Project management

Project Management

Project management is the process and activity of plan-ning, organizing, motivating, and controlling resources,procedures and protocols to achieve specific goals in sci-entific or daily problems. A project is a temporary en-deavor designed to produce a unique product, serviceor result *[1] with a defined beginning and end (usuallytime-constrained, and often constrained by funding ordeliverables),*[2] undertaken to meet unique goals andobjectives,*[3] typically to bring about beneficial changeor added value. The temporary nature of projects standsin contrast with business as usual (or operations),*[4]which are repetitive, permanent, or semi-permanentfunctional activities to produce products or services. Inpractice, the management of these two systems is oftenquite different, and as such requires the development ofdistinct technical skills and management strategies.*[5]The primary challenge of project management is toachieve all of the project goals*[6] and objectives whilehonoring the preconceived constraints.*[7] The primaryconstraints are scope, time, quality and budget.*[8] Thesecondary ̶and more ambitious ̶challenge is tooptimize the allocation of necessary inputs and integratethem to meet pre-defined objectives.

1 History

Until 1900, civil engineering projects were generallymanaged by creative architects, engineers, and masterbuilders themselves, for example Vitruvius (first centuryBC), Christopher Wren (1632–1723), Thomas Telford(1757–1834) and Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806–1859).*[9] It was in the 1950s that organizations startedto systematically apply project management tools andtechniques to complex engineering projects.*[10]As a discipline, project management developed from sev-eral fields of application including civil construction, en-gineering, and heavy defense activity.*[11] Two forefa-thers of project management are Henry Gantt, called thefather of planning and control techniques,*[12] who is fa-

Roman soldiers building a fortress, Trajanʼs Column 113 AD

Henry Gantt (1861–1919), the father of planning and controltechniques

mous for his use of the Gantt chart as a project manage-ment tool (alternatively Harmonogram first proposed by

1

2 2 APPROACHES

Karol Adamiecki*[13]); and Henri Fayol for his creationof the five management functions that form the founda-tion of the body of knowledge associated with projectand program management.*[14] Both Gantt and Fayolwere students of Frederick Winslow Taylor's theories ofscientific management. His work is the forerunner tomodern project management tools including work break-down structure (WBS) and resource allocation.The 1950s marked the beginning of the modern projectmanagement era where core engineering fields come to-gether to work as one. Project management became rec-ognized as a distinct discipline arising from the man-agement discipline with engineering model.*[15] In theUnited States, prior to the 1950s, projects were managedon an ad-hoc basis, using mostly Gantt charts and infor-mal techniques and tools. At that time, two mathematicalproject-scheduling models were developed. The extquot-edblCritical Path Method extquotedbl (CPM) was devel-oped as a joint venture between DuPont Corporation andRemington Rand Corporation for managing plant main-tenance projects. And the extquotedblProgram Evalua-tion and Review Technique extquotedbl or PERT, wasdeveloped by Booz Allen Hamilton as part of the UnitedStates Navy's (in conjunction with the Lockheed Corpo-ration) Polaris missile submarine program;*[16]PERT and CPM are very similar in their approach butstill present some differences. CPM is used for projectsthat assume deterministic activity times; the times atwhich each activity will be carried out are known. PERT,on the other hand, allows for stochastic activity times; thetimes at which each activity will be carried out are uncer-tain or varied. Because of this core difference, CPM andPERT are used in different contexts. These mathematicaltechniques quickly spread into many private enterprises.

PERT network chart for a seven-month project with five mile-stones

At the same time, as project-scheduling models were be-ing developed, technology for project cost estimating,cost management, and engineering economics was evolv-ing, with pioneering work by Hans Lang and others. In1956, the American Association of Cost Engineers (nowAACE International; the Association for the Advance-ment of Cost Engineering) was formed by early practi-tioners of project management and the associated spe-cialties of planning and scheduling, cost estimating, andcost/schedule control (project control). AACE continuedits pioneering work and in 2006 released the first inte-grated process for portfolio, program and project man-agement (Total Cost Management Framework).The International Project Management Association(IPMA) was founded in Europe in 1967,*[17] as a fed-eration of several national project management associ-ations. IPMA maintains its federal structure today andnow includes member associations on every continent ex-cept Antarctica. IPMA offers a Four Level Certifica-tion program based on the IPMA Competence Baseline(ICB).*[18] The ICB covers technical, contextual, andbehavioral competencies.In 1969, the Project Management Institute (PMI) wasformed in the USA.*[19] PMI publishes A Guide tothe Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOKGuide), which describes project management practicesthat are common to“most projects, most of the time.”PMI also offers multiple certifications.

2 Approaches

There are a number of approaches to managing projectactivities including lean, iterative, incremental, andphased approaches.Regardless of the methodology employed, careful con-sideration must be given to the overall project objectives,timeline, and cost, as well as the roles and responsibilitiesof all participants and stakeholders.

2.1 The traditional approach

A traditional phased approach identifies a sequence ofsteps to be completed. In the “traditional approach”,*[20] five developmental components of a project canbe distinguished (four stages plus control):

2.2 PRINCE2 3

Typical development phases of an engineering project

1. initiation

2. planning and design

3. execution and construction

4. monitoring and controlling systems

5. completion

Not all projects will have every stage, as projects can beterminated before they reach completion. Some projectsdo not follow a structured planning and/or monitoringprocess. And some projects will go through steps 2, 3and 4 multiple times.Many industries use variations of these project stages.For example, when working on a brick-and-mortar designand construction, projects will typically progress throughstages like pre-planning, conceptual design, schematicdesign, design development, construction drawings (orcontract documents), and construction administration. Insoftware development, this approach is often known asthe waterfall model,*[21] i.e., one series of tasks afteranother in linear sequence. In software developmentmany organizations have adapted the Rational UnifiedProcess (RUP) to fit this methodology, although RUPdoes not require or explicitly recommend this practice.Waterfall development works well for small, well definedprojects, but often fails in larger projects of undefinedand ambiguous nature. The Cone of Uncertainty ex-plains some of this as the planning made on the initialphase of the project suffers from a high degree of uncer-tainty. This becomes especially true as software develop-ment is often the realization of a new or novel product.In projects where requirements have not been finalizedand can change, requirements management is used to de-velop an accurate and complete definition of the behaviorof software that can serve as the basis for software de-velopment.*[22] While the terms may differ from indus-try to industry, the actual stages typically follow common

steps to problem solving̶extquotedbldefining the prob-lem, weighing options, choosing a path, implementationand evaluation.”

2.2 PRINCE2

Main article: PRINCE2PRINCE2 is a structured approach to project man-

The PRINCE2 process model

agement released in 1996 as a generic project manage-ment method.*[23] It combines the original PROMPTmethodology (which evolved into the PRINCE method-ology) with IBM s̓ MITP (managing the implementationof the total project) methodology. PRINCE2 providesa method for managing projects within a clearly definedframework.PRINCE2 focuses on the definition and delivery of prod-ucts, in particular their quality requirements. As such, itdefines a successful project as being output-oriented (notactivity- or task-oriented) through creating an agreed setof products*[24] that define the scope of the project andprovides the basis for planning and control, that is, howthen to coordinate people and activities, how to designand supervise product delivery, and what to do if productsand therefore the scope of the project has to be adjustedif it does not develop as planned.In themethod, each process is specifiedwith its key inputsand outputs and with specific goals and activities to becarried out to deliver a project s̓ outcomes as defined byits Business Case. This allows for continuous assessmentand adjustment when deviation from the Business Case isrequired.PRINCE2 provides a common language for all partic-ipants in the project. The governance framework of

4 2 APPROACHES

PRINCE2 – its roles and responsibilities – are fully de-scribed and require tailoring to suit the complexity of theproject and skills of the organisation.*[24]

2.3 Critical chain project management

Main article: Critical chain project management

Critical chain project management (CCPM) is a methodof planning and managing project execution designed todeal with uncertainties inherent in managing projects,while taking into consideration limited availability of re-sources (physical, human skills, as well as management& support capacity) needed to execute projects.CCPM is an application of the theory of constraints(TOC) to projects. The goal is to increase the flow ofprojects in an organization (throughput). Applying thefirst three of the five focusing steps of TOC, the systemconstraint for all projects is identified as are the resources.To exploit the constraint, tasks on the critical chain aregiven priority over all other activities. Finally, projectsare planned and managed to ensure that the resources areready when the critical chain tasks must start, subordinat-ing all other resources to the critical chain.The project plan should typically undergo resource lev-eling, and the longest sequence of resource-constrainedtasks should be identified as the critical chain. In somecases, such as managing contracted sub-projects, it is ad-visable to use a simplified approach without resource lev-eling.In multi-project environments, resource leveling shouldbe performed across projects. However, it is often enoughto identify (or simply select) a single“drum”. The drumcan be a resource that acts as a constraint across projects,which are staggered based on the availability of that singleresource.One can also use a“virtual drum”by selecting a task orgroup of tasks (typically integration points) and limitingthe number of projects in execution at that stage.

2.4 Process-based management

Main article: Process-based management

The incorporation of process-based management hasbeen driven by the use of Maturity models such as the

CMMI (capability maturity model integration; see thisexample of a predecessor) and ISO/IEC15504 (SPICE– software process improvement and capability estima-tion).

2.5 Agile project management

Main article: Agile Project ManagementAgile project management approaches, based on

The iteration cycle in agile project management

the principles of human interaction management, arefounded on a process view of human collaboration. Itis“most typically used in software, website, technology,creative and marketing industries.”*[25] This contrastssharply with the traditional approach. In the agile soft-ware development or flexible product development ap-proach, the project is seen as a series of relatively smalltasks conceived and executed to conclusion as the situ-ation demands in an adaptive manner, rather than as acompletely pre-planned process. Advocates of this tech-nique claim that:

• It is the most consistent project management tech-nique since it involves frequent testing of the projectunder development.

• It is the only technique in which the client will beactively involved in the project development.

• The only disadvantage with this technique is that itshould be used only if the client has enough timeto be actively involved in the project every now andthen.

• Scrum (software development) - A holistic approachto development that focuses on iterative goals set by

2.8 Benefits realization management 5

the Product Owner through a backlog, which is de-veloped by the Delivery Team through the facilita-tion of the Scrum Master.

• Extreme Programming (XP) - Also called PairProgramming this method uses small groups andhas a highly prescriptive Test Driven Development(TDD) model.

• eXtremeManufacturing (XM) - An agile methodol-ogy based on Scrum, Kanban and Kaizen that facil-itates rapid engineering and prototyping.

• Crystal Clear (software development) - An agile orlightweight methodology that focuses on colocationand osmotic communication.

• Kanban (かんばん (看板)) - A lean frameworkfor process improvement that is frequently used tomanageWIPwithin agile projects. TheKanban pro-cess improvement framework has been specificallyapplied to software development, as Kanban (devel-opment).

2.6 Lean project management

Main article: Lean project management

Lean project management uses the principles from leanmanufacturing to focus on delivering value with less wasteand reduced time.

2.7 Extreme project management

Main article: Extreme project managementIn critical studies of project management it has beennoted that several PERT based models are not well suitedfor the multi-project company environment of today.Most of them are aimed at very large-scale, one-time,non-routine projects, and currently all kinds of manage-ment are expressed in terms of projects.Using complex models for“projects”(or rather“tasks”)spanning a few weeks has been proven to cause unneces-sary costs and low maneuverability in several cases . Thegeneralization of Extreme Programming to other kindsof projects is extreme project management, whichmay beused in combination with the process modeling and man-agement principles of human interaction management.

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Iteratio

n plan

Acceptance Test

Stand up meeting

Pair N

egotia

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Unit Te

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Pair P

rogra

mm

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Code

weeks

days

months

hours

minutes

Planning and feedback loops in Extreme programming (XP) withthe time frames of the multiple loops.

2.8 Benefits realization management

Main article: Benefits realisation management

Benefits realization management (BRM) enhances nor-mal project management techniques through a focus onoutcomes (the benefits) of a project rather than productsor outputs, and then measuring the degree to which thatis happening to keep a project on track. This can help toreduce the risk of a completed project being a failure bydelivering agreed upon requirements/outputs but failingto deliver the benefits of those requirements.An example of delivering a project to requirements mightbe agreeing to deliver a computer system that will processstaff data and manage payroll, holiday and staff personnelrecords. Under BRM the agreementmight be to achieve aspecified reduction in staff hours required to process andmaintain staff data.

3 Processes

Traditionally, project management includes a number ofelements: four to five process groups, and a control sys-tem. Regardless of the methodology or terminologyused, the same basic project management processes willbe used. Major process groups generally include:*[8]

• Initiation

• Planning or design

6 3 PROCESSES

The project development stages*[26]

• Production or execution

• Monitoring and controlling

• Closing

In project environments with a significant exploratory el-ement (e.g., research and development), these stages maybe supplemented with decision points (go/no go deci-sions) at which the project s̓ continuation is debated anddecided. An example is the Phase–gate model.

3.1 Initiating

Initiating process group processes*[26]

The initiating processes determine the nature and scopeof the project.*[27] If this stage is not performedwell, it isunlikely that the project will be successful in meeting thebusiness n̓eeds. The key project controls needed here arean understanding of the business environment and mak-ing sure that all necessary controls are incorporated into

the project. Any deficiencies should be reported and arecommendation should be made to fix them.The initiating stage should include a plan that encom-passes the following areas:

• analyzing the business needs/requirements in mea-surable goals

• reviewing of the current operations

• financial analysis of the costs and benefits includinga budget

• stakeholder analysis, including users, and supportpersonnel for the project

• project charter including costs, tasks, deliverables,and schedule

3.2 Planning and design

After the initiation stage, the project is planned toan appropriate level of detail (see example of a flow-chart).*[26] The main purpose is to plan time, cost andresources adequately to estimate the work needed and toeffectively manage risk during project execution. As withthe Initiation process group, a failure to adequately plangreatly reduces the project s̓ chances of successfully ac-complishing its goals.Project planning generally consists of*[28]

• determining how to plan (e.g. by level of detail orrolling wave);

• developing the scope statement;

• selecting the planning team;

• identifying deliverables and creating the workbreakdown structure;

• identifying the activities needed to complete thosedeliverables and networking the activities in theirlogical sequence;

• estimating the resource requirements for the activi-ties;

• estimating time and cost for activities;

• developing the schedule;

3.4 Monitoring and Controlling 7

• developing the budget;

• risk planning;

• gaining formal approval to begin work.

Additional processes, such as planning for communica-tions and for scope management, identifying roles andresponsibilities, determining what to purchase for theproject and holding a kick-off meeting are also generallyadvisable.For new product development projects, conceptual designof the operation of the final product may be performedconcurrent with the project planning activities, and mayhelp to inform the planning team when identifying deliv-erables and planning activities.

3.3 Executing

Executing process group processes*[26]

Executing consists of the processes used to complete thework defined in the project plan to accomplish the projectʼs requirements. Execution process involves coordinatingpeople and resources, as well as integrating and perform-ing the activities of the project in accordance with theproject management plan. The deliverables are producedas outputs from the processes performed as defined inthe project management plan and other frameworks thatmight be applicable to the type of project at hand.Execution process group include:

• Direct and manage project execution

• Quality assurance of deliverables

• Acquire, develop and manage Project team

• Distribute information

• Manage stakeholder expectations

• Conduct procurement

• Test the deliverables against the initial design

3.4 Monitoring and Controlling

Monitoring and controlling process group processes*[26]

Monitoring and controlling consists of those processesperformed to observe project execution so that potentialproblems can be identified in a timely manner and correc-tive action can be taken, when necessary, to control theexecution of the project. The key benefit is that projectperformance is observed and measured regularly to iden-tify variances from the project management plan.Monitoring and controlling includes:*[29]

• Measuring the ongoing project activities ('where weare');

• Monitoring the project variables (cost, effort, scope,etc.) against the project management plan and theproject performance baseline (where we should be);

• Identify corrective actions to address issues and risksproperly (How can we get on track again);

• Influencing the factors that could circumvent inte-grated change control so only approved changes areimplemented.

In multi-phase projects, the monitoring and control pro-cess also provides feedback between project phases, inorder to implement corrective or preventive actions tobring the project into compliance with the project man-agement plan.

8 3 PROCESSES

Project maintenance is an ongoing process, and it in-cludes:*[8]

• Continuing support of end-users

• Correction of errors

• Updates of the software over time

Monitoring and controlling cycle

In this stage, auditors should pay attention to how effec-tively and quickly user problems are resolved.Over the course of any construction project, the workscope may change. Change is a normal and expected partof the construction process. Changes can be the result ofnecessary design modifications, differing site conditions,material availability, contractor-requested changes, valueengineering and impacts from third parties, to name afew. Beyond executing the change in the field, the changenormally needs to be documented to show what was ac-tually constructed. This is referred to as change manage-ment. Hence, the owner usually requires a final record toshow all changes or, more specifically, any change thatmodifies the tangible portions of the finished work. Therecord is made on the contract documents – usually, butnot necessarily limited to, the design drawings. The endproduct of this effort is what the industry terms as-builtdrawings, or more simply,“as built.”The requirementfor providing them is a norm in construction contracts.When changes are introduced to the project, the viabilityof the project has to be re-assessed. It is important not tolose sight of the initial goals and targets of the projects.When the changes accumulate, the forecasted result maynot justify the original proposed investment in the project.

3.5 Closing

Closing process group processes.*[26]

Closing includes the formal acceptance of the project andthe ending thereof. Administrative activities include thearchiving of the files and documenting lessons learned.This phase consists of:*[8]

• Contract closure: Complete and settle each con-tract (including the resolution of any open items)and close each contract applicable to the project orproject phase.

• Project close: Finalize all activities across all ofthe process groups to formally close the project ora project phase

Also included in this phase is the Post ImplementationReview. This is a vital phase of the project for theproject team to learn from experiences and apply to fu-ture projects. Normally a Post Implementation Reviewconsists of looking at things that went well and analysingthings that went bad on the project to come up withlessons learned.

3.6 Project controlling and project controlsystems

Project controlling should be established as an indepen-dent function in project management. It implements veri-fication and controlling function during the processing ofa project in order to reinforce the defined performanceand formal goals.*[30] The tasks of project controllingare also:

• the creation of infrastructure for the supply of theright information and its update

• the establishment of a way to communicate dispar-ities of project parameters

9

• the development of project information technol-ogy based on an intranet or the determination of aproject key performance index system (KPI)

• divergence analyses and generation of proposals forpotential project regulations*[31]

• the establishment of methods to accomplish an ap-propriate project structure, project workflow orga-nization, project control and governance

• creation of transparency among the project param-eters*[32]

Fulfillment and implementation of these tasks can beachieved by applying specific methods and instrumentsof project controlling. The following methods of projectcontrolling can be applied:

• investment analysis

• cost–benefit analyses

• value benefit Analysis

• expert surveys

• simulation calculations

• risk-profile analyses

• surcharge calculations

• milestone trend analysis

• cost trend analysis

• target/actual-comparison*[33]

Project control is that element of a project that keeps iton-track, on-time and within budget.*[29] Project con-trol begins early in the project with planning and endslate in the project with post-implementation review, hav-ing a thorough involvement of each step in the pro-cess. Projects may be audited or reviewed while theproject is in progress. Formal audits are generally risk orcompliance-based and management will direct the objec-tives of the audit. An examination may include a compar-ison of approved project management processes with howthe project is actually being managed.*[34] Each projectshould be assessed for the appropriate level of controlneeded: too much control is too time consuming, too

little control is very risky. If project control is not im-plemented correctly, the cost to the business should beclarified in terms of errors and fixes.Control systems are needed for cost, risk, quality, com-munication, time, change, procurement, and human re-sources. In addition, auditors should consider how impor-tant the projects are to the financial statements, how re-liant the stakeholders are on controls, and how many con-trols exist. Auditors should review the development pro-cess and procedures for how they are implemented. Theprocess of development and the quality of the final prod-uct may also be assessed if needed or requested. A busi-ness may want the auditing firm to be involved throughoutthe process to catch problems earlier on so that they canbe fixed more easily. An auditor can serve as a controlsconsultant as part of the development team or as an inde-pendent auditor as part of an audit.Businesses sometimes use formal systems developmentprocesses. These help assure that systems are developedsuccessfully. A formal process is more effective in creat-ing strong controls, and auditors should review this pro-cess to confirm that it is well designed and is followed inpractice. A good formal systems development plan out-lines:

• A strategy to align development with the organiza-tionʼs broader objectives

• Standards for new systems

• Project management policies for timing andbudgeting

• Procedures describing the process

• Evaluation of quality of change

4 Topics

4.1 Project managers

A project manager is a professional in the field of projectmanagement. Project managers can have the responsibil-ity of the planning, execution, and closing of any project,typically relating to construction industry, engineering,architecture, computing, and telecommunications. Manyother fields in production engineering and design engi-neering and heavy industrial have project managers.

10 4 TOPICS

A project manager is the person accountable for accom-plishing the stated project objectives. Key project man-agement responsibilities include creating clear and attain-able project objectives, building the project requirements,and managing the triple constraint for projects, which iscost, time, and scope.A project manager is often a client representative and hasto determine and implement the exact needs of the client,based on knowledge of the firm they are representing.The ability to adapt to the various internal procedures ofthe contracting party, and to form close links with thenominated representatives, is essential in ensuring thatthe key issues of cost, time, quality and above all, clientsatisfaction, can be realized.

4.2 Project management types

While Project management, by itself, is a discipline thatcan apply to any project intended to deliver solutions forany purpose, it is often tailored to accommodate the spe-cific and repeatable needs of different and highly spe-cialized industries. For example, the construction indus-try, which focuses on the delivery of things like build-ings, roads, and bridges, has developed its own special-ized form of project management that it refers to as Con-struction project management and for which project man-agers can become trained and certified in.*[35] The Infor-mation technology industry has also evolved to developits own form of Project management that is referred to asIT Project management and which specializes in the de-livery of technical assets and services that are requiredto pass through various lifecycle phases such as plan-ning, design, development, testing, and deployment.*[36]Biotechnology project management focuses on the intrica-cies of biotechnology research and development.*[37]For each type of project management, project managersdevelop and utilize repeatable templates that are specificto the industry they're dealing with. This allows projectplans to become very thorough and highly repeatable,with the specific intent to increase quality, lower deliv-ery costs, and lower time to deliver project results.

4.3 Project management triangle

Like any human undertaking, projects need to be per-formed and delivered under certain constraints. Tradi-tionally, these constraints have been listed as “scope,”

The project management triangle

“time,”and“cost”.*[2] These are also referred to asthe extquotedblproject management triangle extquotedbl,where each side represents a constraint. One side of thetriangle cannot be changed without affecting the others.A further refinement of the constraints separates product“quality”or“performance”from scope, and turns qualityinto a fourth constraint.The time constraint refers to the amount of time avail-able to complete a project. The cost constraint refers tothe budgeted amount available for the project. The scopeconstraint refers to what must be done to produce theprojectʼs end result. These three constraints are oftencompeting constraints: increased scope typically meansincreased time and increased cost, a tight time constraintcouldmean increased costs and reduced scope, and a tightbudget could mean increased time and reduced scope.The discipline of project management is about providingthe tools and techniques that enable the project team (notjust the project manager) to organize their work to meetthese constraints.

4.4 Work breakdown structure

Main article: Work breakdown structure

The work breakdown structure (WBS) is a tree struc-ture that shows a subdivision of effort required to achievean objective̶for example a program, project, and con-tract. The WBS may be hardware-, product-, service-, orprocess-oriented (see an example in a NASA reportingstructure (2001)).*[38]

4.6 International standards 11

A WBS can be developed by starting with the end ob-jective and successively subdividing it into manageablecomponents in terms of size, duration, and responsibility(e.g., systems, subsystems, components, tasks, sub-tasks,and work packages), which include all steps necessary toachieve the objective.*[22]The work breakdown structure provides a commonframework for the natural development of the over-all planning and control of a contract and is the basisfor dividing work into definable increments from whichthe statement of work can be developed and technical,schedule, cost, and labor hour reporting can be estab-lished.*[38]

4.5 Project management framework

The program (investment) life cycle integrates the projectmanagement and system development life cycles with theactivities directly associated with system deployment andoperation. By design, system operation management andrelated activities occur after the project is complete andare not documented within this guide*[26] (see an exam-ple of an IT project management framework).For example, see figure, in the US United States De-partment of Veterans Affairs (VA) the program manage-ment life cycle is depicted and describe in the overall VAIT Project Management Framework to address the inte-gration of OMB Exhibit 300 project (investment) man-agement activities and the overall project budgeting pro-cess. The VA IT Project Management Framework dia-gram illustrates Milestone 4 which occurs following thedeployment of a system and the closing of the project.The project closing phase activities at the VA continuesthrough system deployment and into system operation forthe purpose of illustrating and describing the system ac-tivities the VA considers part of the project. The figureillustrates the actions and associated artifacts of the VAIT Project and Program Management process.*[26]

4.6 International standards

There have been several attempts to develop project man-agement standards, such as:

• ISO 21500: 2012 - Guidance on project manage-ment. This is the first project management ISO.

• ISO 31000: 2009 - Risk management. Risk man-agement is 1 of the 10 knowledge areas of either ISO21500 or PMBoK5 concept of project management.

• Capability Maturity Model from the Software Engi-neering Institute.

• GAPPS, Global Alliance for Project PerformanceStandards – an open source standard describingCOMPETENCIES for project and program man-agers.

• A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge from the Project Management Institute(PMI)

• HERMES method, Swiss general project manage-ment method, selected for use in Luxembourg andinternational organizations.

• The ISO standards ISO 9000, a family of stan-dards for quality management systems, and the ISO10006:2003, for Quality management systems andguidelines for quality management in projects.

• PRINCE2, Projects IN Controlled Environments.

• Association for Project Management Body ofKnowledge*[39]

• Team Software Process (TSP) from the SoftwareEngineering Institute.

• Total Cost Management Framework, AACE Inter-nationalʼs Methodology for Integrated Portfolio,Program and Project Management.

• V-Model, an original systems development method.

• The Logical framework approach, which is popularin international development organizations.

• IAPPM, The International Association of Project &ProgramManagement, guide to project auditing andrescuing troubled projects.

• [Australian Institute of Project Management] AIPMhas 4 levels of certification; CPPP, CPPM, CPPD& CPPE for Certified Practicing Project ... Partner,Manager, Director and Executive.

12 6 REFERENCES

4.7 Project portfolio management

Main article: Project portfolio management

An increasing number of organizations are using, whatis referred to as, project portfolio management (PPM)as a means of selecting the right projects and then us-ing project management techniques*[40] as the means fordelivering the outcomes in the form of benefits to the per-forming private or not-for-profit organization.

4.8 Project management information sys-tems (PMIS)

Main article: Project management information system

“An information system consisting of the tools and tech-niques used to gather, integrate, and disseminate the out-puts of project management processes. It is used to sup-port all aspects of the project from initiating through clos-ing, and can include both manual and automated sys-tems.”*[41]See also: Project management information systemsoftware

4.9 Project management software

Main article: Project management software

Project management software is software used to helpplan, organize, and manage resource pools, develop re-source estimates and implement plans. Depending on thesophistication of the software, functionality may includeestimation and planning, scheduling, cost control andbudget management, resource allocation, collaborationsoftware, communication, decision-making, workflow,quality management, documentation and/or administra-tion systems.*[42] Today, numerous PC-based projectmanagement software packages exist, and they are find-ing their way into almost every type of business. Softwaremay range from the high-end Microsoft Project to a sim-ple spreadsheet in Microsoft Excel.*[43]

4.10 Supplementary Project managementsoftware

Supplementary Project management software is softwareused to produce inputs to or to deploy results of vari-ous (partial) project management procedures. Examplescan be collaboration systems, file sharing software, issuetracking tools, effort estimation tools, QA systems, cost-ing estimation and more. The choice of the tools maydepend on the project management methodology adoptedby the team or organization. *[44] *[45]

4.11 Virtual project management

Main article: Virtual team

Virtual program management (VPM) is managementof a project done by a virtual team,*[46]*[47] thoughit rarely may refer to a project implementing a virtualenvironment*[48] It is noted that managing a virtualproject is fundamentally different from managing tra-ditional projects,*[49] combining concerns of telecom-muting and global collaboration (culture, timezones, lan-guage).*[50]*[51]

5 See also

6 References[1] “What is Project Management? | Project Management

Institute”. Pmi.org. Retrieved 2014-06-04.

[2] Chatfield, Carl.“A short course in project management”. Microsoft.

[3] • The Definitive Guide to Project Management.Nokes, Sebastian. 2nd Ed.n. London (FinancialTimes / Prentice Hall): 2007. ISBN 978-0-273-71097-4

[4] Paul C. Dinsmore et al (2005) The right projects doneright! John Wiley and Sons, 2005. ISBN 0-7879-7113-8.p.35 and further.

[5] Cattani, G., Ferriani, S., Frederiksen, L. and Florian, T.(2011) Project-Based Organizing and Strategic Manage-ment, Advances in Strategic Management, Vol 28, Emer-ald, ISBN 1780521936.

13

[6] Lewis R. Ireland (2006) Project Management. McGraw-Hill Professional, 2006. ISBN 0-07-147160-X. p.110.

[7] Joseph Phillips (2003). PMP Project Management Pro-fessional Study Guide. McGraw-Hill Professional, 2003.ISBN 0-07-223062-2 p.354.

[8] PMI (2010). A Guide to the Project Management Body ofKnowledge p.27-35

[9] Dennis Lock (2007) Project Management (9th ed.) GowerPublishing, Ltd., 2007. ISBN 0-566-08772-3

[10] Young-Hoon Kwak (2005). “A brief History of ProjectManagement”. In: The story of managing projects. EliasG. Carayannis et al. (9 eds), Greenwood PublishingGroup, 2005. ISBN 1-56720-506-2

[11] David I. Cleland, Roland Gareis (2006). Global ProjectManagement Handbook.“Chapter 1:“The evolution ofproject management”. McGraw-Hill Professional, 2006.ISBN 0-07-146045-4

[12] Martin Stevens (2002). Project Management Pathways.Association for Project Management. APM PublishingLimited, 2002 ISBN 1-903494-01-X p.xxii

[13] Edward R. Marsh (1975).“The Harmonogram of KarolAdamiecki”. In: The Academy of Management Journal.Vol. 18, No. 2 (Jun., 1975), p. 358. (online)

[14] Morgen Witzel (2003). Fifty key figures in management.Routledge, 2003. ISBN 0-415-36977-0. p. 96-101.

[15] David I. Cleland, Roland Gareis (2006). Global ProjectManagement Handbook. McGraw-Hill Professional,2006. ISBN 0-07-146045-4. p.1-4 states: extquotedblItwas in the 1950s when project management was formallyrecognized as a distinct contribution arising from the man-agement discipline. extquotedbl

[16] Booz Allen Hamilton – History of Booz Allen 1950s

[17] Bjarne Kousholt (2007). Project Management –. Theoryand practice.. Nyt Teknisk Forlag. ISBN 87-571-2603-8.p.59.

[18] ipma.ch

[19] F. L. Harrison, Dennis Lock (2004). Advanced projectmanagement: a structured approach. Gower Publishing,Ltd., 2004. ISBN 0-566-07822-8. p.34.

[20] Wysocki, Robert K (Robert K). Effective Project Manage-ment: Traditional, Adaptive, Extreme.

[21] Winston W. Royce (1970). “Managing the Develop-ment of Large Software Systems”in: Technical Papers ofWestern Electronic Show and Convention (WesCon) Au-gust 25–28, 1970, Los Angeles, USA.

[22] Stellman, Andrew; Greene, Jennifer (2005). Applied Soft-ware Project Management. O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-00948-9.

[23] OGC – PRINCE2 – Background

[24] [Office for Government Commerce (1996)Managing Suc-cessful Projects with PRINCE2, p14]

[25]“What is Agile Project Management? extquotedbl. Plan-box.

[26] “Project Management Guide”. VA Office of Informationand Technology. March 3, 2005.

[27] Peter Nathan, Gerald Everett Jones (2003). PMP certifi-cation for dummies. p.63.

[28] Harold Kerzner (2003). Project Management: A SystemsApproach to Planning, Scheduling, and Controlling (8thEd. ed.). Wiley. ISBN 0-471-22577-0.

[29] James P. Lewis (2000). The project manager s̓ desk refer-ence: : a comprehensive guide to project planning, schedul-ing, evaluation, and systems. p.185

[30] Jörg Becker, Martin Kugeler, Michael Rosemann (2003).Process management: a guide for the design of businessprocesses. ISBN 978-3-540-43499-3. p.27.

[31] Bernhard Schlagheck (2000). ObjektorientierteReferenzmodelle für das Prozess- und Projektcon-trolling. Grundlagen – Konstruktionen – Anwen-dungsmöglichkeiten. ISBN 978-3-8244-7162-1. p.131.

[32] Josef E. Riedl (1990). Projekt – Controlling in Forschungund Entwicklung. ISBN 978-3-540-51963-8. p.99.

[33] Steinle, Bruch, Lawa (1995). Projektmanagement. FAZVerlagsbereich Wirtschaftsbücher. p.136–143

[34] Cynthia Snyder, Frank Parth (2006). Introduction to ITProject Management. p.393-397

[35] “Certified Construction Manager”. CMAA. Retrieved23 November 2013.

[36] “IT project Management”. The International Founda-tion for Information Technology. Retrieved 23 November2013.

[37] “Certificate in Biotechnology Project Management”.University of Washington. Retrieved 23 November 2013.

[38] NASA NPR 9501.2D. May 23, 2001.

[39] Body of Knowledge 5th edition, Association for ProjectManagement, 2006, ISBN 1-903494-13-3

14 7 EXTERNAL LINKS

[40] Albert Hamilton (2004). Handbook of Project Manage-ment Procedures. TTL Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 0-7277-3258-7

[41] PMBOK 4h Ed. p. 443. ISBN 978-1933890517.

[42] Janssen, Cory.“Project Management Software”. Techo-pedia. Retrieved 22 May 2013.

[43] Pandey, Priyank (17 May 2013). “Sick of MicrosoftProject? Manage Your Project in Excel”. Flevy. Re-trieved 22 May 2013.

[44] Ktenas, Spyros (17 Oct 2013). “Cost of Software”.Spyros Ktenas. Retrieved 17 Oct 2013.

[45] Ktenas, Spyros (8 Aug 2013). “Effort Estimation forSoftware Development”. Spyros Ktenas. Retrieved 17Oct 2013.

[46] “MANAGING VIRTUAL PROJECT TEAMS, A re-search project submitted to the faculty of San FranciscoState University”.

[47] “Virtual Project Management”.

[48] Curlee, Wanda (2011). The Virtual Project ManagementOffice: Best Practices, Proven Methods.

[49] Khazanchi, Deepak (2005). Patterns of Effective ProjectManagement in Virtual Projects: An Exploratory Study.Project Management Institute. ISBN 9781930699830.

[50] Velagapudi, Mridula (April 13, 2012).“WhyYouCannotAvoid Virtual Project Management 2012 Onwards”.

[51] “Virtual Project Management (course) extquotedbl.Global Knowledge.

7 External links

• Guidelines for Managing Projects from the UK De-partment for Business, Enterprise and RegulatoryReform (BERR)

• APM, PMP, PRINCE2 Project Management Certi-fication Roadmap

• Open Source Project Management manual

• Project management skills

{{Navbox | name = Technology | title = Technology |bodyclass = hlist | state = collapsed | above =

• Outline of technology

• Outline of applied science

| group1 = Fields | lis* [[Agricultural engineering

15

8 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

8.1 Text• Project management Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_management?oldid=627258025 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Derek

Ross, Mav, Tarquin, Ap, Hirzel, Tzartzam, Chuq, Edward, Michael Hardy, Kwertii, Norm, Nixdorf, Ixfd64, Delirium, Chadloder,Minesweeper, Ronz, Julesd, Marco Krohn, Mkoval, Nikai, Jiang, Media lib, Mydogategodshat, Nickg, Colin Marquardt, Wik, Traroth,Vaceituno, Lumos3, Paul W, Pigsonthewing, ChrisG, Donreed, Goethean, Hubertus, Securiger, Chris Roy, Merovingian, Ojigiri, Rrjan-biah, Hadal, Rubysixty6, Tobias Bergemann, Ancheta Wis, Giftlite, Graeme Bartlett, Oberiko, Zigger, Mark.murphy, Jgritz, Niteowlneils,Craigwb, DominikusH, Redux, Solipsist, Khalid hassani, Christopherlin, ALargeElk, Wgoetsch, Utcursch, Toytoy, Quadell, Kevin B12,Karl-Henner, Pgreenfinch, Howardjp, Mark Millard, Imroy, CALR, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Phreed, Pavel Vozenilek, ESkog,Khalid, Jaberwocky6669, Kbh3rd, S.K., Aranel, Zscout370, Mwanner, PhilHibbs, Shanes, Aaronbrick, Bobo192, Spalding, Janna Is-abot, Smalljim, John Vandenberg, RAM, Maurreen, Richi, AndyBrandt, Mdd, Rernst, Alansohn, Liao, Richard 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Vanderzyden, Bdouthwaite, NOKESS, DanielDeibler, Xavexgoem,Blanchardb, LizardJr8, Fxsunny, Sebasanjuan, Atif673, Auntof6, PatrickWeaver, Jetojedno, Wrduncan3, M4gnum0n, Margeru, Qatest-dev, Erebus Morgaine, Eeekster, Chrispreece2007, MorrisRob, Lartoven, Acheah, VARies, Alphamu57, Wacko39, Calvadosser, CPM-Tutor, Jkhcanoe, IngaRea, BOTarate, Janbenes, Thingg, 9Nak, Aitias, Porchcorpter, Burner0718, Apparition11, DumZiBoT, MY2sense,LightAnkh, XLinkBot, Lecard, Poli08, BodhisattvaBot, SE SME, Rror, Bmartel, ProfDEH, Trewinpa, WikHead, Overviewer, Addbot,Pythia90, Jojhutton, Mapador, Rmp80ind, Raywil, DougsTech, Jmi41, Ronhjones, Bnorrie, Leszek Jańczuk, OliverTwisted, Itgov, Cst17,Royallarry, MrOllie, Download, Pcremer2270, Favonian, Urbanette, SpBot, Truthbro, ICSGlobal, Josemoromelon, Tephlon, Elvism-cgrady, Trout001, Wireless friend, Jarble, Radavi, Mlavannis, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Fraggle81, Mumin-shawaf, ConstructionSoftwareExperts, Melashri, Pm by day, 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Kltownsend, Bertha32, Djjr, Cloud10pm, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Logical Cowboy, Super48paul, Ebe123,RenamedUser01302013, Peaceray, Dennis.wittekind, Tswelch, KimBecker, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, K6ka, Yongliang08, Danielhegglin,

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Fæ, Kaisersoze1, Ankit Maity, 1959frenchy, Sara050805, Sean Whitaker, Qaiassist, Donner60, Thebrownell, Orange Suede Sofa, Ran-goon11, Colabtech31, Nicos interests, Ct31, Himdey njitwill, UserHuge, Loflabr, MichaelDawin, Dennal68, Christyoc, Vans0100, Petrb,DisneyG, David VS West, ClueBot NG, Rich Smith, Dickietr, DrDooBig, Zugerbueb, Qarakesek, Frostbitcanadian, RoyHanney, ArtemisFowl Rules, Theboymusic, උපුල්, Wwmarket, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Jbcarboni, Jamezbailey, Markkh, Jurajv, Binafhmz,Spyr234, AvocatoBot, Compfreak7, Scmbwis, Altaïr, Atena.kouchaki, Jn.arch, DPL bot, Buissy, Sonialoud, A.harris0708, KGun10,Shokolada, Mrt3366, 05proedl, Nandak89, John.j.smitherson, Faberglas, Freepmstudy, Pjganon, Gshills, IjonTichyIjonTichy, GeorgeHuhn, Rumblesnuf, Milkau111, Fongamanda, Aidanmharrington, Hech xwijnerj, ProgrammeUK, SFK2, Cadillac000, Epicgenius, Ralfjnr,Eyesnore, Geza.molnar, Tentinator, Silverbaton, Ashoka111, Mschmidt224, Andyrscott, Ginsuloft, Hisashiyarouin, Projectlad, Aberniz,Aceofphrase, Csusarah, John Gaziano, Gertdude, Red-Lips-Beauty, Pmifi, U2fanboi, YLoginov, CPPD.Projects, Pankajkkumar, Mis-sross, Umesh.barclays, Shrankhla, Bagmic, Nhadji, MitchLee101, Generalcontributor, Ajpreston, Edwardchungweb, Khurram1190 andAnonymous: 1149

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Management_by_Planbox.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Planbox• File:Closing_Process_Group_Processes.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Closing_Process_Group_

Processes.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Project Management Guide Original artist: DEPARTMENT OF VETERANS AF-FAIRS Office of Information and Technology

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