1 Project In Lieu of Dissertation When the Natural Systems Thinking Process meets Special Needs: A Manual for Intervention using Reconnecting With Nature Activities and Related Remedial Intervention for Underachieving Students in International and Culturally Diverse Schools. Revalyn Faba-Sack Greenwich University Institute of Global Education Applied Ecopsychology and Integrated Ecology
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Project In Lieu of Dissertation When the Natural Systems Thinking Process meets Special Needs: A
Manual for Intervention using Reconnecting With Nature Activities and
Related Remedial Intervention for Underachieving Students in
International and Culturally Diverse Schools.
Revalyn Faba-Sack Greenwich University
Institute of Global Education Applied Ecopsychology and Integrated Ecology
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When the “Natural Systems Thinking Process” meets Special Needs: A Manual for
intervention using Reconnecting With Nature Activities and Related Remedial
Intervention for Underachieving Students in International and Culturally Diverse Schools.
A Project In-Lieu-of Dissertation Submitted to the
Faculty of Applied Ecopsychology and Integrated Ecology Greenwich University
and The Institute for Global Education
As partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Applied Ecopsychology and Integrated Ecology
Greenwich University and Institute for Global Education,
Project Nature Connect College of Social Sciences and Health
May, 2008
Copyright by Revalyn Faba-Sack [email protected] All Rights Reserved
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Table of Contents
Introduction…………….……………………………….…………...…..6
Scholarly Review of Literature……………………….…..………….….9
Project Procedures……………….……………………………………..28
Project Results..…………………….…………………………………..35
Project Conclusions and Epilogue ……………………………………..52
Bibliography………………………………………………………….....55
Internet References……………………………………………………...62
Project Appendix 1..…………………………………………………….64
Project Appendix 1a ………………………………………………...….66
Project Appendix 1b …………………………………………………....68
Project Appendix 2……………………………………………….……..70
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Acknowledgements This project has taken years to complete and I am indebted to Dr. Michael Cohen for
having coached, mentored and motivated me in my quest to find a way to help those
students I have encountered who have been in desperate need of help in order to realise
their potential as students and young adults.
My support group has been a pillar of strength through the year; Dr. Sarah Edwards,
Gerry Eitner, Gaia Davies, Carole, Jane Ann, Cindy, Tessa and all my friends in the
COOP. To my wonderful supervisor, Mardi, whose generosity of spirit and wisdom have
guided me to the finishing line, goes my respectful gratitude.
I am also thankful to colleagues (who wish to remain anonymous) who were valiant
enough to allow me to implement my program and who provided essential documental
information so that I could track the progress being made by the target pupils whose
occasional smiles made it all worthwhile. Indebted to, and inspired by the pupils who
participated in the project, I hope that they are able to hope again.
My four children are my torch in moments of darkness and my comfort in those of
despair. Their love is my ultimate source of inspiration.
To you all, thank you.
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ABSTRACT
Special Needs is no longer a neglected, tangential field of education and in
international and culturally diverse national schools. It has become an area of emerging
investment and school policy vital for accreditation by bodies such as the International
Baccalaureate Association (From Principles into Practice, 2008) and the European
Council for International Schools (Gallagher, 2008).
However, less regulated is policy relating to underachieving pupils with
psychological needs related to their exposure to violent conflicts in many scenarios or
those uprooted from familiar environments which may lead to general underachievement
in academics. Stringent child protection mechanisms have made research of methods and
investigation of individual pupils difficult, as confidentiality is controlled by legislation.
The inclusion in Individual Education Plans (IEP's) of an experimental program which
included activities fundamental to the "Natural Systems Thinking Process" (Cohen,
1997) was piloted as a means of providing coping skills for affected youngsters and their
classroom performance was monitored..
Readings cover the areas listed below and provide the rationale for the implemented
experimental program. These are:
a. General overview of learning support and Special Educational Needs in International
Schools.
b. Use of Individual Learning Plans (IEP's) and the Inclusion of Natural Systems
Thinking Process (NSTP) activities for intervention.
c. Use of NSTP activities in an experimental intervention program dealing with
underachieving pupils in three schools in different countries.
The alterative intervention program will be outlined and evaluated in the presentation
and analysis of findings collected over a period of six semesters or one and a half
academic years. Periodic follow ups in the future are scheduled. Action research for the
future improvement of the program will be contemplated.
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Project Introduction
Pupils in international schools around the globe are often regarded as fortunate by
their peers because they get to live in places which vary in depiction from exotic to
exciting, certainly different to local schools back in the home countries. Less frequently
considered is the fact that children who are uprooted from familiar surroundings may well
become underachievers as they struggle to adapt to their new environment. These
children are often situated in countries with less than optimal support services and where
being an underachiever does not guarantee the provision of support services. Another
group of pupils in international schools or in national schools with culturally diverse
populations is comprised of those who are the offspring of asylum seekers or illegal
migrant workers, whose legal status may be precarious or unstable. Their journeys may
have been anything from safe to highly dangerous but they, too, have been uprooted from
the environment they were born into. The Special Needs that these past experiences have
generated become the responsibility of their teachers who may not always have the
training or support to provide effective intervention which is outlined in each pupil’s IEP
(Individual Education Plan).
The two groups of pupils are not homogeneous in composition; they differ in their
socio-economic background, reasons for transience and plans for future education.
However, the common thread is the overwhelming impact that their transience has had on
their social, academic and psychological behaviour patterns and the extent to which
support, guidance, treatment and ultimately hope plays a part in their everyday lives.
Unfortunately, statistics on the numbers involved have not come to light in the
researcher's attempt to discover demographics. A further commonality is that they all
work to an IEP (Individual Education Plan) which aims at improving their learning
outcomes at school which have given cause for concern.
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Rationale for an Alternative Experimental Intervention Program
Both groups of pupils learning in environments decreed by their transience may
well suffer from psychological or social problems or other learning difficulties; however,
this does not always emerge in their school records as psychological assessment is not
always available and support services may not even be offered. The current study and
action research was conceived as both exploratory and remedial. Certain pupils were
identified as underachieving from the following scenarios: in an international school in
China, in a culturally diverse national school in the north of Israel and in a local self
contained class for the children of asylum seekers at an elementary school in Norway.
They were not receiving counseling, despite evidence of psychological and social
problems nor were they receiving medication of any kind meaning that the problems had
been acknowledged but were not being treated. They were offered the opportunity to
register their children in the program which entailed no cost and the aim of improving
academic and social behaviour for their children was welcomed by the parents.
The decision to use a model of intervention based on reconnecting with nature
activities was attributed to a variety of factors, including the desire to promote healing,
enhance the quality of life at school and in the home environment and provide each pupil
with the tools for dealing with personal and social challenges with minimal support. The
target pupils had not undergone psychological evaluations or had not responded well to
counseling where this was being supplied. By following natural attractions, especially
suitable for young children, it was hoped that each pupil would find an individual
connection to his/her surroundings and this, in turn, could ideally form the basis for re-
building community-based social skills as the natural and personal worlds became
accessible in a holistic, integrated manner. Parents were involved as much as was
possible; in some cases, communication problems because of language barriers were
present. Teachers were openly cooperative and supportive since in all cases as Special
Needs support had either been unsuccessful or non-existent. They provided data on
achievement levels over a period of six semesters or one and a half academic years during
which time activities were continued by teachers and target pupils on a regular basis.
The programs were carried out in the three above mentioned geographical areas with
pupils from different socio-economic backgrounds, of diverse ethnicity and religious
beliefs. They were all in need of a type of intervention which would not be restricted by
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any national, religious or curriculum specific factors. Results were collated and findings
shared with all participants. The exceptionally individual nature of the research is a result
of no other documented triangular studies having come to light, despite the researcher's
attempts at locating any. This has meant that collaborative or confirmatory studies could
not be used.
This lack of a body of research findings may have its source in the lack of funding for
such research projects, especially when the target population remains in a state of political
limbo while refugee status is either confirmed, denied or transformed into candidate
resident or asylum seeker status. Nevertheless, continuing the research and intervention
appeared viable in the hope that the children involved would benefit, whether or not the
research method satisfied the benchmarks for accountability and statistical accuracy. As
one Eritrean child in the program put it, "I want to learn to write so that I can teach my
mother." The hopes, despair, hardships and injustices behind that simple sentence provide
the ultimate rationale for this project.
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Scholarly Review of Literature
General overview of learning support and special educational needs in national and
international schools.
The history of learning support in most Western countries mirrors certain general
principles governing education in the twentieth century which in turn is a direct
consequence of the changes in the political arena so that monopoly type systems of
education gradually gave way to include public, private, state or independent institutions
(Berger,M.L., 1977). Democratic ideals, such as the right to vote for people of both
sexes, protected election processes and a reduction in the power and status of the nobility
and royalty had been adopted by most Western societies by the 20th century along with
the right to education that extended to more and more of those populations,
(Heidehammer A.J., 1972, pp 315- 318) culminating in legislation pertaining to
compulsory education for all children, up to a pre-determined age. Modern day education
acts occupy legislators such as the current United States "Leave no Child Behind"
(reviewed Nov. 2007) or article 14 of The EU Charter of Fundamental Rights (1999).
However, there is a previous history of legislation to ensure compulsory schooling in
some Western countries, such as the 1944 Education Act in Great Britain which legislated
compulsory education for all children from 5 to 16 years of age in England, Wales and
Scotland, and from 4 to 16 in Northern Ireland.
Such legislation had profound consequences for the West as it opened the doors to
basic education to all children. This right could not be suspended because of physical,
emotional, financial or learning difficulties, thereby compelling education systems to
provide education for children with or without any particular disability, handicap or
difficulty. In Great Britain and elsewhere, “disability was re-defined as a political issue"
(Ribbins & Burridge, 1994) which resulted in support for learning becoming more
exposed in legislation and reflecting a particular vision. This has meant that Special
Needs provision has been offered in either separate, parallel or integrated circumstances.
The Green Paper of the Department for Education (DfE 1994) entitled "The Organisation
of Special Educational Needs" established clear guidelines for ensuring that pupils'
learning needs would be met. Section 3a of the British Education Act of 2001 outlines the
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obligation of the state to provide primary and secondary education to pupils with Special
Needs, with no exception to any specific need.
Philosophical sentiments are enmeshed with political and economic concerns and
each assertion reflects a standpoint which transcends purely educational criteria.
Mc Gregor (1993) emphasizes that legislation shapes integrative Special Needs education
by establishing its legal framework based on either an inclusive or exclusive vision: in the
former "integration is made difficult, if not impossible, in a divided system," whereas in
the latter there may be a "dangerous legacy of inclusion" (Warnock, 1995).
This schematisation of generations of children and the dynamics of educational policy,
known as inclusive or exclusive, resulted in self-contained so-called “special” schools
coming into fashion when exclusive policies prevailed. When policies became inclusive,
specialized support services were reconceptualised as special education and that, in turn,
has evolved into SEN or Special Educational Needs, encompassing support where needed
for any mainstreamed pupil. Special education became part of mainstream education
directed by government agencies such as The Office of Special Education Programs
(OSEP) "Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act" of 2004 in the USA
or the "Special Educational Needs and Disability Act" of 2001 in the UK. A breadth of
vision developed
We must develop models of intervention and support
which transcend the oft-narrow perspective of special
education (Bailey & Bailey, 1993,pp. 58 – 63).
Children were gradually being kept in mainstream education both as a means of
promoting social and academic well being and to save on duplicating institutions. Special
Needs encompassed support for learning in a broad sense so that academic, physical,
intellectual and psychological challenges could be dealt with and achievement enhanced.
The British government’s definition of Special Needs is outlined in the Education Act of
1996 decreed that
“a child has special educational needs if he or she has a learning
difficulty which calls for special educational provision to be made
for him or her” (Chapter Three).
This permitted the inclusion of underachievers in the group of SEN pupils.
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Learning difficulties are not regarded as merely academic but include emotional and
physical difficulties which accounts for the heterogeneous nature of the Special
Educational Needs population today (Stock Kranowitz 2005). This heterogeneity gives
rise to varied methods of approach, assessment and tuition in the field of remedial
teaching in which the "perception of teaching issues as social ones requiring collective,
rather than individual, action" (Mahoney & Whitty, 1994, pp. 93 – 112). This accounts
for the socialization of remedial education and Special Needs which has led to the
expansion of mainstreaming or inclusivity and the extensive introduction of Individual
Education Plans (IEP's) in the western world.
In addition to national education systems being opened up to all children, the
phenomenon of internationals schools, which were a rare institution in the 50’s, has
become subject to an explosion of growth and global investment so that there are today
1,892 international schools in 124 countries which educate more than 486,000 students
aged 3 to 19 years, according to the IBO's website (www.ibo.org). This implies that
Special Needs is not only a concern of national education programmes but also of
international schools, given these demographic statistics. International schools have to
face a reality and challenge similar to that faced by schools in all home countries; the
common factor is having pupils whose learning outcomes require specific and specialized
intervention:
The educational problems or special needs of multicultural,
multilingual pupils in international schools arises because of their
disabilities or personal limitations and the facilities offered by the
international schools they attend (Ainscow & Florek, 1989).
The acceptance of the responsibility of offering learning support and Special Needs
services by international schools is one aspect of the service they offer globally transient
learners. They attempt to offer a "reliable product conforming to consistent quality
standards throughout the world" (Cambridge, 2002). If international education is
conceived as a global product or service rather than as a process, its culturally diverse
consumers or clients are united in their search for a product which is not only of quality
but also transferable as transience or the option of continuing mobility presents itself.
They will be seeking "educational certification that is both portable between schools and
transferable between different education systems" (Cambridge ibid.). "The notion of a
one-to-one correspondence between international schools and international education is
rejected," according to Hayden, 2007, so that international schools may be primarily
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regarded as schools located overseas whose mission is to offer a successful educational
service to expatriates and their children. Underachievement impacts marketing and the
recruitment of new pupils but does create a niche for learning support and Special Needs
services (Hawkes 1991).
The nature of such support in both international and culturally diverse schools aims at
enhancing academic achievement and attempts to "eliminate social exclusion that is a
consequence of attitudes and responses to diversity in race, social class, ethnicity,
religion, gender and ability" (Vitello & Mithaug, 1998). Such inclusivity mirrors the
inclusive vision which has been accepted in Europe, the United Kingdom, North and
South America and parts of Africa and Australasia in national education systems where
the process has had a social dimension which is essential because "the development of
inclusive practices requires processes of social learning" (Ainscow, 2007). Inclusive
Special Needs support is common to both national and international education and
provides a meeting point for such diverse learning systems. The difficulty lies in not in
agreeing on but in providing effective intervention (ibid) which opened the debate about
the content, design and effectiveness of IEP's (Bowers, 1992).
Special Educational Needs or learning support is an integral part of the accreditation
requirements established by both organizations which paralleled similar requirements by
national education authorities worldwide. "European Council for International Schools"
accreditation requires its schools to have "….teaching and support staff sufficient in
numbers and with qualifications and competencies to carry out satisfactorily the school's
programmes" which must "address individual student's needs." (CIS/NEASC Standard
Eight and Section E Standards, 2 – 5. pp 1 – 25, 2003). The International Baccalaureate
Organisation outlines resources and strategies aimed at making all its programmes
accessible to pupils with SEN and stresses the aim of "enhancing the learning of Special
Educational Needs students in the mainstream classroom," (IBO: 2004), all of which
mirror national SEN legislation.
Learning support and SEN can therefore be conceived as a sub-service offered by
both national and international schools to a population who may be in need of such a
service in both the short and long term. In order to offer this service, schools need to
have suitably qualified and experienced staff; for national schools, recruitment is usually
dependent on a local work force which may include outsourced workers. The Schools and
Staffing Survey database (SSAS) run by the Institute of Education Sciences of the US
Department of Education has produced results in its latest published data of 2003/4 which
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shows that nationally the level of job satisfaction of SEN teachers is not high which may
impact recruitment at overseas schools (Male and May, 1997). International schools do
not usually have a readily available local work force or local outsourcing options and this
may impact the scope and availability of the support services they offer (Lewis 1994).
Where outsourcing for missing specialities is not available, such as educational and
clinical psychologists, the quality of learning support and SEN tuition in international
schools may be compromised, impacting underachievers and all SEN pupils. Results of
high stakes tests such as the International Baccalaureate Diploma, Advanced Placement,
IGCSE or the worldwide PISA or Program for International Student Assessment do not
reveal any Special Needs per se when final qualifications are awarded, as strict
confidentiality regulations protect the diffusion of such information; however, the
underachievers are always present as the tail enders or as those who are not eligible for
diplomas, awards or certificates (Spevak & Karinch 2000).
The appraisal of learning support services in international schools is dependent on the
performance of pupils in externally evaluated examinations as well as acceptance into
higher education or vocational training institutions. Future marketing may be based on
student achievement and services such as SEN may be included or excluded depending
on the target clients' requirements (Lewis, 1994). International schools may therefore be
viewed as having a vested interest in providing effective learning support and SEN
services despite their not being subject to local legislation regarding such services. In
national schools, appraisal is often implicitly undertaken when whole school academic
performance scores are collated (www.ofsted.gov.uk/publications). The underachieving
pupils are regarded as the group of tail-enders of each list even though they may, in fact,
be a heterogeneous group of pupils with a variety of needs relating to their poor
classroom performance (Hawkes 1991).
Competition amongst international primary and secondary schools is an additional
factor which may justify a particular school's offering support services. The growth in the
number of international schools has resulted in the need to offer unique or especially
attractive incentives to potential clients and SEN services have become a useful
marketing tool where international schools may compete for a shared population of
prospective clients (Hawkes, ibid). The intricacy of evaluating the performance of
Special Needs pupils in international or culturally diverse schools where "language,
culture and nationality are likely to influence test performance and results" (Thomas,
1990) is enhanced when psychological and emotional factors are also present.
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Psychological intervention which may often be part of an overall recommended
therapy can be compromised when qualified professionals are not available in certain
national and international settings. In addition, "motivational and attention variability
may make it difficult to obtain accurate indications of progress over time" (Jeffries, Kim
& Pring, 1987). The implications for pupils in international and culturally diverse
schools where psychological and emotional issues impact their learning outcomes is not
extensively documented but will form the basis for the pedagogical action research
outlined by this researcher in following chapters. The benchmark for the provision of
comprehensive support for learning as defined in the UK SEN Code of Practice
(November, 2001), affirms that "the culture, practice, management and deployment of
resources in a school or setting" should be "designed to ensure all children's needs are
met." Consequently, such research can serve as an additional yet non-traditional
assessment tool aimed at evaluating whether the benchmarks for meeting Special Needs
and underachieving pupils' needs have been met.
Use of Individual Learning Plans (IEPS's) in k-12 Schools
An Individual Education Plan or IEP is the scaffolding in use worldwide for the
design and implementation of an individual academic scheme of work either to operate
within or alongside a syllabus, national or international; the IEP defines learning
outcomes for an individual learner so that it may become "the cornerstone of a quality
education for each child with a disability" (US Department of Education Guide to the
Individualized Education Program, 2000). The content of the IEP is as comprehensive as
is necessary in order to ensure quality education and deals specifically with "placement,
services such as a one-on-one aide and therapies, academic and behavioral goals, a
behavior plan if needed, percentage of time in regular education, and progress reports
from teachers and therapists" (Mauro, 2003). Involved in its design and construction are
all professionals, teachers and counselors who interact with the target along with
individual parents and the individual too. Educational assessment should precede the IEP,
feeds its provisions and may be ongoing (Department of Education ( DfE) SEN Code of
Practice, 2000).
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In Western countries learning support programs are provided by law, which bodes well
for pupils with Special Needs (Marsh 2005). In a similar vein, it is also possible to find
programs with provisions for pupils suffering from psychological problems stemming
from a variety of causes. A tradition of psychological testing, necessary for the design of
effective Individual Education Plans (IEP's), has become standard and is controlled by
legislation in many countries, in order to protect the child and his/her right to
confidentiality, impartial assessment and adequate intervention. In the United States of
America, the bill falls under the auspices of U.S. Department of Education (Part B, IDEA,
1975); in the United Kingdom a government authority, NASEN, advises local education
authorities on the implementation of DfE provisions. There are similar regulations in the
European Union whose broad outlines are set out for individual countries in order to
circumvent the problem of labeling which has prevented the adoption of a unified policy
whilst still reinforcing the need for IEP's and learning support which is extensively
documented (Marsh,D. et alia 2005).
This extensive documentation of remedial tuition/learning support and Special
Educational Needs provides international schools with norms of good practice which
allow all schoolchildren to learn in accordance with their abilities.(Hollington, 1994).
However, learning support and Special Needs come under strain when pupils are faced
with the task of sitting for external examinations. “Teachers are under relentless pressure
to prepare students for high-stakes tests and for advanced placement or International
Baccalaureate exams" (Tomlinson & Doubet, 2005) and deal head on with
underachievement; learning support and Special Needs programs are no exception to that
pressure(ibid). The incremental pressure is not usually part of any IEP which is devised
before any high stakes tests are convened yet can shape its design. The IEP may become a
part of the overall pressure at school to achieve certain benchmarks or may be
accompanied by other emotional factors which evolve during a period of time at school.
This may compromise effectiveness of IEP's and has consequences for underachievers
whose need may not be adequately met (Jonietz, P.L. 1997).
Psychological testing, such as Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Conner's
Rating scales for Attention Deficit or Anxiety, Bangor test for Dyslexia and batteries
which aim at identifying any learning or psychological difficulty ensure that accurate
diagnosis can be made of learning strengths and weaknesses (DfE "Special Needs" 2007).
Gardner's work on Multiple Intelligences has impacted both diagnosis and remedial
intervention. This results in the construction of a comprehensive IEP which is a
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"document that is designed to meet [each] child's unique educational needs. It is not a
contract, but it does guarantee the necessary supports and services that are agreed upon
and written." (www.schwablearning.org). This leaves an area still unaccounted for and
which impacts the learning and life patterns of the young people it affects, namely, post
traumatic stress syndrome which may present itself prior or posterior to the construction
of any IEP and whose symptoms may often undetected by educational assessment testing
( Perry, 1997). Nevertheless, diagnosis needs to be comprehensive because "effective
implementation of intervention and prevention strategies, therefore, requires effective
assessment of the emotional, behavioral, cognitive, social and physiological functioning
of the individual child" (Perry 1997) citing Vachss et al., 1979). There is no guarantee
that the use of an IEP will assist underachieving pupils or that it can be part of the
solution to the underachievers’ problems (Spevak 2000) who cites the need to empower
underachievers rather than document them, in order to overcome motivational and
attitudinal issues as school life is short. “Fastforward to when the underachiever is an
adult," is Spevak's pedagogy for remedial intervention.
In situations of conflict or the uprooting of a young learner, these new environments
may become new sources of pressure, stress, emotion or obstacles to learning whose
impacts are still evolving; the definition of the American Psychiatric Association (1994)
of traumatic stress syndrome is "after someone is exposed to an extremely traumatic
event and after they have reacted to the event with intense fear, horror or helplessness."
This would cover the situation of young learners who have been uprooted either because
of war or personal circumstances such as a relocation because of parents' receiving
employment overseas. Symptoms of such stress may be misinterpreted or overlooked
when they present themselves in the form of certain types of physical ailments such as
"chronic fatigue,…. diffuse and severe musculoskeletal pain, impaired and non-
restorative sleep with ……stiffness, headaches, anxiety, hypervigilance, cognitive
impairment" (Scaer, 2001).
This reiterates the need for collaborative IEP procedures so that the individual
student is discussed in a holistic manner and not merely on the basis of behaviour patterns
in one academic, social or family setting (Gardner 1995). A vigilant IEP team should not
ignore this new element when embarking on the procedures for IEP design, decisions
about placement and intervention and yet this weakness persists and compromises the
effectiveness of an IEP prompting a call for a return to the "504" program (Department
17
of Education, Texas Office for Civil Rights Department of Education, Part 104) . The use
of IEP's and their collaborative design, involving all carers, therapists, teachers, parents
and the pupils themselves, allows educational assessment to extend beyond traditional
evaluation, often numerical, of cognitive functions such as verbal and mathematical skills
(DfE Code of Practrice for Educational Assessment).
Consensus underlies the essence of the IEP and concerns services, those supplying
the services, quality control and the institution where the IEP will be implemented (Pratt
and Dubie 2003). Jurisprudence has defended the right to collaboration in IEP design and
to the need for informed decisions. In Amanda J. vs Clark County Education Department
and State of Nevada (2001), the Ninth Circuit Court ruled that:
Procedural violations that interfere with parental participation in
the IEP formulation process undermine the very essence of ……..
the IEP which addresses the unique needs of the child cannot be
developed if those people who are most familiar with the child's
needs are not involved or fully informed.
Parents are part of IEP design but when language barriers exist, this participation
becomes passive and IEP effectiveness is compromised (Massachusetts Department of
Education 2001). In addition, emotional factors influencing the underachievers may also
not receive full documentation. In the context of educational assessment, Goleman
(1995) brings emotional intelligence factors into the equation and focuses on emotional
needs, balances or imbalances and self-awareness as factors which are integral to learning
environments, styles and achievement levels. His advocacy of the need for training in
"emotional intelligences" (ibid. p.34) is reflected in the inclusion of psychological support
services within IEP support provisions. Experience with low achieving students in his
high school led Davies (2002) to conclude that "the overwhelming emotional needs of the
students were getting in the way not only of their academic learning, but their day-to-day
survival." The IEP may therefore be conceived as a document which aims at the provision
of educational and psychological services within an institution and involving
collaborative IEP design.(Mager 1997). Projected IEP goals are not restricted to the
academic but should impact social and emotional behaviour patterns.
Certain schools of thought regard the IEP as a document which deals less with
outcomes than with processes (Reif 1993). This has even led some educators to refute the
effectiveness of IEP's and some parents have resorted to court action to challenge their
children's IEP's (Supreme Court, Washington D.C. decision, 2007). The projected aims
18
and outcomes outlined in the IEP are revisited annually or semesterally and long term
aims, where the latter are appraised by "the ultimate success of a child’s educational
program ……….[if] it enables him or her to leave school prepared for life in the
community" Pratt and Dubie (2003, p. 3). The State of Massachussetts IDEA-97
guidelines for writing IEP's takes the long term goals of an IEP a step further by linking
them to economic and social projections for the community, so that "improving the
educational results for children with disabilities is essential to ensuring equal opportunity,
full participation, independent living and economic self sufficiency" (Education Reform
Act 1993).
The scope of these provisions provides a sound basis for the placement and
intervention where the term "disabilities" is used to cover not only physical,
developmental and intellectual difficulties but emotional challenges too (Miller and
Hoffman 2002). It is clear that state or national legislation provides supervision of all
concerned in the education of a student studying with an IEP as well as the resources and
personnel. International schools do not have the possibility of drawing on these resources
(Hayden 2006) nor is state or national supervision applicable. The implication is that the
design and implementation of IEP's in international schools depends on procedures
developed by the schools which are shaped by the background of the SEN professionals it
employs (ibid).
Broad outlines established by the International Baccalaureate organization for
International Schools are recommended but not mandatory (IBO 2007). The resources
and support services offered by international schools are a function of their annual
budgets and profit margins which is a considerably reduced amount when compared to
national education department budgets. At this point, the process of IEP design in
international schools reflects the ethos of these schools which are characterized by
transient populations of pupils, teachers, administrators and parents which may impact its
quality (Pratt and Dubie 2003). The consistency of support services may be compromised
when staff rotations take place frequently or when staffing numbers may fluctuate which
happens in international schools (Haldimann and Hollington, 2007). In addition, there
may be reduced scope of diagnostic assessment in international schools where local
educational and psychological assessment may be limited, placing great responsibility on
individual support teachers (Mitchell, 2007). Internal appraisal procedures within each
school are the only evaluation mechanisms for IEP's in international schools and these are
confidential so access to and research on them has not been possible. However,
19
accreditation documents produced by the international Baccalaureate Organisation
contain provision for self-study on IEP's in use at candidate or authorized schools
(www.ibo.org) but do not show records of the process and participation in their
construction. In the Asia-Pacific area a cluster group organization, named SENIC
(Special Education Needs Network in China) was founded by the researcher in 2003 and
it has expanded to include other parts of Asia and is now known as SENIA (Special
Education Needs Network in Asia). This independent organization generates professional
development aimed at ensuring the quality of IEP's and their implementation in
international schools in the area in its annual conferences but has no right to publish the
discussed IEP's (SENIC 2005). There is, however, some evidence that IEP's do not
always guarantee effective support and may sometimes lack in the consistency needed to
ensure rigourous support for SEN pupils (Attfield 2007). The lack of extensive
researched documents relating to IEP's in international schools does not imply that their
use is less widespread than in national schools in countries with a highly legislated,
safeguarded and funded Special Needs authority, such as the LEA structure in the UK
(Mitchell 2007). A supply of statistics does not guarantee that IEP's are effectively
improving the learning outcomes of their target subjects since "…such statistics distract
or attention away from the ways in which attitudes, policies and institutions exclude or
marginalize groups of children and young people" (Booth & Ainscow, (1998 ) citing
Stubbs, 1995).
Despite all these difficulties, pupils who study within the scope of an IEP are afforded
access to the curriculum with the recognition of their individual difficulties (DfE
Organisation of Special Needs 1994a). The question arises about those pupils who
may not be part of the population supported by IEP's and yet who present behaviours
which indicate that they are not reaching their academic, personal or social goals or who
appear to be at risk in terms of personal or social adjustment difficulties (Levine 2002).
These deviances from anticipated behaviour patterns and learning outcomes occur in a
dynamic fashion and are not part of a diagnosis from psychological or educational
assessment (ibid). Consequently, IEP content and services may be assigned after a
delayed period or wen particular behaviour patterns have become established (Smilde,
van den Doel, D.A., Smit, C. & Wolleswinkel-van den Bosch, J.H. 2006). This
necessarily impacts learning outcomes and demonstrates the complexity of providing
effective intervention programs for underachieving pupils when there is no chronological
sequence between exposure to the traumatic incident or other life changing event which
20
has given rise to failing classroom performance. (Breslau, Lucia, and Alvarado 2006). By
implication, this may oblige education authorities to be willing to offer support services
without any time framework, or open ended IEP's which allow flexibility in design,
content and implementation.
Under-achievement, stress and NSTP:
Under-achievement has many causes and may emerge immediately after exposure to a
traumatic event or at a much delayed stage. Other under-achieving behaviour patterns
may be related to learning difficulties (Eide and Eide 2006). Where there is evidence of
Wrightslaw (2004) Discrimination: Section 504 and ADA504 versus IEP retrieved
January 8th, 2007 from http://www.slc.sevier.org/iepv504.htm/
Zhanwen Liu (1997): Practical Ways to Good Health through Traditional Chinese
Medicine. China Today Press, Beijing,
INTERNET REFERENCES http://www.braingym.org First retrieved on 12th March, 2003. http://www.occ.ibo.org First retrieved on 8th September 2004 http://www.ecopsych.com/2004ecoheal.html First accessed on October 18th, 2004 http://www.helpforadd.com First retrieved on October 18th, 2004 http://www.skidmore.edu/~tkuroda/hi323/mann.htm First retrieved on August 11th, 2005 http://www.greenteacher.com First retrieved on March 13th 2006 http://www.walkingthetalk.bc.ca/ First retrieved on March 15th, 2006 http://www.greenlearning.ca/ First retrieved on June 11th 2006 http://www.bcsea.org/education First retrieved on June 15th 2006
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http://www.re-energy.ca/ First retrieved on May 1st, 2005 http://www.earthfuture.com/ First retrieved on August 3rd 2006 http://www.ananda.org/meditation/support/articles/iamthemountain.htm First retrieved on October, 6th, 2006 http://www.anxietyaustralia.com.au First retrieved on 10th January, 2007 http://www.gov.im/lib/docs/infocentre/acts/ea2001.pdf First retrieved on 8th October, 2007 www.direct.gov.uk/en/Parents/ First retrieved 8th February, 2008 http://www.autismspeaks.org/press/iep_supreme_court_decision.php First retrieved April 10th, 2008
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QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS, AND COUNSELLORS Please answer all questions as frankly as possible. All answers will be used to provide background information only. These forms will be shredded after being read. Do NOT put your name on the form, only role or relationship with the pupil. Thank you for your cooperation! Name of pupil: _____________ Your capacity: ____________ Contact details:________________________ 1. Are you satisfied with the way xxxxxx behaves? Explain briefly___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2. Are you able to hold a conversation with xxxxxx? Does xxxxxx confide in you or ask you for advice or assistance? If yes, explain briefly___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 3. How would you describe xxxxxx's academic performance? Explain briefly___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 4. Has xxxxxx participate in after-school activities? If so, which? ____
____________________________________________________________________ 5. How does xxxxxx get on with classmates/peers? Explain briefly___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 6. Have you observed any changes in behaviour/eating habits/dress in the last 12 months/since xxxxxxx joined the class? _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 7. How often has xxxxxx missed school during the last 12 months?____ How many of these absences were unexcused? __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 8. Does xxxxxx complete? homework____________________ classwork ________________ classroom duties ______________ 9. How do achievement levels for xxxxxx compare with those in the past? Better or worse or unchanged?
1 APPENDIX
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________________________________________________________________ 10. Has xxxxxx been working according to an I.E.P.? If so, for how long? If not, would you recommend this? Yes/No Additional comments/concerns: _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Many thanks for filling out this form!
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APPENDIX 1a QUESTIONNAIRE FOR PARENTS (China ) Please answer all questions as frankly as possible. All answers will be used to provide background information only. These forms will be shredded after being read. Do NOT put your name on the form, only role or relationship with the pupil. Thank you for your cooperation! Name of pupil: _____________ Your capacity: ____________ Contact details: ____________________ 1. Are you satisfied with the way xxxxxx behaves at home? Describe briefly___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2. Are you able to hold a conversation with xxxxxx? Does xxxxxx confide in you or ask you for advice or assistance? If yes, explain briefly___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ 3. How would you describe xxxxxx's academic performance? Explain briefly___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 4. Has xxxxxx participate in after-school activities? If so, which? ______________ ____________________________________________________________________ 5. How does xxxxxx get on with brothers and/or sisters? __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 6. Have you observed any changes in behaviour/eating habits/dress in the last 12 months? __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________ 7, Have you noticed any changes in sleeping patterns in the last 12 months? e.g.(length, nightmares, fear of the dark) __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 8. Does xxxxxx socialize with friends from school/the neighbourhood? _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 9. What has xxxxxx's health been like in the last 12 months? What ailments, please list both serious and less serious. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 10. What medical/psychological treatment has xxxxxx had during the last 12 months? Details need not be given, just broad descriptions.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Extra comments/concerns you would like to add: ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Many thanks for filling out this form!
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APPENDIX 1b
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR PARENTS (Israel) Please answer all questions as frankly as possible. All answers will be used to provide background information only. These forms will be shredded after being read. Do NOT put your name on the form, only role or relationship with the pupil. Thank you for your cooperation! Name of pupil: _____________ Your capacity: ____________ Contact details: __________________ 1. Are you satisfied with the way xxxxxx behaves at home? Describe briefly___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 2. Are you able to hold a conversation with xxxxxx? Does xxxxxx confide in you or ask you for advice or assistance? If yes, explain briefly___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ 3. How would you describe xxxxxx's academic performance? Explain briefly___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 4. Has xxxxxx participate in after-school activities> If so, which? ______________ ____________________________________________________________________ 5. How does xxxxxx get on with brothers and/or sisters? __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 6. Have you observed any changes in behaviour/eating habits/dress in the last 12 months? __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ 7. Have you noticed any changes in sleeping patterns in the last 12 months? e.g.(length, nightmares, fear of the dark) __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 8. Does xxxxxx socialize with friends from school/the neighbourhood? _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 9. What has xxxxxx's health been like in the last 12 months? What ailments, please list both serious and less serious. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 10. What medical/psychological treatment has xxxxxx had during the last 12 months? Details need not be given, just broad descriptions. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 11. How does xxxxxx react to the sound of aircraft, helicopters or sirens? __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Extra comments/concerns you would like to add: _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Many thanks for filling out this form!
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APPENDIX 2
Activity 1 : Consent, sensory perceptions, feelings and self reflection - (Based on “The
Global Wellness and Unity Activity “ in Well Mind, Well Earth)
1 Go to a natural area and find a place to sit that feels attractive to you.
2 Ask this natural area for its consent – try to voice your thanks aloud.
3 Sense the area for 10 seconds in silence.
4 Look around and focus on things you find attractive or interesting.
5 Compare how you feel now as opposed to when you first got there. Feel that you
belong there, as much as the things that attracted your attention.
6 Discuss if you have seen or discovered things you never saw there before. Talk about
belonging.
7 Write down what you were focusing on.
8 Write down how you feel from doing this activity.
9 Compare how you feel now to how you feel in class when you are asked to write down
your feelings.
10 When the activity is over, do you feel glad it is finished or do you wish it could last a
bit longer?
Activity 2: Breath-holding activity – Awareness of tension, pressure, fear and not
belonging. Based on “Sustaining Equlibrium” in Well Mind, Well Earth)
1 Choose a place outside to sit in, ask consent to be there. Vocalise your consent and
feel that you have permission to be there.
2 Breathe normally and feel comfortable in the place you have chosen.
3 Hold your breath and feel that you are now disconnected from the previous feeling of
comfort.
4 Take note of your feelings as you begin to feel a sensation of suffocating.
5 Reconnect to your previous situation of comfort by breathing and restoring a
sensation of normal and unstressed breathing patterns.
6 Repeat this activity, thinking of a subject you find really difficult at school.
7 Vocalise now when you are relaxed what exactly it is that makes the subject difficult
and what things can be less stressful in that subject.
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8 Write down your feelings when you are out of breath. Write down your feelings about
your difficulty in that subject.
9 Write down how you feel when you are breathing normally.
10 Write down how you feel when you are able to do something in the lesson you
normally find difficult.
Activity 3: Sensory perceptions, memory, information processing. Based on “Activity 5”
from Reconnecting with Nature.
1 Go to a natural area and ask consent to be there for this activity.
2 Look for six sticks of the same size and place them before you.
3 Close your eyes and then pick up one stick.
4 Keeping your eyes closes, mark that stick with the marker you have brought with you.
5 Mix up the sticks, lay them out again and try to feel and find the stick you chose and
marked before.
6 Open your eyes and see if you chose the right stick.
7 Repeat this activity. Did you find the right stick? How can you explain this?
8 Discuss with your partner how you feel about touching natural objects.
9 Discuss how you try to remember things and whether this works for you in class.
10 When the activity is over, do you feel glad it is finished or do you wish it could last a
bit longer? Write down your reasons.
Activity 4 - Sensory perceptions, self realization and self reflection. Based on “Secret
Life” activity in Well Mind, Well Earth)
1 Go to a natural area and ask consent to be there for this activity.
2 Spend 30 minutes looking around, sensing the place and gathering information about
it.
3 List each item/object/creature that you focused on.
4 Relate to each item/object/creature that you focused on from your point of view and
try to locate yourself in relation to them.
5 Write short sentences to describe what you have seen and focused on and how you
feel, react and act.
6 Share these sentences with your partner. Note if there are big differences or
similarities.
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7 When the activity is over, do you feel glad it is finished or do you wish it could last a
bit longer? Write down your reasons.
Activity 5 – Using sensory perceptions to make comparisons, evaluating urban and
natural landscapes, relating to self and its place in the universe, behaviour patterns and
restrictions. Based on “Making peace with the War Within” in Well Mind, Well Earth.
1 Walk down to the nearby compound and observe the new skyscraper which has
recently been finished.
2 Think what the area would have been like many years ago when it was still a natural
area. Draw you idea of what it looked like.
3 Walk to the garden area in the grounds near the school and ask consent to be there for
this activity.
4. The garden area is also a product of man’s creation. Which creation is more
attractive to you? Write down your reasons or discuss these with your partner.
5. Discuss the question of change in nature and change in human society.
6. Discuss the question of progress in nature and progress in human society.
7. Discuss the question of progress in school. How do you progress?
8. Discuss the question of change in school and how you relate to change at school
and in your personal life.
9. Think of the area which was more attractive to you. Is your school attractive to
you? Is your home attractive? Can you find common elements between the two places
you visited and your home and school. List them.
10. When the activity is over, do you feel glad it is finished or do you wish it could
last a bit longer?
Wrap-up Activity: Giving thanks
After each activity, after discussion and reflection, sit in the natural area. Close your
eyes, breathe deeply, and give thanks for what you have felt, smelt, touched, experienced.
Thank nature and then thank yourself!
This is your joined moment with your inner self and the world of nature.