Properties of Matter Matter is anything that has mass and occupies volume. All matter is made up of atoms, and within each atom are three particles: neutrons,

Properties of Matter

Matter is anything that has mass and occupies volume. All matter is made up of atoms, and within each atom are three particles: neutrons, protons and electrons.

1

1.008

Hydrogen

Symbol

Atomic Number

Atomic Weight

Name

•Electrons = Atomic Number

•Protons = Atomic number

•Neutrons = Atomic Mass subtract Atomic Number

Properties of Matter

The characteristics by which one can identify a substance are called it’s properties. Properties can be divided into two categories: Physical and Chemical Properties

Physical Properties include:

Colour (qualitative)

Boiling point (quantitative)

Lustre (qualitative)

State of Matter (qualitative)

Densitiy (quantitative)

Chemical and Physical Change

Physical changes alter the form of an object, but does not alter the composition of a substance.

5 indicators that a chemical change has occurred

•Change in Colour

•Heat or light given off

•Bubbles of gas formed

•A solid material (called precipitate) is formed

•The change is difficult to reverse

The Particle Theory of Matter

A theory is an explanation that is based on the outcome of many of many experiments. After centuries of studying matter scientists have created the Particle Theory to explain many of the properties of solids, liquids and gases.

1) All matter is made up of tiny particles, too small to be seen

2) Each pure substance has it’s own, unique particle. Different particles have different properties

3) The particles are attracted to one another. The closer they are, the more attracted they are

4) Particles are always moving. The more energy they have, the faster they move

5) At higher temperatures, particles have more energy

Density, Mass and Volume

Mass: Mass is the amount of material in an object. Mass is measure with a balance, usually in grams or kilograms

Volume: Volume is the amount of space occupied by an object. Volume is measured by a graduated cylinder and measured in mL and L

Density: Density is a mass to volume ratio. Density can be used to identify a substance because every pure substance has a unique density value

Bohr – Rutherford Diagram

To draw Bohr-Rutherford Diagrams:

1) Draw the nucleus as a solid circle.

2) Put the number of protons (atomic number) in the nucleus with the number of neutrons (atomic mass – atomic number) under it.

3) Place the number of electrons (same as protons) in orbits around the nucleus by drawing circles around the nucleus.

Remember, 1st shell – 2 electrons, 2nd shell – 8 electrons, 3rd shell – 8 electrons

Formation of Molecular Compounds

All elements react to try to complete their valence orbit. For most elements this requires 8 electrons, but for a few only 2 are needed. During ionic bonding this is accomplished by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another. Atoms that have a full outer shell are said to have a “stable octet”

To determine the molecular formula, use the “criss cross” method

Al3+ O2- H1+ O2-

Al2O3 H2O

*note we do not write a subscript one; it is implied

http://www.space.com/images/ig295_planets_solarsystem_02.jpg

*dwarf planet: Ceres, Eris and Pluto

Phases of the Moon

New Moon Waxing Crescent

First Quarter Moon

Waxing Gibbous

Full Moon Wanning Gibbous

Last Quarter

Wanning Crescent

Reasons for the Seasons

•The Earths axis is on a tilt of 23.50

•This is what causes our four seasons

Different parts of the globe are to the Sun, at different parts of the year

Between June and September, Earth is tilted toward the Sun, which makes it Summer in the Northern Hemisphere

Between December and March, Earth is tilted away from the Sun, making it winter and cooler in the Northern Hemisphere

Reasons for the Seasons

Solstices and Equinoxes

The Summer Solstice is the location when the Sun is furthest North, this is the longest day of the year, approx. around June 21.

Winter Solstice is when the Sun is furthest south, this is the shortest day of the year, approx. around December 21

An equinox is when the Sun is above the Equator, day and night are about the same length. The Spring Equinox is about March 2, rhe Fall Equinox is about September 21

Solstices and Equinoxes

Retrograde Motion

Retrograde motion is the apparent change in directional orbit. When viewed from Earth, Mars appears to move forward in our sky, and then start moving backwards.

The Law of Electric Charges:

The Law of Electric Charges states that like charges repel and unlike charges attract. Charged objects attract neutral objects.

A positively charged object will repel another positively charged object.

A negatively charged object will repel another negatively charged object.

A negatively charged object will attract a positively charged object.

A positively or negatively charged object will attract a neutral object.

Static Electricity:

Static electricity is a charge that does not move. Static electricityi s created by friction or by contact

When looking at things being charged by friction, we use the Electrostatic Series as a tool. The electrostatic series determines the kind of electric charge produced on each substance when any two substances listed below are rubbed together.

Static ElectricityIf a charged object contacts another object, which is neutral, the second object will become charged by gaining or losing electrons.

+ + + + + + - + -

+ + + - + - + + +

Before Contact

After Contact

* Remember only electrons can move

+ - + -

Before Contact

After Contact

+ - - + - - + - - + + - + -

+ - - + - + - +

+ - - + - -

Common Circuit Symbols

Kirchoff’s Law

In a Series Circuit In a Parallel Circuit

IT = I1 = I2 = I3 etc … IT = I1+ I2 + I3 etc …

VT = V1 + V2 + V3 etc … VT = V1 = V2 = V3 etc …

Resistance and Power

In a Series Circuit

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 etc …

PT = P1 + P2 + P3 etc …

In a Parallel Circuit

1/Rt = 1 /R1 + 1/ R2 + 1/R3 etc …

PT = P1 + P2 + P3 etc …

Cost of Electricity

Ontario Hydro does not sell energy by the joule, a joule of energy is very small compared to the amount needed by our electronics at home. Instead, we use Kilowatt Hours. To solve these equations, convert Joules in Kilowatt Hours. Next, multiply the energy by the cost of energy per hour :D

What is Ecology?

Ecology is the study of how organisms interact with one another.

Other Key Terms :

Ecosystem – All of the interacting parts of a biological community and it’s physical environment within a given area. It can be natural or artificial, temporary or permanent.

Producer – Organisms capable of making their food from water, light and air

Consumer – Organisms that must eat other organisms as a means of food

Herbivore – An organism that eats fresh plants as 90% or more of their diet

Carnivore – An organism that eats fresh meat as 90% or more of their diet

Omnivore – An organism that eats a mixture of fresh plant and animal materials

Detritus – Waste from plants and animals, including dead remains

Decomposer – An animal that feeds on Detritus

Other Key Terms Cont’d:

Pest – An organism considered to be inconvenient in a particular situation

Food Chain – A sequence of organisms showing how energy is passed from each level

Food Web – a pictorial representation of all the feeding relationships among organisms in an ecosystem

Habitat – Where an organism lives in it’s environment

Niche – Everything an organism does to stay alive and reproduce

Species – A group of organisms that mate in the natural world and produce fertile offspring

Biotic Factors – the part of the environment that is living or was once alive

Abiotic Factors – the part of the environment that was never living

Population – All the members of a species living in an area

Ecotones – a transition area between one ecosystem to another

Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

Photosynthesis The process carried out by plants and algae to use the energy of sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugar and oxygen.

carbon dioxide + water sugar + oxygenCO2 + H2O C6H12O6 + O2Cellular Respiration

Most living things use oxygen to break down sugar as a source of energy.

sugar + oxygen carbon dioxide + waterC6H12O6 + O2 CO2 +

H2O

Priestley’s First Experiment: Priestley carried out an experiment with 2 sealed jars to study the relationship between a burning candle and a plant. Candle A went out before Candle B because there wasn’t a supply of oxygen.

BAPriestley’s Second Experiment: Using three sealed jars, Priestley now studied the relationship between the plant and two mice. (Both mice eventually died, but the mouse in jar E lived longer .

C D E

The relationship between living things

Pesticides Chemicals designed and used to kill “pests” (as defined by humans).These chemicals are hard to get rid of and cycle through ecosystems.

Pesticide Type Target Pest

Insecticide Insects

Herbicide Weeds

Fungicide Moulds, Mildew, & Fungi

Bactericides Bacteria

Why use pesticides?•Protect crops from weeds, insects, and moulds.•Prevent disease (e.g., West Nile Virus and Malaria).•Cosmetic reasons (lawns and golf courses).

Bioamplification is the increase in concentration of a substance that occurs in a food chain as a consequence of:

•Persistence ( Can't be broken down by environmental processes) •Low rate of internal degradation•Low rate of excretion of the substance

It occurs because:•Consumers ingest toxic prey.•The concentration of the pesticide increases the higher up the food chain / trophic levels

Bioamplification

The Carbon Cycle

The Nitrogen Cycle

The Water Cycle

Food ChainsAre designed to show the direction that energy flows from producers to top carnivores, in a simplified single pathway.

Within a food chain, there are Trophic Levels. A Trophic Level is a place in a food chain that an organism feeds.

The first trophic level is an autotroph (something that feeds itself, i.e. a plant) The second trophic level is a herbivore that consumes the autotrophThe third trophic level is a carnivore that consumes the herbivore

Population TermsCarrying Capacity: the maximum number of organisms of a particularspecies that can be supported indefinitely in a given environment.

Law of the Minimum: The nutrient in least supply is the one that limitsgrowth.

Law of Tolerance: Populations will only survive if the abiotic factors thataffect them stay within a certain range. These ranges are different forevery species

Density-independent factors: Factors that can change a population,regardless of the density

Density-dependant factors: Factors that can change a populationbecause of the density.

Biotic Potential Biotic Potential: The maximum number of offspring that a species in aparticular ecosystem can produce, in a given timeframe, under optimalenvironmental conditions. It is at its greatest when the population has itshighest birthrate and lowest mortality.

The factors that determine biotic potential are:

1. Length of the Reproductive Life: Age of sexual maturity and thenumber of years the individual can reproduce. (e.g., Africanelephants mature at 15 and reproduce until 90)2. Birth Potential: The number of offspring per birth. (e.g.,Whooping crane lays 2 eggs and only 1 chick survives)3. Procreation: The number of times a species reproduces each year.(e.g., Elk mate one per year)4. Capacity for Survival: The number of offspring that reachreproductive age. (e.g., of the hundreds sea turtle eggs thathatch, only a few reach the sea and even fewer live to mate)

Freshwater Ecosystems

Ponds, rivers and lakes are all examples of Freshwater Ecosystems.

The structure of lakes can be divided up into its abiotic zones. Primarily based on light penetrability

97% of the Earths water is salt water. Freshwater, however, is essential to every non-marine organism on Earth.

The freshwater on Earth is distributed as follows:

Ice poles and in the glaciers – 76%

Ground Water – 23.6%

Surface Water – 0.4%

Lake Structure

Lake Structure

Littoral Zone – Shallow water, from shore where rooted plants stop; Lots of light penetration

Limnetic Zone – Open water, past the point of rooted plants

Euphotic Zone – Depth in the limnetic zone to where photosynthesis can still occur

Profundal Zone – Depth in limnetic zone of low light where photosynthesis cannot occur. Deep water, decaying organic matter

Benthic Zone – Layer of detritus at the bottom, low oxygen levels

Lake Classifications

Oligotrophic Eutrophic

Seasonal Changes in the Lakes In the summer, as water warms, three layers form:

The Epilimnion Layer is the warm water close to the sruface

The Thermocline Layer, which is a thin barrier between density zones, where temperatures change rapidly. Very little oxygen is moved around here

The Hypolimnion where water is much cooler and dense

Seasonal Changes in the Lakes

In Autumn, the three layers separate:

Surface water cools to 4oC, it becomes more dense and sinks, breaking up the 3 layers

Wind allows for diffusion of oxygen

Sinking surface water carries oxygen to replenish layers below

This is referred to as “fall turnover”

In winter, the three layers repair themselves.

Seasonal Changes in the Lakes