECKI.
The theory assumes to the tip of the blade is divided into
various mall, rudimentary aerofoil sections. For example if a
propeller blade is 54 inch long and can be divided into 54 one-into
aerofoil sections. Figure shows one of these aerofoil sections
located at radius r, the chord c will depend on the plan form or
general shape of the blade.
According to the blade element theory, many aerofoil sections or
elements being joined together side by side, unit to form an
aerofoil (the blade) that can create thrust when revolving in a
plane around central axis.
The thrust developed by a propeller is in accordance. With
Newtons third law of motion. In the case of propeller the first
action is acceleration of a mass of air to rear of the aeroplane.
This means that if propeller is exerting a force of 200 pounds in
accelerating a given mass of air, it is the same time exerting at a
force of 2000 pounds in pulling the aeroplane in the direction of
opposite that in which the aeroplane is pulled forward. The
quantitative realization slip among mass, acceleration, and force
can be determined by the use of formula Newtons second law.
F=m*a
True pitch propeller is one that makes use of the blade. In
elemental theory, each element of the blade travels at different
rates of speed that is tip section travels faster than the section
closer to the hub.
Types of propeller: Fixed pitch: The propeller is made in one
piece. Only one pitch setting is possible and is usually two blades
propeller and is often made of wood or metal. Wooden Propellers:
Wooden propellers were used almost exclusively on personal and
business aircraft prior to World War II .A wood propeller is not
cut from a solid block but is built up of a number of separate
layers of carefully selected .any types of wood have been used in
making propellers, but the most satisfactory are yellow birch,
sugar maple, black cherry, and black walnut. The use of lamination
of wood will reduce the tendency for propeller to warp. For
standard one-piece wood propellers, from five to nine separate wood
laminations about 3/4 in. thick are used.
Metal Propellers : During 1940 , solid steel propellers were
made for military use. Modern propellers are fabricated from
high-strength , heat-treated,aluminum alloy by forging a single bar
of aluminum alloy to the required shape. Metal propellers is now
extensively used in the construction of propellers for all type of
aircraft. The general appearance of the metal propeller is similar
to the wood propeller, except that the sections are generally
thinner.
Ground adjustable pitch: The pitch setting can be adjusted only
with tools on the ground before the engine is running. This type of
propellers usually has a split hub. The blade angle is specified by
the aircraft specifications. The adjustable - pitch feature permits
compensation for the location of the flying field at various
altitudes and also for variations in the characteristics of
airplanes using the same engine. Setting the blade angles by
loosened the clamps and the blade is rotated to the desired angle
and then tightens the clamps.
Full Feathering: A constant speed propeller which has the
ability to turn edge to the wind and thereby eliminate drag and
wind milling in the event of engine failure. The term Feathering
refers to the operation of rotating the blades of the propeller to
the wind position for the purpose of stopping the rotation of the
propeller to reduce drag. Therefore, a feathered blade is in an
approximate in-line-of-flight position, streamlined with the line
of flight (turned the blades to a very high pitch). Feathering is
necessary when the engine fails or when it is desirable to shutoff
an engine in flight.
Some of the terminologies used in propeller design :
Two-position: A propeller which can have its pitch changed from
one position to one other angle by the pilot while in flight.
Controllable pitch: The pilot can change the pitch of the
propeller in flight or while operating the engine by mean of a
pitch changing mechanism that may be operated by hydraulically.
Constant speed: The constant speed propeller utilizes a
hydraulically or electrically operated pitch changing mechanism
which is controlled by governor. The setting of the governor is
adjusted by the pilot with the rpm lever in the cockpit. During
operation, the constant speed propeller will automatically change
its blade angle to maintain a constant engine speed. If engine
power is increase, the blade angle is increased to make the
propeller absorb the additional power while the rpm remain
constant. At the other position, if the engine power is decreased,
the blade angle will decrease to make the blades take less bite of
air to keep engine rpm remain constant. The pilot selects the
engine speed required for any particular type of operation.
Reversing: A constant speed propeller which has the ability to
assume a negative blade angle and produce a reversing thrust. When
propellers are reversed, their blades are rotated below their
positive angle, that is, through flat pitch, until a negative blade
angle is obtained in order to produce thrust acting in the opposite
direction to the forward thrust. Reverse propeller thrust is used
where a large aircraft is landed, in reducing the length of landing
run.
Beta Control: A propeller which allows the manual repositioning
of the propeller blade angle beyond the normal low pitch stop. Used
most often in taxiing, where thrust is manually controlled by
adjusting blade angle with the power lever.
Blade StationBlade stations are designated distances in inches
measured along the blade from the centre of the hub the figure
shows the location of a point on the blade at the 42 inches in each
station this division of blade into station provides a convenient
means of discussing the performance of the propeller blade locating
blade marking and damage finding the proper point for measuring the
blade angle and locating anti-glare areas
Blade Angle
Blade angle is defined as the angle between the chord particular
blade section and the plane of rotationBlade Pitch
Blade pitch is the distance advanced by the propeller in one
revolutionGeometric Pitch
The propeller would have been advanced in one
revolutionExperimental Mean Pitch
The distance traveled by the propeller in one revolution without
producing thrustEffective Pitch
Actual distance advanced by the propeller in one revolutionPitch
Distribution
The angle gradually decreases towards the tip and towards the
shankAngle Of Attack
This is the angle formed between the chord of the blade and
direction of relative air flowPropeller Slip
Slip is defined as difference between the geometric pitch and
the effective pitchForces Acting On A Propeller
Thrust force
Centrifugal force
Torsion or twisting force
Aerodynamic twisting force
Aerodynamic twisting movement (ATM)
Centrifugal twisting movement (CTM)
Thrust Force
Thrust force is a thrust load that tends to bend propeller blade
forward as the aircraft is pulled through the airCentrifugal
Force
Centrifugal force is the physical force that tends to throw the
rotating propeller blades away from the hubTorsion or Twisting
Force
Torsion force is the force of air resistance tends to bend the
propeller blade in a direction that is opposite to the direction of
rotationAerodynamic Twisting Force
It is the force that tends to turn the blade to higher blade
angleAerodynamic Twisting Moment
It is the force that tends to turn the blade angle towards low
blade anglePropeller Efficiency
Propeller efficiency has been achieved by use of this aerofoil
section near the tips of the propeller blades and very sharp
leading and trailing edge
.
Propeller efficiency id calculated = thrust horsepower / torque
horse power
It is the ratio of thrust horse power to the torque horse power.
Thrust horse power is the actual amount of horse power that an
engine propeller transforms x thrust
Propeller Chart
For a given pitch angle B, the efficiency of the propeller is a
function of dimensionless quantity T, the advance ratio such as a
plot for a family of pitch angle that is valuable in a propeller
can be plotted. This is called the propeller chart.RESULT
Thus the study of performance of the propeller is successfully
completed.
EXP NO: 4 STUDY OF wall jet AIM
The main objective of this experiment is to study the
performance of wall jet in a flow field.
THEORY
Turbulent wall jet flows consist of two self-similar layers: a
top layer and a wall layer, separated by a mixing layer where the
velocity is close to maximum. The top and wall layers are
significantly different from each other, and both exhibit
incomplete similarity, i.e., a strong influence of the width of the
slot that had previously been neglected.
EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS AND PROCEDUREThis wall is usually either
a thin lip or an "infinite" vertical wall as in the present
experiment. The latter design is simpler to treat computationally,
since it, together with a "no inflow" upper boundary, results in a
single, well-defined inflow boundary with known boundary
conditions. It was therefore chosen here, in spite of the
inevitable return flow that this configuration generates, a return
flow which far downstream of the nozzle changes the character of
the jet. An important criterion in the experimental design was that
the spatial resolution should be sufficiently high to allow the
wall shear stress to be determined directly from mean velocity
measurements. This imposes an upper limit on the ratio of measuring
control volume diameter to viscous length scale, but a high enough
inlet Re-number must also be retained to allow comparisons with
earlier studies. Once water was chosen as the working fluid, due to
the absence of seeding problems in low-speed water flows, these
considerations led to the present combination of slot width and
inlet velocity.
WALL JET TEST FACILITY The test facility is shown in Fig. It
consists of a large tank into which a jet discharges. The tank is 7
m long and its width is 1.45 m. One of the side walls is made of
glass, as well as the bottom. (Using a glass bottom improves the
conditions for near-wall measurements, since its smoothness
minimizes the diffuse surface reflections. The slot height was
measured with water in the tank, by a diver. The results showed the
slot height to be 9.6 + 0.1 mm over most of the slot width. Given
the uncertainties involved, this is consistent with an indirect
determination of the slot height using the volumetric flow rate.
Consequently, b = 9.6 mm will be used in the following analysis,
giving a jet width-to-height ratio of 151. This was considered
large enough to obtain good two-dimensionality. A large contraction
(Morel 1975) with a turbulence-reducing screen inserted is used to
produce a fairly flat mean velocity profile at the inlet. A weir
upstream of the contraction keeps the upstream water level
constant, and the flow velocity through the slot is set by an
adjustable weir at the downstream end at the tank. This reference
velocity is determined as
Where h is the difference in height between the upstream and
downstream free surfaces.
The inlet velocity, U0, was set as close as possible to 1 m/s,
corresponding to a water depth downstream of the inlet of about 1.4
m. For this water depth, the influence of the re-circulating flow
on the growth rate of the jet was negligible for the first 150 slot
heights.
Using water of approximately room temperature, one obtains a
nominal inlet Re-number
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE AND FLOW QUALIFICATION Outline of
measurements
Extensive Pitot-tube measurements, spanwise profiles at several
heights and numerous vertical profiles at different spanwise
positions, were made at the slot (x = 0) to check for symmetry and
spanwise variations. Part of the inlet velocity profile was also
measured using LDV, to better resolve the boundary layer and to get
turbulence data. LDV measurements, streamwise and spanwise
profiles, were also taken immediately downstream of the slot.
Extensive spanwise measurements were made at several streamwise
positions in order to check the two-dimensionality of the flow.
Based on these spanwise measurements, it was decided to make the
main measurements series approximately halfway between the
centreline and the glass wall. The flow conditions in that spanwise
position were identical to those at the centreline within the
measurement accuracy. The main measurement series were taken at the
following streamwise positions: x=50, 100, 200, 400, 700,1000,
1500, 2000 mm. For the sake of simplicity, we will refer to these
positions as x/b = 5, 10, 20, 40, 70, 100, 200, although the actual
dimensionless distance was about 4% larger. In figures showing the
streamwise development of a quantity, the correct x/b will be used.
Measurements stopped at x/b = 200 because the flow was losing its
wall-jet character. This issue will be discussed later on. Main
measurement series The vertical profiles of the main measurement
series were taken in order from x/b = 5 and downstream. h and the
water temperature, T>sub>0>, was checked regularly, in
order to detect any drift in inlet velocity or inlet Re-number.
There was essentially no change in U0 or Re0 during the individual
profiles. There were, however, small variations between the
different profiles due to a 3% variation in the boundary
conditions, i.e. Re0. Where relevant, all velocities have been
normalised to the same inlet velocity by multiplying with
[U0(x=0)/U0(x=X)].
The position of the wall, y = 0, was estimated by observing the
output signal from the counter, i.e. after amplifying and
filtering, on an oscilloscope. The "wall signal" is very
characteristic. The distance from this preliminary wall position ;
was then measured by a dial gauge. Finally, the wall distance was
adjusted after the measurements by shifting the velocity curve up
or down to make it pass through origin. This was relatively simple
due to the linear relation. The necessary adjustments typically
were of the order of 0.02 mm. Inlet conditions The inlet conditions
were determined using Pitot tube and LDV-measurements. Mean
velocity profiles from Pitot tube measurements, taken at several
spanwise positions at and around the spanwise position finally
chosen for the main measurements, showed no visible differences in
the maximum velocity. There were, however, small differences in the
length of the flat parts of the profiles. These are consistent with
the earlier statement of a +0.1 mm variation in slot height. The
variation in the spanwise velocity distribution at y = 4.5 mm was
less than 0.25%.
LDV measurements of the lower part of the inlet velocity profile
were made in order to resolve the boundary layer and to obtain
information on the turbulence levels. The boundary layer thickness,
defined as U= 0.99 Umax, is 1.4 mm. The turbulence intensity in the
flat part of the profile is less than 1%. No corrections for
gradient broadening has been applied to the turbulence
measurements, meaning that the peak in turbulence intensity in the
boundary layer is exaggerated. We thus have a fairly flat inlet
velocity profile with a mean velocity which is uniform in the
spanwise direction within 0.25%. The flow is laminar and the
laminar boundary layers along the walls have a thickness 1.4
mm.
Persistent spanwise variations of the thickness of the wall jet
were noted. These variations are probably associated with the small
variation (1%) in slot height. All subsequent measurements were
however made at a spanwise position where "average properties" of
the wall jet were prevailing.
In many technical applications, impinging jets are used for
cooling and heating tasks when large heat transfer coefficients are
required. Therefore, many experimental investigations have been
performed to study this subject. Overviews of this topic are given
in.
In submerged free and impinging jets, fluid exits from a nozzle
into a resting environment. Fluid is entrained into the jet and is
accelerated. The jet becomes broader and the jet velocity decreases
as a result of momentum preservation. The core jet, where the
initial conditions are still present, becomes smaller with
increasing distance from the nozzle. Depending on the initial
conditions, the core jet has disappeared after 4 nozzle diameters
to 6 nozzle diameters for the nonpulsating jet. The resulting
velocity profile can be described with a Gaussian curve. In
impinging jets the fluid flows toward a wall and is decelerated and
changes its direction. Depending on the flow regime, the wall is
placed in the stream downward flow pattern and especially the heat
transfer between the wall and jet shows different characteristics.
In the stagnation regionthe region where the jet is influenced by
the wallthe fluid is decelerated in the axial direction and
accelerated in the radial direction. Directly at the stagnation
point, the velocity is zero. With increasing radial distance from
the stagnation point, the flow is accelerated in the radial
direction. The acceleration is conserved up to that point, where no
more fluid from the free jet is mixed into the wall jet. Especially
in cases with low nozzle-to-plate distances, the boundary layer is
laminar in this region and is stabilized by the acceleration.
By mixing of fluid from the environment into the jet and
increasing wall jet thickness and by increasing cross-sectional
area in axisymmetric jets, the wall jet velocity is reduced. The
flow becomes instable and turbulent. The maximum velocity parallel
to the wall is obtained at a distance of 1-2 nozzle diameters from
the stagnation point. At this point, major changes in heat transfer
are observed. At greater distances from the stagnation point, a
turbulent wall jet is present.
In Figure 1 the flow regions in impinging jets are illustrated.
In technical applications, impinging jets are used when large heat
transfer coefficients are required. Especially in the region of
maximum radial velocity, heat transfer coefficients are obtained
which can hardly be achieved with other flows without phase
change.
The radial evolution of heat transfer coefficients is influenced
mainly by the Reynolds number and the nozzle-to-plate-distance. At
small Reynolds numbers, heat transfer decreases monotonically with
increasing radial distance. At large Reynolds numbers, a similar
characteristic can only be found for large
nozzle-to-plate-distances (H/D>6). At small and medium
distances, a slight decrease of heat transfer coefficient in a
radial distance of up to 1 nozzle diameter is followed by a large
increase up to a local maximum at 1.5-2 diameters and a monotonic
decrease for larger radial distances.
Calculating a simple turbulent channel flow is possible with
nearly all turbulence models without difficulty, but flow patterns
are present in impinging jets which are difficult to predict with
classical turbulence models:
Entrainment of fluid from the environment and prediction of the
spreading angle, connected with the increased turbulence level in
the jet
Relaminarization near the stagnation point
Large acceleration of the flow, followed by a deceleration
Laminar-turbulent transition in the wall jet
Different curve characteristics of radial heat transfer
evolution, depending on flow velocities and
nozzle-to-plate-distances
Therefore, jet impingement is often used as benchmark flow for
improving turbulence models.The first comprehensive examinations
were performed. In their examination with classical k- models, heat
transfer could be predicted well in the wall jet region, while in
the stagnation region the prediction was still poor. Within the
last years, Durbin's model became popular, which also gives good
prediction of heat transfer in the stagnation region. In Durbin's
model, additional transport equations are required for predicting
turbulent flow, which increases computational effort.
A large number of other works can also be found in which
existing turbulence models have been used and in which correction
terms or modified parameters are applied to give better prediction
of heat transfer in impinging jets.A comprehensive overview of
earlier turbulence models can be found. A newer overview of common
turbulence models for predicting jet impingement heat transfer can
be found.In the present work, several commercially available
turbulence models have been tested for their ability to predict
heat transfer and flow structure in impinging steady jets. It is
not the aim of this work to improve the models, but rather, to give
a comparison of 13 widely used turbulence models in terms of their
ability to predict impinging jets.
For one promising model, it was tested how sensitively this
model reacts to changes in turbulence intensity and how the model
can predict pulsating impinging jets. The calculations have been
compared to our own experimental data. From these results a
recommendation can be made of with which settings heat transfer in
impinging jets can be predicted best. After that, we examine how
these results can be transferred to pulsating impinging
jets.RESULT
Thus the wall jet experiment is studied and experimental
procedures are discussed successfullyEXP NO: 5
FREE JETAIMThe main objective of this experiment is to study the
performance of free jet
THEORYFlow Properties of a Rectangular Jet
Figure 1. Schematics of a free jet flow and its downstream
development A jet is formed by flow issuing from a nozzle into
ambient fluid, which is at a different velocity. If the ambient
fluid is at rest the jet is referred to as a free jet; if the
surrounding fluid is moving, the jet is called a co flowing jet. A
jet is one of the basic flow configurations which have many
practical applications such as in jet engines, combustors, chemical
lasers, ink-jet printer heads, among others. Figure 1 illustrates
some essential features of a jet. The velocity at the exit of the
nozzle of a typical laboratory jet has a smooth profile and a low
turbulence level, about 0.1% - 0.5% of the mean velocity. Due to
the velocity difference between the jet and the ambient fluid, a
thin shear layer is created. This shear layer is highly unstable
and is subjected to flow instabilities that eventually lead to the
formation of large-scale vortical structures (see Figure 1). The
interaction of these structures produces strong flow fluctuations,
entrains ambient fluid into the jet flow and enhances the mixing.
The shear layer and consequently, the jet, spread along the
direction perpendicular to the main jet flow. The central portion
of the jet, a region with almost uniform mean velocity, is called
the potential core. Because of the spreading of the shear layer,
the potential core eventually disappears at a distance of about
four to six diameters downstream from the nozzle. The entrainment
process continues further beyond the end of the potential core
region such that the velocity distribution of the jet eventually
relaxes to an asymptotic bell-shaped velocity profile as
illustrated in Figure 1. Also shown in Figure 1 is the half-width
of the jet, y1/2, defined as the distance between the axis and the
location where the local velocity equals half of the local maximum
or centerline velocity, U0. The increase in the jet half-width with
downstream distance provides a measure of the spreading rate of the
jet. Due to the spreading, the jet centerline velocity, Vc,
decreases downstream beyond the potential core region.
Apparatus
The following apparatus will be used for this experiment: 1. A
rectangular jet, with a nozzle of dimensions 6 cm 1 cm. 2. An air
pump to force air stream through the jet nozzle. 3. A pitot-static
tube and a digital manometer. 4. A Pentium-based PC with LabVIEW
software and an associated ADC card. Experimental Procedure Jet
Centerline and Cross-Stream Velocity Profile Measurements 1. Set
the dynamic pressure of the jet exit velocity at the maximum stable
setting (usually between 0.06 and 0.07 psi). Note: the digital
pressure gage has an upper limit of 0.1 psi. Do not overload the
unit!
2. Beginning at a position approximately at the jet nozzle, move
the pitot-static probe along the center axis of the jet. Measure
the jet centerline velocity at 1 cm intervals for 31 data
points.
3. Move the probe to a downstream location of x/d = 4. (The
height d of the jet nozzle is 1 cm) measure the cross-stream
velocity profile by using the traverse to move the probe in the
vertical direction and recording the output using lab view.
4. A total of 8 points with a 1 mm increment should be
measured.
5. Move the probe to three other downstream locations at x/d =
10, 20 and 30 and measure the velocity profiles.
6. Record the ADC output for this location also.
7. Use 8 points and a 3 mm increment.
RESULT
Thus the free jet experiment is studied and experimental
procedures are discussed successfullyEXP NO: 6 PRESSURE
DISTRIBUTION OVER A SYMMETRICAL AEROFOIL
AIM
To determine the pressure distribution over the given
symmetrical aerofoil model and to plot the graph between x/c and
Cp
APPARTUS REQUIRED
Wind tunnel setup
symmetrical aerofoil with pressure tapping
Multi-bank manometer
FORMULA USED
1. Gauge PressurePg=gh
Where,=density of manometer fluid
g=Gravitational acceleration
h=Pressure head
h= hn - ho n=1,2,3,4..20 2. Pressure Coefficient
Cp= (Ps -P) / (1/2**V2) = Pg / (v2/2)PROCEDURE
Check the three phase power supply
Switch on the three phase power supply
Clean the model.
Fix the given model at a given angle of attack using string and
lock it.
Connect the pressure tapings of the model to the corresponding
point in the multi-bank manometer.
Switch on the wind tunnel set up.
Set the force indicators to zero.
Set the air velocity to a given value.
Note down the corresponding forces which are indicated in the
display
Repeat the same procedure for the different velocities at the
same angle of attack and note down the corresponding forces for
different velocities.TABULATION: Pressure readings at various flow
velocitiesFlowvelocityin m/s 1234567891011121314151617
181920
h in m
pg in n/m2
cp
x
x/c
GRAPH
Pressure coefficient versus position of pressure taping on the
symmetrical airfoil. i.e Cp vs x/c
RESULT
Thus the pressure distribution over the symmetrical aerofoil was
determined and the graph was plotted.
EXP NO: 7CASCADE TESTING OF MULTIPLE AEROFOIL SECTION OF TURBINE
BLADES
AIM
To determine the pressure distribution over the given
symmetrical aerofoil model and to plot the graph between x/c and
Cp
APPARTUS REQUIRED
Wind tunnel setup
symmetrical aerofoil with pressure tapping
Multi-bank manometer
FORMULA USED
1. Gauge Pressure Pg=gh
Where
=density of manometer fluid
g=Gravitational acceleration
h=Pressure head
2. Pressure Coefficient
Cp= (Ps -P) / (1/2**V2) = Pg / (v2/2)PROCEDURE
Check the three phase power supply
Switch on the three phase power supply
Clean the model.
Fix the given model at a given angle of attack using string and
lock it.
Connect the pressure tapings of the model to the corresponding
point in the multi-bank manometer.
Switch on the wind tunnel set up.
Set the force indicators to zero.
Set the air velocity to a given value.
Note down the corresponding forces which are indicated in the
display
Repeat the same procedure for the different velocities at the
same angle of attack and note down the corresponding forces for
different velocities.
TABULATION : Pressure readings at various flow
velocitiesFlowVelocityIn m/s Upper aerofoil Middle aerofoil Lower
aerofoil
123456123456123456
h in m
Pg in N/m2
Cp
X-
X/c-
GRAPH
Pressure coefficient versus position of pressure taping on the
symmetrical airfoil. i.e Cp vs x/c
RESULT
Thus the pressure distribution over the symmetrical aerofoil was
determined and the graph was plotted.
EXP NO: 8NOZZLE PERFORMANCE TEST
AIM
To conduct a performance on a nozzle for determining,
Effect of back pressure on mass flow rate
Jet velocity and nozzle efficiency for various operating
pressure
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Nozzle pressure test unit
2. Compressed air
FORMULA USED
1. Theoretical mass flow rate = {0.0404 At* P1} / {(T1)^
1/2}
2. Recorded mass flow rate = (mass flow in m/s) * (area in m2)*
(density in kg/m3)
3. Nozzle efficiency = specific kinetic energy / isentropic
enthalpy change
4. Specific kinetic energy (in J/Kg) = C22 / 2
5. Isentropic enthalpy change = {(RT)* (1-rp) ^ [(-1)/ ])} /
{-1}
Where, pressure ratio, rp = P2/ P1 and = 1.4
Density = 1.129 Kg/m3
D= 0.075 m
A= D2 / 4
PROCEDURE
1. Close the valve V2 and V32. Open the valve V4 and V13. Closed
the pressure regulator valve
4. Closed the Compressor line valve
5. Start the compressor and maintain the pressure in the range
of 8- 10 kg/m26. Open the outlet valve of compressor tank.
7. Switch on the system.
8. Ensure the functioning of indicators
9. Gradually open compressor line valve and adjust the pressure
regulator valve
10. Take the 3 readings of pressure, temperature and force.
11. Open the valve V2.
12. Closed the valve V1.
13. Gradually closed V4, and take readings of pressure
temperature 14. Draw the graph,
Pressure ratio Vs mass flow rate
Pressure ratio Vs nozzle efficiency
TABULATION
1. Determination of effect of back pressure on mass flow rate
Observation table: 1
S.NoInlet pressure (P1)
in kg / m2Chamber pressure (P1)
in kg / m2Mass flow in (m/s)Temperature in cForce in N
InletChamberT1T2
1
2
3
Table for calculation: 1
RecordedTheoretical
Chamber mass flow rateChamber pressure (P2)Chamber mass flow
rateInlet pressure (P1)P2/P1
In m/sIn kg/sIn kg / m2In kg / sIn kg / m2
2. Determination of Jet Velocity and Nozzle Efficiency
Observation table: 2
S.NoInlet pressure (P1)
in kg / m2Chamber pressure (P2)
in kg / m2Temperature in cMass flow in (m/s)Force in N
InletChamber
1
2
3
4
5
Table for calculation: 2 Chamber mass flow rate in kg/sC2 in
m/s
C2= F/ mP2/P1Nozzle efficiency
RESULT The jet velocity and nozzle efficiency is found
The required graph is plotted
Thus the nozzle performance test is conducted successfully
EXP NO: 9NOZZLE PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION TEST
AIM
To determine the effect of inlet pressure on the mass flow rate
with constant back pressure
To determine the effect of back pressure on mass flow rate with
constant inlet pressureAPPARATUS REQUIRED Centrifugal air
compressor
Nozzle pressure distribution unit
FORMULA USED1. Theoretical mass flow rate = {0.0404 At* P1} /
{(T1)^ 1/2}
2. Recorded mass flow rate = (mass flow in m/s) * (area in m2)*
(density in kg/m3)
Where,
Density = 1.129 Kg/m3
A= D2 / 4 = 0.0007065 m2PROCEDURE Before starting the
compressor, open V12, V11, and inlet valve fully. Pressure
regulator valve should be kept closed.
Compressor line valve should be kept closed.
Start the compressor and maintain the pressure in the range of
8- 10 kg/m2 Open the outlet valve of compressor tank.
Switch on the system.
Ensure the functioning of indicators
Gradually open compressor line valve and adjust the pressure
regulator valve.
Open valve V2 and take the readings of pressure p2, temperature,
and mass flow rate.
Take 3 reading by adjusting pressure regulator valve.
Gradually closed V12 and Take reading of pressure P2 by
maintaining pressure regulator reading of 2 kg/cm2 for varying back
pressure.
TABULATION1. Determination of effect of inlet pressure on the
mass flow rate with constant back pressure.
Inlet pressure in kg / m2Flow rate In m/sPractical mass rateIn
kg / s Pressure at P2 in kg /m2Theoretical mass flowIn kg / s
2. Determination of effect of back pressure on the mass flow
rate with constant inlet pressureTemperaturein cP2In kg / m2F
in m/s
RecordedTheoretical Mass flow rate in kg/sBack pressure
In kg / m2
Mass flow in m/sMass flow rate in kg/s
RESULT The effect of inlet pressure and back pressure on mass
flow rate is determined Thus the pressure distribution test is
conducted successfullyEX.NO:10BOMB CALORIMETER
INTRODUCTION
A bomb calorimeter will measure the amount of heat generated
when matter is burnt in a sealed chamber (bomb) in an atmosphere of
oxygen gas.
This isothermal bomb calorimeter provides a simple inexpensive
yet accurate method for determination of heat of combustion
(calorific value) of solid and liquid fuels. The out fit is
complete for analysis as per method recommended by ISI (IS
1359-1954).
aim
To determine the calorific value of the given solid or
non-volatile liquid fuel using a bomb calorimeter OPERATING
PRINCIPLE
A known amount of sample is burnt in a sealed chamber (bomb) the
air is replaced by pure oxygen. The sample is ignited electrically.
As the sample burns heat is generated. The raise in temperature is
noted since baring loss of heat the amount of heat generated by
burning of the sample must be equal to the amount of heat absorbed
by the calorimeter assembly. By knowing the energy equivalent of
the calorimeter and the temperature raise, the calorific value can
be found out.
PROCEDURE
Find the weight of the empty crucible using a physical
balance.
A small quantity of liquid fuel (diesel) is taken in the
crucible and is again weighed with fuel in it.
The crucible with fuel is placed over the support. A fuse wire
is connected between the electrodes.
The bomb is closed air tight and is filled with oxygen at a
pressure of about 25 bars.
The bomb is placed inside the calorimeter vessel filled with
water. Noted the initial temperature of water using the digital
thermometer.
The calorimeter water is stirred using a motor drive. The fuel
is ignited electrically by passing a high voltage through the fuse
wire which causes the fuse wire to burn.
Heat liberated by the fuel causes the temperature to rise.
After steady condition is reached the temperature raise is
measured using the digital thermometer provided.
OBSERVATION
Weight of the crucible without fuel (m1) =gm
Weight of the crucible with fuel (m2) =gm
Initial reading of the digital thermometer (t1)=.c
Final reading of the digital thermometer (t2)=.c
CALCULATION
Mass of fuel burnt (m) = m2 - m1
Temperature rise (t)
= t2 - t1W = energy equivalent of the calorimeter assembly =
9735 J/.c
Cv = calorific value of fuel in J/gm or KJ/Kg
Then W * t = Cv * m
Cv = W * t / mRESULT
Thus the calorific value of given solid or non volatile liquid
fuel is found using bomb calorimeter.
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