8/13/2019 Prophets and Prophetism in the Old Testament http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/prophets-and-prophetism-in-the-old-testament 1/53 Prophets and Prophetism In the Hebrew Bible John R. Neal, Sr. FD 9312 – Research Methods of Old Testament Criticism December 2013
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8/13/2019 Prophets and Prophetism in the Old Testament
In order to have a proper understanding of the Old Testament prophets, one must have a
clear understanding of a definition of who or what is a prophet. “According to the uniform
teaching of the Bible a prophet is a speaker for God. His words are not the production of his
own spirit, but come from a higher source.”2 The prophet receives power from God, “which
comes over a human being and compels him to see or to hear something which otherwise would
be hidden from him, is called by various terms expressive of inspiration.”3 Another author
defines the term “prophetism” as the “understanding of history which accepts meaning only in
terms of divine concern, divine purpose, [and] divine participation.” According to this definition
then, much of the Old Testament is written from a prophetic point of view and “reflects an
unmistakably prophetic understanding of history.”4
Historical Development of Prophecy
A study of the Old Testament prophets is important in our understanding of the Hebrew
Bible. For one reason is due to the fact that the prophetic books and the nature of prophecy
2C. von Orelli, “Prophecy, Prophets,” in International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Vol IX, Naarah-
Socho, ed James Orr (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1939): 2459.3Ibid., 2460.4B.D. Napier, “Prophet, Prophetism,” in Interpreter‟s Dictionary of the Bible, K -Q, ed George Arthur
males up over half of the Old Testament books. The Jewish Scripture is divided into three
sections: the Law (Torah), Prophets, and Writings. The Prophets are further divided up into two
groups: the “former” and “latter” prophets. The section of the former prophets consists of the
books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel (1, 2), and Kings (1, 2).5 Originally Samuel and Kings were
one volume in the Hebrew Bible. This is probably why Josephus counts the Hebrew canon as
consisting of 22 books. The Jews of Alexandria combined Samuel and Kings into one book
known as “kingdoms” and then “subdivided each of them so as to form four books of
“kingdoms.”” We owe our designation in the English Bible of Samuel and Kings to the Latin
Vulgate, which removed the name “kingdoms” and placed the title of Samuel and Kings to each
book (thus 1, 2 Sam. and 1, 2 Kings rather than 1, 2, 3, 4 Kingdoms as in the LXX). However,
the 1517 edition of the Bomberg Hebrew Bible is the first to “make the partition of Samuel and
Kings into two books.”6
The Jewish canon divides the prophetic section into the former and latter prophets. The
former prophets consist of the books of Josh., Judg., 1 and 2 Sam., and 1 and 2 Kings. Although
the English reader might consider these books as historical, yet “they were composed from a
prophetic viewpoint and possibly even the authors themselves may have been prophets by
profession.”7 The latter prophets are subdivided into the major prophets (the “big three” being
Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel) because of their length and the minor prophets (the “twelve”
5R.K. Harrison, Introduction To The Old Testament with a comprehensive review of Old Testament Studies
and a special supplement on the Apocrypha (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969, Repr. 1991), 664.6Gleason L. Archer, Jr., A Survey of Old Testament Introduction, Rev Ed (Chicago: Moody Press, 1985),
288.7Ibid., 302.
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minor prophets are Hos., Joel, Amos, Obad., Jon., Mic., Nah., Hab., Zeph., Hag., Zech., and
Mal.).8
Divisions or Eras of Prophets
One would be mistaken to consider that prophetic activity did not begin in Israel prior to
the 9th
century B.C. In fact, biblical prophecy goes back to the opening chapters of the Bible.
Unger notes that there is a mistaken notion that Hebrew prophets did not appear prior to the
eighth century B.C. when, in fact, spoken and written prophecy goes back to “ancient times.”9
The “protoevangelium” or the very “first prophecy of a divine Redeemer” (according to Gen.
3:15-16) is spoken “directly by God without the necessity of prophetic intermediation.”10
The so-called “Premonarchic prophets” refer to the prophets who spoke before the
ninth/eighth centuries B.C. Some of the great Old Testament characters who are designated as
prophets are Abraham (Gen. 20:7), Aaron (Exod. 7:1), Miriam (Exod. 15:20), Deborah (Judg.
4:4), and even Moses (Num. 11:26-29l 12:5-8; Deut. 18:18; 34:10).11 The NT author Jude refers
to Enoch, the “seventh from Adam,” as a prophet (Jude v 14-15). The patriarch Noah likewise
“uttered prophetic oracles” (Gen. 9:25-27). Even the patriarch Abraham is called a prophet
(Gen. 20:7; Ps. 105:12-15). Moses is a prophet with whom God spoke to “face to face” (Num.
12:6-8; Deut. 34:10).12
Another early example of “prophecy as an institution is the account of
8The book of Daniel is not listed or classified in the Hebrew Bible as being among the prophets. Daniel is
listed in the section of the “sacred writings” (included in the writings: Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Song of
Solomon, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, and 1 and 2 Chronicles). The Protestant
canon includes Daniel and Lamentations among the prophets.9Merrill F. Unger, “The Character Of Old Testament Prophecy,” Bibliotheca Sacra 108, no 430 (Ap-Je
1951), 168-69.10Ibid., 169.11 Napier, 905.12Ibid.
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we find the prophetic activity of: Zeph., Hab., Jer., Nah., Ezek., and Obad. Finally during the
Persian Period, one finds the writings of: Hag., Zech., Joel, and Mal.22
Names/Titles of the Prophets
. First there is the term (prophet). Gesenius argues that the noun
comes from the Hebrew root, meaning to “CAUSE TO BUBBLE UP, hence to pour forth
words abundantly, as is done by those who speak with ardour or divine emotion of mind.”23
The
verb form does not appear in the Qal, but in the Niphal form in the sense of speak as a prophet)
and the Hithpael form (to act mad/act like a prophet).24
The noun form nabi‟ is the normal OT
term for a prophet, whether he is a prophet of Baal (1 Kings 18:19, 22, 25, 40; 2 Kings 10:19;
22:6, 10, 12, 13, 22, 23), or of Ashera (1 Kings 18:19), or even Yahewh (such as the prophets
Elijah, Samuel, Nathan, Gad, Elijah, or Elisha). A nabi‟ can be a true prophet of God or a false
one.25
According to Brown-Driver-Briggs seem to follow the same position as Gesenius. They
define nabi‟ as a masculine noun meaning “spokesman, speaker, prophet.”26
Holladay connects nabi‟ with the verb, meaning to “be in prophetic ecstasy” or to
“behave” like a nabi‟ (in the Niphal) and to “behave” like a nabi‟ or to “rave (in the Hithpael).27
“Gesenius over a century ago plausibly but inconclusively connected nabhi’ with the Hebrew
22C. Hassell Bullock, An Introduction To The Old Testament Books (Chicago: Moody Press, 1986), 12.
Some commentators classify Lamentations and Daniel as prophets, but technically they make up part of the Writingsor kethubim, not the nebhi‟im.
23H.W.F. Gesenius, Gesenius‟ Hebr ew-Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament, trans Samuel Prideaux
Tregelles (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1979, Repr. 1988), 525, 528.24Ibid., 525-26.25Jack P. Lewis, “The Schools of the Prophets,” Restoration Quarterly 9, no 1 (1966): 1.26F. Brown, S. Driver, and C. Briggs, The Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon (Peabody,
MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2008), 611.27William L. Holladay, A Concise Hebrew And Aramaic Lexicon Of The Old Testament, Based Upon The
Lexical Work Of Ludwig Koehler And Walter Baumgartner (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983), 224.
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root nabha` , “to bubble forth.” To the present day many scholars, building shaky arguments on
the idea of ecstatic or excited utterance as the real basis of the prophetic message, erroneously
overemphasize this element in Hebrew prophecy, and put it on a par with the abnormal behavior
of a dervish.”28
Another view relates the lost root of this Hebrew noun to the Akkadian term nabum
meaning “to name,” or “invoke, call, summon, appoint; to decree, proclaim.”29
Relating the
Hebrew noun nabi‟ with the Akkadian term for “to call,” Albright proposed the real meaning of
nabi‟ is one who is called by God (and thus parallels Akkadian/Babylonian usage).30
The
evidence for this position is strong. The C-A-D give seven possible meanings for the verb and
noun form of nabum: (1) “to name, to give a name,” (2) “to invoke,” (3) “to summon, to call a
person (to exercise a function), to appoint a person to an office,” (4) “to decree, to proclaim, to
command, to make known,” (5) “to count among,” (6) “to cause to proclaim,” and (7) “to be
named, appointed, called upon.”31
In particular, this Akkadian term is used to refer to one
appointed as a king/ruler or shepherd over the people, to be appointed as a priest, a governor, or
even to “proclaim” or “make known” some “decree.”32 The data points to an individual who
receives a divine call for a specific task or purpose.
Holladay connects nabi‟ with the verb meaning to “be in prophetic ecstasy” or to
“behave” like a nabi‟ (in the Niphal) and to “behave” like a nabi‟ or to “rave (in the Hithpael).33
“Gesenius over a century ago plausibly but inconclusively connected nabhi’ with the Hebrew
28Unger, “The Character Of Old Testament Prophecy,” 168.29John Huehnergard, A Grammar Of Akkadian (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2000), 508.30Harrison, 742.31The Assyrian Dictinary Of The Oriental Institute Of The University Of Chicago, vol 11-N, Part I , Ed
Erica Reiner (Chicago, IL: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago/ Gluckstadt, Germany: JJ Augustin
root nabha` , “to bubble forth.” To the present day many scholars, building shaky arguments on
the idea of ecstatic or excited utterance as the real basis of the prophetic message, erroneously
overemphasize this element in Hebrew prophecy, and put it on a par with the abnormal behavior
of a dervish.”34
The Greek equivalent of the Hebrew term nabi‟ is always profh/thj in the LXX.
The original sense of profh/thj is that of speaking, saying, and is a close “synonym for the noun
kh/ruc or preach. Thus the nabi‟ is the spokesman or “mouthpiece” for God. Only later on
does the Greek term carry the idea of predicting the future.35
– seer. Gesenius has as referring to a “seer,” a “prophet,” from the verb
“to see,”36
or to look at or even inspect. Thus, he is one who truly sees. One might say
this is a synonym of the Hebrew word for prophet (nabi‟ ). The word seer is “employed more
than any other word for an authentic prophet in receiving oracles from God.” Brown-Driver-
Briggs give the same idea, as a masculine noun meaning “seer,” and old term for nabi‟ ,
coming from the verb to see.37
According to Num. 12:6, God promised that He would speak to
his spokesman or prophet through a „vision‟ (mar‟ah, a noun form of the word for seer). The
verb “to see” (ra‟ah) is found throughout the major and minor prophets to refer to a prophet
seeing a vision (see Isa. 6:1; Jer. 1:11-13; Ezek. 1:1, 4, 15, 27, 28; 2:9; 8:2, 6, 7, 10, 15; 10:1, 9;
11:1). Samuel, Zadok, and Hanani were all referred to as seers. In reference to the prophet,
34 Unger, “The Character Of Old Testament Prophecy,” (C. Brown 1986) 168.35Rendorf , “profh/thj,” Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, vol VI. Ed. Gerhard Kittle and
Gerhard Friedrich, Trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1968, Repr. 1993), 783, 795-96. Jimmy
In the above verse, the prophet pronounces “a climactic rhetorical end by painting a vivid picture
of Yahweh‟s majesty.”73
In the “previous section” (Amos 4:6-12), the prophet announces that
Israel should prepare for God‟s judgment. Through poetic verse, the prophet warns God would
withhold the rain (v. 6), destroy their crops (v. 9), and send a plague among them (v. 10). God
even declared that he would overthrow them as he did to Sodom and Gomorrah (v. 11). The
prophets even utilized inclusion or inclusio, where key words or phrases are repeated at the end
to form a sort of book end to a particular unit. For example, in Amos 1:3-2:5, this literary unit
begins with the phrase, “Thus says the Lord,” and likewise ends with the phrase, “… says the
Lord.”74
The prophets also use the poetic technique known as chiasm or chiasmus. Chiasms are
“forms of inverted parallelism,” but not all “inverted parallelism” are chiasms. A true chiasm
not only shows “inverted parallelism,” but also points out the “focus, the pivotal point, of a
passage.” A chiasm normally takes the form of A, B, B‟, A,‟ or A, B, C, C‟, B‟, A.‟ In Amos
5:10-13, one finds the A, B, C, B‟, A‟ form (where C is the focal point).
75
Another example
comes from the prophet Jon. while in the belly of the great fish (Jon. 1:17-2:10). This chiasm
takes the A, B, C, D, D‟, C‟, B, A‟ form (the center being 2:5-6b and 2:6c).76
72Translation mine.73Klein, Blomberg, and Hubbard, 296.74Sidney Greidanus, The Modern Preacher And the Ancient Text: Interpreting and Preaching Biblical
Archer, Gleason L., Jr. A Survey of Od Testament Introduciton, Rev Ed. Chicago: Moody Press,
1985.
Baker, Davie W. ""Israelites Prophets and Prophecy"." In The Face Of Old Testament Studies: ASurvey of Contemporary Approaches, edited by David W. Baker and Bill T. Arnold, 271.
Brown, Colin. Prophet. Vol. Vol 3, in The New International Dictionary of New Testament
Theology, edited by Colin Brown, 77. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1986.
Brown, F., S. Driver, and C. Briggs. The Brown-Drive-Briggs Hebrew and Enslish Lexicon.
Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2008.
Bullock, C. Hassell. An Introduction To The Old Testament Prophetic Books. Chicago: MoodyPress, 1986.
Culver, Robert D. nabi'. Vol. Vol 2, , in Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament , edited
by Gleason L. Archer, Jr., and Bruce K. Waltke R. Laird Harris, 544. Chicago: Moody
Press, 1981.
Fee, Gordon D. and Douglas Stuart. How To Read The Bible For All Its Worth, A Guide To
Understanding The Bible. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1982.
Geisler, Norman L. A Popular Survey of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1986.
Goldsworthy, Graeme. Preaching the Whole Bible as Christian Scripture: The Application of Biblical Theology to Expository Preaching. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000.
Gesenius, H.W.F. Gesenius' Hebrew-Chaldee Lexicon to the Old Testament. Translated by
Samuel Prideaux Tregelles. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1979, Repr. 1988.
Greidanus, Sidney. The Modern Preacher And the Ancient Text: Interpreting and Preaching
Biblical Literature. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans/Leicester, England: Inter-Varsity, 1988,
Repr. 1989.
Harrison, R.K. Introduction To The Old Testament with a comprehensive review of Old
Testament Studies and a special supplement on the Apocrypha. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1969, Repr. 1991.
Hibbard, J. Todd. ""True and False Prophecy: Jeremiah's Revision of Deuteronomy"." Journal
for the Study of the Old Testament 35, no. 3 (2011): 341-342.
Holladay, William L. A Concise Hebrew And Aramaic Lexicon Of The Old Testament, Based
Upon The Lexical Work Of Ludwig Koehler And Walter Baumgargner. Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1983.
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Chapter Sections on the Prophets From Bullock’s Book
Chapter 2 – Jonah: Preface to the Prophets
Dr. Bullock gives good background information and overview of Jonah and classifies
him as a good introduction to the classical prophets. He even discusses his brief mention in 2
Kings 14:26 and shows his prophecy mirrors the reign of Jeroboam (793/92-753 B.C.). There
are three main approaches to Jonah: Allegorical, Parabolic, and Historical. I agree with him thatthis is definitely a historical account (not to mention Jesus uses his ministry as proof of God‟s
Divine judgment and His coming forth from the tomb on the third day). He does a good job
handling some of the difficulties in Jonah such as the “great city” statement, the 120,000
population and referring to the ruler as the “king of Nineveh.” The purpose of Jonah is to showGod‟s forgiveness, His grace, and willingness to relent if people will but repent. He dates him
near the reign of Asshur-dan III (771-754 BC) and that the eclipse followed by the famine mayhave “ripened the city for repentance.”
137
Chapter 3 – Amos: Call for Moral Obedience.
Amos is an 8th
century contemporary with Hosea and Micah, from the village of Tekoa,
some six miles south of Bethlehem. He goes into the discussion of how his being a “shepherd”
referred to a herder of certain typed of “short legged sheep” that grew “fine wool.”138
Amos wasalso a piercer of wild figs (7:14). He prophecies against their sacrifices, which, for Israel, is
probably an indictment against their idolatry and admonishes them right worship must
accompany right living (and vice versa). Proposed dates for his prophetic ministry (during thereigns of Uzziah and Jeroboam) are between 767-753 B.C. If we knew when the “earthquake”took place, we could be more precise. Bullock suggests that “Amos 8:9 is a prediction of the
solar eclipse that occurred in 763 B.C., according to Assyrian records.” If this be the case, then
Amos‟ prophecy took place between 767-763 B.C. The book pronounces woes against thenations (1:3-2:6) – the last of which are Judah and Israel - and five different visions (7:1-9; 8:1-
9:10). The book can also be divided up into “oracles” (1:3-2:16), “sermons” (3:1-6:14) and
“visions” (7:1-9:8b). The form of the form of the oracle includes: (1) the „thus saith the Lord,‟or the introductory formula, (2) a pronouncement of God‟s judgment, (3) the indictment against
the nations, (4) a punishment formula, and the concluding “Says the Lord.”139
Dr. Bullock
rejects the notion this this prophecy is strewn together by various redactors, but rather gives this
as the “final plan” for Amos‟ book: “(1) details his oracles and visions delivered in the north twoyears prior, (2) recognizes the confirmation of his prophecy by the earthquake, and (3) offers hop
in anticipation of the impending storm yet to occur at the hands of the unnamed Assyrians.”140
137This is an excerpt from the outline on Bullock’s book on the prophets for class. C. Hassell Bullock, An
Introduction to the Old Testament Prophetic Books (Chicago: Moody Press. 1986), 51.138
Ibid., 56.139
Ibid., 63.140
Ibid., 62.
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After many attempts to classify the genre of the prophetic oracle, Clement and Barton suggest
that this form is unique to Hebrew prophecy and draws from the various “aspects” of life in
Israel.141
The purpose of Amos was to show that no nation, including Judah or Israel, couldescape God‟s wr athful judgment. A conservative date places his ministry between 850-753 B.C.
One of the best aspects about this chapter is his chart on the oracles against the nations142
and the
chart on his five visions.
143
Bullock notes that since most of Amos‟ prophecies concern Israelrather than Judah, more than likely “most of them were delivered in the sanctuaries of the Northern Kingdom, even though they may not have occurred there. Bethel is the only once we
can be certain about. It is likely that all of them were announced there.”144
The best explanation
Bullock comes up with for the meaning behind Amos‟ statement in 7:14 („I was no prophet …‟)that he was not a professional prophet and that he was not the disciple of a prophet. He was a
simple farmer God told go preach, and he did.145
Although Amos prophesied gloom and doom,
he also offered hope for the future.146
Chapter 4 – Hosea: A Prophets Dilemma
We do not know where Hosea was born, but he seems to come from N. Israel. His fatheris Beeri and may be the same individual deported by Tiglath-pileser (1 Chron. 5:6). Due to hisknowledge of politics and history, some suggest he comes from a middle or upper-class family.
His prophetic ministry extends from the time of Jeroboam II some time before the destruction of
Samaria in 722 B.C. If he references the Syro-Ephramite War, then his prophecy may endaround 734-44 B.C. (lasting some thirty years). Is this literary work prose or poetry? Some
argue between the two, but Anderson and Freedman describe this feature as something in
between that is “characteristic of the prophets.”147
Some question whether Hosea‟s marriage to
Gomer is to be taken literal or figurative/spiritual (like the approach some take with Jonah).There is even some question whether we are dealing with the same woman in chapter one that
we are dealing with in chapter three.148
Perhaps the best solution is that we are dealing with the
same woman but different events. If the mother of his children was not the same one who became the prostitute, then the message loses the dramatic effect upon Israel.
149 The structure of
Hos. 1-3 follows this pattern: A (1:2-9), B (1:10-2:1), C (2:2-4), D (2:5-8), C 1 (2:9-13), B1 (2:14-
23) and A1 (3:1-5). Bullock note that this “pattern does justice to the theology of the book as awhole because it identifies the fundamental sin of Israel to be the lack of knowledge of the
Lord.”150
Hos. 4-14are viewed as a “fuller statement of God‟s mercy and love toward Israel, the
theme of chapter 3.”151
Some argue that Hosea is a “covenant lawsuit” leveled against Israel by
141Ibid., 65.
142Ibid., 64.
143Ibid., 71.144
Ibid., 73.145
Ibid., 74.146
Ibid., 82.147
Ibid., 87.148
Ibid., 88-89.149
Ibid., 89-90.150
Ibid., 93.151
Ibid., 94.
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Whether one believes Hosea or an amanuensis copied for him,
there is no reason to argue the book was not completed during Hosea‟s lifetime.153
While the
prophecy was intended for Israel, he references Judah fifteen times in his prophecy. These Judahwarnings may be a sign of things to come. “The primary imagery of the book is Hosea‟s
marriage, which symbolized the marriage of Yahweh and Israel, Yahweh being the Husband and
Israel the wife (2:16). Hosea, unlike Amos, polemicized against the idolatrous Baalism of theeighth century (8:4-6). Prostitution was the symbol of that idolatry.” Hosea‟s love for Gomerreflected God‟s love for Israel.
154
Chapter 5 – Micah: Judgment, Hope, and Promise
Bullock states that Micah may not be as gifted an orator as Isaiah, yet his influence on the
nation as a whole would be felt years later, so much so that “the Judean elders who heard a
message of comparable passion from Jeremiah (Jer. 26).”155
He does not believe there is any
connection between this Micah and another prophet by the same name (Micaiah, son of Imlah, 1Kings 22). He hailed from Moresheth-Gath, but his prophetic activity probably took place in
cities like Samaria or Jerusalem. Micah‟s prophecy is summed up in these brief words: he
“aimed largely at the civil and religious leaders of Judah, but he was not blinded to the sins of the people whose cause he took up and defended.”
156 There are four main views on when Micah
was active as a prophet. (1) The belief that Micah‟s work took place before Samaria‟s fall. (2)
That Micah‟s work took place before the fall of Samaria (722/21) and extended even past duringthe time of further Assyrian campaigns in the region (711, 701 BC). (3) Some argue for a “time
frame that has Sennacherib‟s invasion of 701 B.C. as the focus.157
” (4) A fourth group takes the
“superscription” at face value and place him during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah
(Judean kings). His ministry may have extended from 739-686 B.C., a length of some fiftyyears.
158 The style of writing and/or delivery of his message are not as smooth and polished as
that of Amos, Hosea, and Isaiah. He moves abruptly from “threat to promise” and changes from
“one subject to another,” as well as changes his “grammatical person and gender .”159
Before the
critical era, most scholars took for granted the prophecy as a whole was either spoken or writtendown by Micah, but now most critical scholars deny Micah is connected with chapters 1-3.
Bullock does a good job defending the unity of Micah and showing the 8th
century prophets – no
reason why to believe all of the 8th
century prophets did not speak of exile and return.160
Herefers to Mic. 6:8 („He has showed you, o man …‟) the golden rule or text of the OT.
161 He
stressed practicing justice, hesed, and walking humbly with God.162
God left Judah “no room to
escape the consequences of their sins,”163
which included immorality, violence, and idolatry.164
152Ibid., 95.
153Ibid., 95-96.
154Ibid., 98.
155Ibid., 103.156
Ibid., 106.157
Ibid.158
Ibid., 107.159
Ibid., 108.160
Ibid., 108-111.161
Ibid., 116.162
Ibid.163
Ibid., 118.
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Bullock refers to Isaiah as the prophet “Par Excellence” and that he was an 8th
cent.
Prophet (along with Amos, Hos., and Mic.). He stood out like a “bright star in the propheticconstellation” of that century.
165 We have very little background information on a prophet who
wrote so much. His prophetic career began with the death of Uzziah (740 B.C.) and continued
into the reign of Hezekiah (who died around 686 B.C.).166
Bullock gives a good time line on pg.
129 of significant events in the life of his career. From pages 130-154, he breaks the book downinto two sections (chapters 1-33 and 34-66) and gives an overview of the various oracles). Most
scholars agree that there are seven main divisions in the book.167
He deals with some of the
critical issues (such as authorship, Messianic references, who is the suffering servant) from pages
150-157. He gives evidence of those who support the unity of the whole book.
Chapter 7 – Zephaniah: Profile of a People
This chapter begins the section on the prophets of the Neo-Babylonian period (Zeph.-Lam.). On pages 163-64, he gives an overview of the New-Babylonian period. The author gives some good
historical background of the era of King Hezekiah and his wicked son, Manasseh, to help us
understand the prophets of this era.168
Zephaniah‟s name means “The Lord has hidden” andtraces his genealogy back four generations. The religious attitude of the people of his day was
“stagnant.”169
There was a mixture of Yahweh and pagan ritual in their worship.170
A couple
of questions that come up in this book is: who is the unnamed foe who would punish God‟s
people and did he prophecy before or after the religious reforms of Josiah?171
The theme thatdominates this book is the “Day of the Lord” and he gives a chart of the judgments against the
various nations on pg. 169. While Zephaniah did not “champion” the cause of the less fortunate
as Amos, yet the prophet “was keenly aware of injustice (3:3-4) and that God would repay.172
164Ibid., 120-23.165
Ibid., 125.166
Ibid., 126-28.167
Ibid., 131.168
Ibid., 165-66.169
Ibid., 166.170
Ibid., 167.171
Ibid., 167-68.172
Ibid., 171-72.
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How is Habakkuk a prophet of transition? Bullock notes that from the “beginning of the
classical era of the prophets to the year 626, or possibly as late as 612 B.C., the Assyrian Empire
had posed either a viable or a real threat to the tiny kingdoms of Israel and Judah.”173
The prophet Habakkuk, however, is the prophet who concentrates “his attention upon the transition
from Assyrian to Babylonian domination of Judah.”174 Thus this prophet is in the midst of atransition period in that he focuses his attention “on the changing political fortunes of his world”
and shifts “from the Neo-Assyrian to the Neo-Babylonian period.”175
There is a theological burden placed on Habakkuk – why – why would God allow this to happen? All we know about
his personal life is that he is called a prophet; we do not even know the “kings in whose reigns he
may have prophesied.”176
There are four types of prophetic material in Habakkuk: complaint,oracle, woes, and psalm (chapter 3). The book can be divided into two Parts: Part I (chapters 1-
2) and Part II (chapter 3). The first part begins with a question (1:2) followed by an answer (1:5-
11). The second part contains a series of woes: (1) 2:6b-8; (2) 2:9-4; (3) 2:12-14); (4) 2:15-17);
(5) 2:18-19). The end of Part I (2:20) calls on all the earth to keep silence before God whichleads naturally into the psalm or prayer in Part II, chapter 3. Various dates are given for
Habakkuk‟s ministry. There are some who prefer a “Josianic date” of around 622/21 B.C., whilemost modern scholars prefer some time during Jehoiakim‟s reign, 605-598 B.C. Habakkuk dealswith the justice of God (how can a righteous God allow an evil nation to punish His people), his
denouncement of idolatry (referring to them as a “dumb stone” in 2:19.177
Chapter 9 – Jeremiah: Prophet to the Nations
Jeremiah is appointed by God to be a “prophet to the nations,” according to 1:5, 10,
although is time is “preoccupied with Judah,” whose constantly “changing political fortunes
shifted through Assyrian, Egyptian, and Babylonian cycles before his forty-year ministryterminated” (184). Some of the nations that were denounced and would drink God‟s cup of
wrath are Jerusalem/Judah, Egypt, Uz, Philistia, Edom, Moab, Ammon, Tyre, Sidon, Elam,
Media, and some unnamed countries (Jer. 25). We know more about Jeremiah and his familythan anyone else. There is background information on him in 2 Kings 21-25. The book of
Chronicles notes his important role during the “declining days of the Judean state (see 2 Chron .
36:12, 21, 22; Ezra 1:1). Daniel even makes a reference to Jeremiah in connection with theseventy years or exile prophecy (Dan. 9:2). He is from the town of Anathoth (1:1) and is part of
a priestly family.178
God announces that He “knew” the prophet and ap pointed him even before
he was “formed” or “born” (1:5) (187). While Isaiah lived to see the destruction of Samaria and
her citizens being exiled, Jeremiah had the unfortunate pleasure of seeing Jerusalem destroyed.179
173Ibid., 174.
174Ibid.
175Ibid., 175.
176Ibid.
177Ibid., 182-84.
178Ibid., 186.
179Ibid., 188.
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Bullock goes into detail of the kings that Jeremiah prophesied during (Josiah, Jehoiachin,
Aedekiah-Gedaliah).180
The book of Jeremiah can be divided up into three books: Book I (1:1-
25:13), Book II (30-31), and Book III (46-51).181
Jeremiah‟s forty year ministry stretches fromabout 627/26-586 B.C. “The reconstruction of the process by which they were written and
brought together in this collection must remain hypothetical.”182
Bullock deals with the
differences between the LXX and MT versions of Jeremiah. The LXX does not place the oraclesin the same order as the Hebrew Bible (due either to scribal error or working from a differentHebrew text type). The LXX version is likewise about “one-eighth shorter” than the MT.
183
Jeremiah chastises Judah for her disobedience and forsaking him for other cisterns (spiritual
adultery). Perhaps Jeremiah is best known for his prophecy about the new covenant (Jer. 31:31-34). The Messianic Age would also bring about a “restored Davidic Ruler, the Righteous
Branch, who will dispense equity and justice (23:5; 33:14-16).184
Chapter 10 – Nahum: The Reality of Judgment
While most of the prophets were preaching against the sins of Israel and Judah, in two or
three cases, they are involved in proclaiming judgment against foreign nations. They are John, Nahum, and Obadiah. “Nahum even distinguishes himself from Obadiah in the sense that hezooms in on the event of vindication and gives his audience an audio-visual experience by means
of his powerful poetic style.”185
The prophets often view events in the future as if they already
have taken place.186
Here in Nahum, he speaks as if the “fall of Nineveh” was occurring right before their very eyes (2:3-7; 3:1-7), the idea of the “prophetic present.”
187 We know very
personal information about the prophet, only that he is an “Elkoshite” or from Elkosh, but the
exact location is uncertain.188
Bullock gives some good background information about the
decline and fall of the Assyrian Empire and the destruction of Nineveh in 612 B.C. The name Nineveh is only referenced three times in Nahum (1:1; 2:8; 3:7), but is referred to using
pronouns in 1:8, 9, 11, 13-14, and 2:1. We have a pretty good idea about the earliest and latest
date of Nahum‟s prophecies: his reference to the capture of Thebes in 3:8-9 gives us the earliest possible date of 663 B.C., and his prophecy concerning Nineveh (612 B.C.) gives us a window
of opportunity of a few years before the fall.189
The author deals with the supposed acrostic in
chapter one, but notes (has a chart on pg. 219) that when the eviden ce is laid out, “the acrostichypothesis is rather unconvincing.” He adds that analyzing the “Masoretic divisions of the lines”
shows how “disruptive” any attempt would be to create an acrostic .190
While we cannot be
certain about an acrostic arrangement, we do know Nahum uses other “literary devices” such as
180Ibid., 192-95.
181Ibid., 196-202.
182Ibid., 203.183
Ibid., 206-07.184
Ibid., 211.185
Ibid., 215.186
Ibid.187
Ibid., 216.188
Ibid., 216. Bullock gives 3 possibilities.189
Ibid., 217-18.190
Ibid., 219.
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“repetition, alliteration, assonance, and paronomasia.”191
(220). He deals with the issue that some
believe Nahum is a liturgical book rather than prophetic, but shows that “oracle” and “vision” are
not usually part of a “liturgical composition.”192
He gives a good thematic outline193
in additionto his general outline at the end of each chapter. Two key themes in Nahum is the sovereignty of
the Lord and the certainty of judgment upon Assyria.194
Chapter 11 – Ezekiel: The Merging of Two Spheres
Ezekiel merges two roles, that of prophet and priest. He states in 1:3 that he is among the
priests. Bullock notes: “There is no certain way of knowing whether Ezekiel ever functioned as
a priest in the Jerusalem Temple,” but he is of the opinion that “he did not.” Perhaps he was inline for the priestly role, but was taken into captivity beforehand. Yet he does classify himself as
part of the priestly class (1:3) and his “description of the New Temple and cultic functions in
chapter‟s 40-48 remove all doubt about his priestly orientation.”195
Ezekiel identifies himself as
among the Judean exiles in 1:1 probably during the exile of Jehoiachin (597), according to 1:1.Later on he says that dates his ministry to the 25
th year of exile (i.e., 597 B.C., 228). “We also
know that he was married, and that his wife, also with him in exile, died suddenly in
approximately 587 B.C. while Jerusalem was under siege (24:16-27).” We are not told if theyhad any children. While most scholars find very little that is original with Ezekiel, he notes that
Greenberg argues that the “evidence is weighted in favor of the sixth -century prophet, who
certainly shaped the book, if not provided the very words that have come to us.”196
The authordeals with the three traditional explanations of where Ezekiel resides between chapters 8-11:
197
the three-residence theory, the two-residence, and the single-residence. Bullock believes the
textual evidence supports the last, the he was taken into Babylonian captivity and there received
his message. This position is not difficult to accept if we hold to the view of predictive
prophecy/the role of the Holy Spirit.198
He covers the four ways Ezekiel addressed his message:through oral proclamation, visions, “symbolic actions,” and “prophetic discourse.”
199 The author
also deals with the issue of Ezekiel being unable to speak for a period of time (3:22). One line ofthought is that his “silence was some form of inhibited speech that lasted until the B abylonian
conquest of Jerusalem.”200
Another suggestion is that the term mochiah in 3:26 is a “legal term
meaning “arbitrator” rather than “reprover,”” and that what God prohibits is Ezekiel being a
“mediator or arbitrator between Yahweh and Israel” (234). The author explains the “thirtieth”year as referring they year of Jehoiachin‟s exile and not how old he was when he began to
prophesy. Dr. Bullock includes a good section on Ezekiel as the “father of apocalyptic”
191Ibid., 220.
192Ibid.193
Ibid., 221-22.194
Ibid., 224-25.195
Ibid., 237.196
Ibid., 229.197
Ibid., 229-30.198
Ibid., 230.199
Ibid., 231-32.200
Ibid., 233.
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includes a chart on the fourteen specific dates mentioned in Ezekiel and the specific
events related to the date, and finally an overview and analysis of the three sections of Ezekiel:
(1) chapters 1-24, (2) chapters 25-32, and (3) chapters 40-48.202
Chapter 12 – Obadiah: Edom‟s Day of the Lord
The theme “the day of the Lord” is an important one in the prophets. Dr. Bullock notesthat as Judah‟s history comes to a close, the prophets “”Zephaniah and Jeremiah renewed the
thr eat of the Day of the Lord.” When that day finally arrives in 586 B.C., the author of
Lamentations acknowledges not only the fulfillment of that prophecy but also prays that “God
might actualize the other aspect of that fateful Day upon Judah‟s enemies (Lam. 1:21). Obadiahlooked from the vantage point of the disaster that had befallen Jerusalem, reviewed its tragedy,
and announced that the Day of the Lord was near for the nations, and for Edom in particular
(Obad. 15).”203
The name Obadiah means “servant of Yahweh,” but we have no personal
information about the man himself. Our author gives some good historical background to thecountry/people of Edom and helps explain why there is so much animosity between them and
Judah. Obadiah, like the prophet Nahum, is referred to as a “national oracle.”204 There are four“other oracles” directed against Edom in the prophets, which include: Amos 1:11-12; Isa. 21:11-12; Jer. 48:7-22, and Ezek. 25:12-14. While there may be “no elements common” to all of them,
yet the “vengeful conduct of Edom against Israel occurs in Amos, Ezekiel, and Obadiah (vs. 12),
as well as the “sense of security Edom had developed in his craggy home is condemned in Amos,Jeremiah (49:16, 22), and Obadiah 3, 4.”
205 Various dates are batted around as to when this
prophecy takes place, from as early as 899 to as late as 312 B.C.206
A sixth century date is not
out of the question. On pages 261-262, the author covers the message of Obadiah and a brief
outline.
Chapter 13 – Lamentations: Reflections of the Soul
While Job could be said to focus on individual suffering/human suffering, the book ofLamentations focuses upon national suffering. The title of the book comes into our English
Bibles through the LXX and Vulgate, Threonine and Therein. While not part of the Hebrew
prophetic section, Lamentations is part of the Writings. The five short books that make up theFive Maillot (for synagogue liturgical purposes) they are Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations,
Ecclesiastes, and Esther. Even though not technically part of the Hebrew prophets, one author
noted that Lamentations “is the “Amen” of the prophetic pronouncement of judgment for Israel‟ssins.”
207 The book of Lamentations consists of five poems (in five chapters). Four of these are
acrostics, but the last one is not. Bullock has a helpful chart on these poems.208
The author
201Ibid., 235-36.
202Ibid., 239-51.
203Ibid., 254.
204Ibid., 255-56.
205Ibid., 256.
206Ibid., 260.
207Ibid., 264-65.
208Ibid., 265.
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spends time of discussing the structure of this book, noting the differences of opinion (lament, a
national funeral song, or even a communal lament). The Hebrew Bible does not attribute the
book to Jeremiah, but is based upon tradition from the LXX and the Vulgate. Dates vary forcomposition, from as early as 586-530 B.C. While the book may be composed by Jeremiah, the
book is anonymous and conservative scholars should not be dogmatic about the issue.209
The
book warns Judah‟s enemies that the Day of the Lord will come upon them.
Chapter 14 – Daniel: Witness in Babylonia
Whether Daniel should be classified as a prophet or not is up to debate. He falls first in
this section under the prophets of the Persian Period. On pages 277-78, he gives an overview ofthe worldwide events going on during this era. He devotes a section to some of the major
problems in Daniel, such as time reckoning (the third year of Jehoiakim), the reference to
Belshazzar as King of Babylonia, or the reference to Darius the Mede, the Aramaic sections of
Daniel, and finally the use of supposed Greek loan words.210
Most critical scholars want to placeDaniel late because of the issue of predicative prophecy, yet Bullock defends the early date of
Daniel as well as the unity of the book, even if parts of the work are not in chronologicalorder.
211 Bullock closes out this chapter by examining the themes in the book
(persecution/God‟s providence for Daniel and his three friends) as well as some of the visions
such as Nebuchadnezzar‟s dreams (Dan. 2), the Four Beasts (Dan. 7), the ram and goat (Dan. 8),
the seventy years in exile (Dan. 9), and the final vision (Dan. 10-12). Bullock does an excellentdealing with critical issues of Daniel in a non-technical style.
Chapter 15 – Haggai: The Temple and the Future
“Political events served as the weather vane for Israel‟s hope, and Cyrus‟s decree of 538 brought
a mighty gale of optimism. Haggai both encouraged and benefited from that optimism. Heencouraged it when he found that the Palestinian community had dropped into a lull after the
initial and unsuccessful effort to rebuild the temple.”212
Haggai is referred to as “the prophet”and is mentioned in the book of Ezra as well (5:1; 6:14). Since he is not listed among the
captives who returned in Ezra 2, some speculate that he grew up in Israel after the return and
“witnessed” first- hand the “waning enthusiasm for Temple restoration.”213
We have both biblical (Ezra 1:1-4:5) and extra-biblical information on the first few years after the return from
captivity. We do not know for certain when Haggai, Zechariah, Zerubbabel, or Joshua returned
from captivity, but they were “certainly in the land during the second year of Darius (520).”214
After several groups attempt to halt the rebuilding effort, the temple is completed in the sixth
year of Darius (520 B.C.). One of the interesting facts about Haggai‟s prophecy is that with the
four main messages he delivers (1:1; 2:1; 2:10; 2:20), he indicates the date of each prophecy.The author gives an overview of the some of the themes Haggai addresses: they are suffering
209Ibid., 269-71.
210Ibid., 281-88.
211Ibid., 288-92.
212Ibid., 301.
213Ibid.
214Ibid., 302.
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because they have built their houses but not the Lord‟s house chapter one); the encourages them
that the temple will be more glorious than the former and the poor physical harvest is the result
of a poor spiritual harvest, and stresses the importance of remaining ceremonially clean so as notto defile the land, and closes out with a prophecy about an earthquake that would lead to the
reestablishment of a king (chapter two).215
Chapter 16 – Zechariah: Prophet of the New Kingdom
Bullock states, “What Ezekiel was to the late pre-exilic and exilic eras, Zechariah was to
the post-exilic age. Not only did he outline the program of restoration, the heart of which was
the Temple and priesthood, but he, like Ezekiel, filled in much detail about the eschatologicalage that lay ahead.”
216 According to Neh. 12:16, Zechariah was a “priest who succeeded his
father as head of his particular priestly family.” He thus served the dual role of prophet and
priest. Bullock notes that the post-exilic prophets seem to be closely connected with the temple,
which “became the rallying” cry for those of the return.217
He is mentioned by Ezra (5:1) alongwith Haggai and may have been a much “younger contemporary of Haggai.” The names of his
father (Berechiah) and grandfather (Iddo) are given. Bullock deals with an important question; ishis father the same priest who was slain by King Joash in the temple (2 Chron. 24:20-22) whomJesus alludes to in Lk. 11:51 (311)? His ministry extends from around 520 B.C. (same year as
Haggai) and to the time the temple is rebuilt (516/515 B.C.). Zechariah falls under the genre of
“apocalyptic literature,” and Bullock summarizes the visions he saw (311-321). Zechariahreminds the people their fathers suffered because they did not heed the prophets (1:6). He
reminds them the need to care for the less fortunate (7:9-10). The prophet also makes both
“direct” and “indirect” allusions to the prophets of the exile, especially Ezekiel. Zechariah could
be called one of the earliest commentaries on Ezek. 40-48 (the vision of the temple). Bullocknotes, “The centrality of the Temple, as sketched out in Ezekiel‟s prospectus of the future
(chapters 40-48), and the de-emphasized role of the Davidic dynasty in the coming age are
underscored in Zechariah.”218
Chapter 17 – Joel: The Day of Decision
Very little is known about Joel other than what we can derive from the text. His father‟sname is Pethuel. He undoubtedly comes from Judah, for he makes numerous references to Zion
(2:1, 15, 23; 3:17) as well as Jerusalem and Judah (2:32; 3:1, 6, 8, 17-20). Some suggest that
since he has a good knowledge of the priesthood and a “healthy respect” for them, that he maylive near Jerusalem. He also is not one of the elders of Israel, for Joel calls upon them to avert
the day of the Lord in 2:16 (324). The style of this book is „Hebrew poetry.” The coming
locusts plague would be for real, but he uses poetic expressions to describe them.219
There are45 examples of the imperative mood in Joel, emphasizing the “urgency” of his message and theimpending doom. There are two ways to look at the book. One is to divide Joel into two parts
215Ibid., 305-08.
216Ibid., 310.
217Ibid., 310.
218Ibid., 322.
219Ibid., 325.
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based on content: part one dealing with “reality of a locust plague” (Joel 1:1-2:7) and the second
part dealing with the “future realities of the eschatological age” (Joel 2:28-3:21) (325). Another
way of analyzing Joel is to view part one as a lament (1:2-2:17) and the second part (2:18-3:21)as “Yahweh‟s response to the lamentation.”
220 Bullock argues for the unity of the books, stating
that the “symmetrical arrangement, featuring a concern for the present and eschatological hope
for the future, a combination that characterizes the prophetic books generally, vouches for theunity of the book.”221
There are two view on the date of Joel, one a pre-exilic date and the other a post-exilic date. Among the pre-exilic proponents, one group places him very early in the pre-
exilic period, and a second placing him late right before the exile.222
The post-exilic group
likewise places him either early in the post-exilic period or late (some to the fifth century, nearthe time of Ezra/Nehemiah).
223 (329-330). Bullock concludes these chapters by giving an
analysis of the locust plague vision followed by a discussion of the day of the Lord theme in
Joel.224
Chapter 18 – Malachi: Prophet of Covenant Love
Malachi is sent during a time when Persia began to “totter” and Judah began to show
“signs of wear and moral decadence.” He, like Hosea, speaks of God‟s unconditional love forhis people. But this unconditional love comes with a price, conditions and “demands.” God
calls for his people to live and act as people of the covenant.
Bullock discusses whether the name Malachi is really a name or just the Hebrew form of
the “possessive noun” meaning “my messenger.”225
The author points out that there are
evidences of other names in the Hebrew Bible ending with the possessive pronoun “my,” but thatalso Jewish tradition held this was a title used to refer to the scribe Ezra. Aside from this, we are
not able to tell much more about his identity. He does live in and around Jerusalem and directs
his prophecy towards those of Judah following the return.
The “disputation” form that we find in the book of Malachi is similar to that used byJeremiah and Ezekiel. In two cases, the prophet asks a question where he responds with the
obvious answer (such as, „will a man rob God‟). There are six disputations in the book: (1)
Disputation on love (1:2-5), (2) Disputation on honor (1:6-2:9), (3) disputation on faithfulness(2:10-16), (4) Disputation on divine judgment (2:17-3:5), (5) Disputation concerning repentance
(3:6-12), and (6) Disputation on serving Yahweh (3:13-4:3). Malachi 4:4-6 servers as a
“conclusion” or sort of an “appendix” where the author recalls “Moses, the giver of the Law, andElijah, the exemplar of prophecy.”
226
220Ibid., 326.
221Ibid., 327.
222Ibid., 328.
223Ibid., 329-30.
224Ibid., 330-33.
226Ibid., 336-37.
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There are three dates that are given for the prophecy and or writing of Malachi. The first
places somewhere at or near the time Nehemiah becomes governor, around 444 B.C. A second
argument dates the prophecy of Malachi to sometime during the ministry of Ezra the scribe,around 450 B.C. Some scholars find parallel spiritual conditions here with what is going on in
Nehemiah 13:10-29. A third position places Malachi even before the time of Ezra and
Nehemiah, because “there is no mention of the legislation that Ezra and Nehemiah introduced(Ezra 10:3; Neh. 13:13, 23-27).”227
Finally Dr. Bullock concludes with an overview ofMalachi‟s message and the prophet‟s theological message of God‟s divine love or “grace” for
Judah. He also looks forward to the coming of the Day of the Lord when Elijah the prophet