PROJECT COMMUNICATION US 8976 (119459) WRITE FOR A …

Project Management NQF 4: SAQA ID 50080 – Handbook

Page 1 of 22 Project Management – US 8976 (119459) Issue 3: 01-01-2020

PROJECT COMMUNICATION

US 8976 (119459) WRITE FOR A WIDE RANGE OF CONTEXTS

Module 1 Write effectively and creatively on a range of topics

After completing this module, the learner will be able to write/sign effectively and creatively on a range of topics, by successfully completing the following:

Create imaginative texts that are convincing, and appropriate to the topic and purpose

Create expository/factual texts that are convincing and well developed with respect to clearly articulated transactional purposes, using fully developed paragraphs and resulting in a unified text.

Create writing/signing on personal interests that is convincing in terms of issues and concerns addressed

Use the narrative voice or register chosen that is appropriate to context, purpose and audience Write effectively and creatively on a range of topics The purpose of this Module is to focus on improving our writing skills with the aim of writing effectively and creatively in a wide range of contexts. In this Module, we will distinguish between expository writing, which is factual and conveys detailed information and narrative writing, which conveys information in a more descriptive manner. The type of writing we do in the workplace is mostly expository in nature. 1.1 Imaginative texts Imaginative texts can be divided into the following three categories: 1. Narrative text which can be defined as telling a story. Narration describes a sequence of related

happenings explaining how something came about. The emphasis is on the event itself and there are two types of narration, namely climacteric, which is usually used in novels, short stories and then straight line which used in technical communication. Narrative text can also be used when writing reports and minutes.

"In narrative writing, an author has a chance to make his or her mark on the world by relating a story that only he or she can tell. Whether it comes from a personal experience or is one that the writer has imagined, the point of a narrative is to bring one's subject to life. By using sensory details, the five W’s and H (who, what, where, when, why, and how), and basic story structure, any subject can be made exciting." Example:

"The barber was cutting our hair, and our eyes were closed--as they are so likely to be. . .. Deep in a world of our own, we heard, from far away, a voice saying goodbye. It was a customer of the shop, leaving. 'Goodbye,' he said to the barbers. 'Goodbye,' echoed the barbers. And without ever returning to consciousness, or opening our eyes, or thinking, we joined in. 'Goodbye,' we said, before we could catch ourselves. Then, all at once, the sadness of the occasion struck us, the awful dolour of bidding farewell to someone we had never seen. We have since wondered what he looked like, and whether it was really goodbye."

(E.B. White, "Sadness of Parting." The New Yorker, May 4, 1935)

2. Descriptive text which is describing what you want the reader to see. It conveys what a person senses physically be it taste, touch, sight, smell or sound.

Whether we are describing a person, a place, or a thing, our aim is to reveal a subject through vivid and carefully selected details.



In the following paragraph1, observe how the writer moves clearly from a description of the head of the clown (in sentences two, three, and four), to the body (sentences five, six, seven, and eight), to the unicycle underneath (sentence nine). Notice also how the concluding sentence helps to tie the paragraph together by emphasising the personal value of this gift. Example:

A Friendly Clown On one corner of my dresser sits a smiling toy clown on a tiny unicycle--a gift I received last Christmas from a close friend. The clown's short yellow hair, made of yarn, covers its ears but is parted above the eyes. The blue eyes are outlined in black with thin, dark lashes flowing from the brows. It has cherry-red cheeks, nose, and lips, and its broad grin disappears into the wide, white ruffle around its neck. The clown wears a fluffy, two-tone nylon costume. The left side of the outfit is light blue, and the right side is red. The two colours merge in a dark line that runs down the centre of the small outfit. Surrounding its ankles and disguising its long black shoes are big pink bows. The white spokes on the wheels of the unicycle gather in the centre and expand to the black tire so that the wheel somewhat resembles the inner half of a grapefruit. The clown and unicycle together stand about a foot high. As a cherished gift from my good friend Tran, this colourful figure greets me with a smile every time I enter my room.

3. Persuasive text which gives a point of view or opinion. Language has the ability to evoke ranges

of association and condition attitudes. Words carry both degrees of seriousness and levels of approval or disapproval and in this way messages are influenced by the sender. An example here is the different effect of calling a band of soldiers ‘terrorists’, ‘insurgents’, or ‘freedom fighters’. The words one chooses are seldom neutral and advertisers, politicians and other propagandists are especially adept at using language to their advantage.

Example of a persuasive marketing letter: Dear Mr. Smith How long has it been since you and your spouse had a really good time? How long has it been since you last took a week off to enjoy the more beautiful things in life? How long has it been since you saw the sea, basked in the sun during the day and gazed at the stars at night? We thought it's been a long time too. At ABC Cruise we are offering a few selected people an offer to stay on board our cruise ship for a week, in the lap of luxury, like no other in this world. We will pamper you and indulge your every little desire. We will ensure that you and your spouse get a lovely time together and get a bit of romance going! And that too at a 50% discount over our normal rates! Hard to say no, isn't it? Regards ABC Cruise Vacations

When you determine that you wish to write an imaginative text you must ensure that the text is convincing and appropriate to the topic and purpose. In the case of writing advertising and marketing material you would want to use descriptive and persuasive text to entice your customer to believe that your product or service is the best one to use. This type of text is most appropriate for this purpose. In the same way, if you decide to use the narrative text to write a report, you should bear the purpose of writing in narrative form, i.e. to write a sequence of happenings, in mind.

Class Activity 1: Imaginative texts Please follow the instructions from the facilitator to complete the formative activity in your Learner Workbook

1 Retrieved from: http://grammar.about.com/od/developingparagraphs/a/samdescpars.htm

http://grammar.about.com/od/developingparagraphs/a/samdescpars.htm



1.2 Expository/factual texts Expository text is factual. The writer must give information on the topic. This writing makes use of facts and statistical information, cause-and-effect relationships, or examples. Examples of expository/factual writing include newspaper articles, encyclopaedia articles or explanatory essays.

Factual writing usually contains the following elements:

No emotion

No imaginative language

No personal opinions

Write in 3rd person (no use of pronoun ‘I’)

Language is precise

Use of facts and figures The following is a recommended structure for expository writing:

The points above will assist you in ensuring that your expository writing is convincing and well developed with respect to a clear purpose. Below is an example of a description of an incident and the factual report written about the incident:

1. Story: When I was visiting my cousin in Australia, I was offered the chance to fly a private airplane. After taking a few lessons on how to steer a light aircraft and what to do in case of an accident I was provided with a personal instructor, who would accompany me on my first flight. It was about to dawn when we got on to the tiny plane early in the morning. The sky was cloudless and according to the weather forecast the weather would not change until the next day. I was very excited and a

Factual Texts

Factual texts convey meanings

Factual texts should be

evaluated in

relation to the effects of audience,

context and purpose

There are different patterns and

organisational structures in

different

types of factual texts

There are different kinds of

factual textsFactual texts are

written for specific

purposes e.g. to inform, instruct,

explain

Factual texts are different from

literary texts

Factual texts are constructed by

people about real phenomena

Introduction

Body

Conclusion

• Introduce the topic, describe or define what you are going to talk about

• Break your writing up into paragraphs

• Explain each ideas/point in the topic

• Give examples

• Use a different paragraph for each different point

• Most important point first and then minor points

• Weigh up the points involved

• Summarise your explanations



bit nervous. The take-off was smooth and easy and within minutes we could get a marvellous view of the sunrise at an altitude of about two kilometres. It was amazing. A few minutes later we heard a loud bang, like an explosion. We saw smoke coming out of the propeller and it suddenly stopped rotating. We began to lose height. My instructor immediately took over the control of the plane and was trying to steer it upright to gain height, but it would hardly function. Then he said we had to prepare for an emergency landing. Fortunately, I saw a farmhouse not far away and suggested that we should try to land there. It was getting far too bumpy and I literally stuck myself into the seat. I was extremely scared, so when we were about to land, there was nothing left to do but pray. Just moments after I had closed my eyes, the plane hit the ground so fiercely that I was knocked out. It seemed eternity to have passed when I heard a voice. I opened my eyes and saw a man trying to drag out my instructor, who was badly injured. His whole head was in blood, but he was still alive as I could hear him mumbling something. I soon realised that my right leg was broken, but I could still move and helped the man to carry the instructor out of the plane, which looked like a pile of debris. Minutes later I looked round to see it explode in the distance. I was comforted to know that we were alive. After two weeks in hospital we were fit again and the man, who turned out to be a farmer, was awarded a prize for his bravery. It was an unforgettable experience, but despite all the dangers, I am still fascinated about flying and that’s the reason why I have entered the Galway Flying Club. 2. Factual Report: Bob Smith was alone at his farm early in the morning last Sunday when he was woken up by a loud noise of an approaching airplane. He went out and saw a light aircraft crash not far from his farmhouse. The plane was occupied by two men – an instructor and a trainee. Alan Gordon and Peter Corey, the two victims, said there had been an explosion and smoke started to pour out of the airplane nose. They also said that moments later the propeller had stopped rotating, making the plane go out of control. This eventually led to an inevitable crash. The instructor, however, after taking over the control of the plane, applied all his skills to prevent it from hitting the ground vertically. By doing so Mr. Gordon saved the passenger’s and his own lives. The crash caused serious injuries to the instructor, as well as to the trainee. After this the fearless farmer had helped both men leave the burning plane seconds before it exploded. He was awarded a prize for his courageous actions. Mr. Smith commented: “It is nothing short of a miracle that both guys stayed alive. They were moments away from death! I am happy to know I grabbed them back from its hands.” Peter Corey said it was his first flight on a private airplane. “In spite of this accident, which almost cost me my life, I am still determined to fly and will do so by entering the Galway Flying Club,” – he added.

Class Activity 2: Expository/factual texts Please follow the instructions from the facilitator to complete the formative activity in your Learner Workbook

1.3 Writing on personal interests A personal interest text is one that addresses your own personal interest. It may be a letter to motivate your appointment to a certain position, a complaint about poor customer service or a report to explain your point of view. When writing on personal interests, it is important to be convincing in terms of issues and concerns being addressed within the document. Here are a few guidelines2 to making your personal statement in an application letter memorable:

Tell a story - Think in terms of showing or demonstrating through concrete experience. One of the worst things you can do is to bore the reader. If your statement is fresh, lively, and different, you'll be putting yourself ahead of the pack. If you distinguish yourself through your story, you will make yourself memorable.

2 Retrieved from: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/642/01/

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/642/01/



Be specific - Don't, for example, state that you would make an excellent doctor unless you can back it up with specific reasons. Your desire to become a lawyer, engineer, or whatever should be logical, the result of specific experience that is described in your statement.

Find an angle - If you're like most people, your life story lacks drama, so figuring out a way to make it interesting becomes the big challenge. Finding an angle or a "hook" is vital.

Concentrate on your opening paragraph - The lead or opening paragraph is generally the most important. It is here that you grab the reader's attention or lose it. This paragraph becomes the framework for the rest of the statement.

Tell what you know - The middle section of your text (letter) might detail your interest and experience in your particular field, as well as some of your knowledge of the field. Be as specific as you can in relating what you know about the field and use the language professionals use in conveying this information. Refer to experiences (work, research, etc.), classes, conversations with people in the field, books you've read, seminars you've attended, or any other source of specific information about the career you want and why you're suited to it. Since you will have to select what you include in your statement, the choices you make are often an indication of your judgment.

Don't include some subjects - There are certain things best left out of personal statements; for example, references to experiences or accomplishments in high school or earlier are generally not a good idea. Don't mention potentially controversial subjects (for example, controversial religious or political issues).

Write well and correctly - Be meticulous. Type and proofread your letter very carefully. Express yourself clearly and concisely. Adhere to stated word limits.

Avoid clichés - Stay away from often-repeated or tired statements. Example cover letter:

Dear … From the first day I began managing multi-million-dollar custom home construction projects, I have consistently realised my objective of bringing every single project in on time and under budget. However, I have never believed that meeting those criteria alone was good enough. If you agree that well-managed projects should exceed customers' expectations in terms of quality and service, we should talk. To help you learn more about my track record, I have enclosed my résumé. While it illustrates my experience and training, what it cannot communicate is my dedication to my craft. My professional creed includes: Pride in the quality of my work, and a willingness to personally perform even the most menial tasks to remove project obstacles and get the job done. Ability to envision how specific parts of the house should look and flow, and communicate those ideas to architects, designers, and upper management, always with positive results. Expertise in blueprint assessment and collaborating with architects throughout the course of a job to point out oversights that would unnecessarily consume the client's time and money. Skilled in building lasting relationships with homeowners, who frequently request project advice. Willing to provide this advice at no charge in the interest of customer goodwill when necessary. Excellent skills in guiding, motivating, training and mentoring other carpenters. Based on my experience and strong commitment to my craft, I know I will add significant value to your team. I look forward to discussing my capabilities in more detail, and am available for a personal interview at your convenience. I know you are busy, and have many applications to review, so please let me know if you wish to further discuss your requirements and my ability to meet them. Thank you for your time and consideration. Sincerely Your Name

Class Activity 3: Writing on personal interests Please follow the instructions from the facilitator to complete the formative activity in your Learner Workbook



1.4 Narrative Voice The narrative voice or style you use should be appropriate to your purpose and audience.

The First Person A story written in the first person is told by an "I", where "I" can be the main character, a less important character witnessing events, or a person retelling a story he/she was told by someone else. Using the ‘I’ can create a sense of closeness to the character. It can be very easy to get the reader to identify or sympathise with your main character when the reader is seeing everything through that character's eyes. Example: The first person is usually used in narrative texts as in our example of the accident in 1.2:

“When I was visiting my cousin in Australia, I was offered the chance to fly a private airplane.”

The Second Person In second person writing, the narrator addresses the central character as "you”. This point of view is very rare because it is extremely difficult to write successfully. The reader may feel that they are the one spoken to, and will find it difficult to accept that they are doing the things the narrator tells them they are doing. If you choose to tell a story in second person, it is very important to make it clear to the reader who is being addressed, so he/she can trust the storyteller and accept the story as given without taking it personally. The second person is rarely used when writing texts as it is more complex than first or third person.

The Third Person Characters are referred to as "he" and "she" in the third person. In this case the narrator (who may be indistinguishable from the author) is not a character in the story. Depending on the type of third person point of view, the narrator may know and be able to tell about the thoughts and feelings of all characters, or only one character, or he/she may only be able to report what is seen or heard. Example: Bob Smith was alone at his farm early in the morning last Sunday when he was woken up by a loud noise of an approaching airplane. A formal style is written in the third person and is generally used to address a large audience, long reports or official documents. When using the third person or formal style you should avoid using “I” and “you” as well as slang or colloquialisms. When you are writing a personal note, an internal memo or brief e-mail messages addressed to individuals or your immediate working group you are more likely to use an informal style or the first person. This style depends on the tone you want to present and the type of information being shared. You should use an informal style only with individuals you know personally. Passive Voice3 Verbs are said to be either active (The executive committee approved the new policy) or passive (The new policy was approved by the executive committee) in voice. In the active voice, the subject and verb relationship is straightforward: the subject is a be-er or a do-er and the verb moves the sentence along. In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence is neither a do-er or a be-er, but is acted upon by some other agent or by something unnamed (The new policy was approved). Computerised grammar checkers can pick out a passive voice construction from miles away and ask you to revise it to a more active construction. There is nothing inherently wrong with the passive voice, but if you can say the same thing in the active mode, do so (see exceptions below).

3 Retrieved from: http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/passivevoice.html

http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/passivevoice.html



Many teachers of English recommend or even require the passive voice in technical or scientific papers, including lab reports. The rationale for using the passive voice in scientific writing is that it achieves "an objective tone" - for example, by avoiding the first person: A number of things are indicated by these results. Before we discuss a few instances when the passive might be preferable, we should mention one of the more political uses of the passive: to hide blame or obscure responsibility. You wouldn't do this, but you can learn how to become a critic of those who exhibit what George Orwell included among the "swindles and perversions" of writing. Examples:

Mistakes were made.

The Exxon Company accepts that a few gallons might have been spilled. By becoming critically aware of how others use language to shape clarity and meaning, you can learn how better to revise your own work. Keep Orwell's swindles and perversions in mind as you read other writers. Because it's easy to leave the actor out of passive sentences, some people use the passive voice to avoid mentioning who is responsible for certain actions. However, sometimes the passive voice is the best choice. Here are a few instances when the passive voice is quite useful:

To emphasise an object. Take a look at this example: 100 votes are required to pass the bill. This passive sentence emphasises the number of votes required. An active version of the sentence ("The bill requires 100 votes to pass") would put the emphasis on the bill, which may be less dramatic.

To de-emphasise an unknown subject/actor Consider this example: Over 120 different contaminants have been dumped into the river. If you don't know who the actor is—in this case, if you don't actually know who dumped all of those contaminants in the river—then you may need to write in the passive. But remember, if you do know the actor, and if the clarity and meaning of your writing would benefit from indicating him/her/it/them, then use an active construction.

If your readers don't need to know who's responsible for the action Here's where your choice can be difficult; some instances are less clear than others. Try to put yourself in your reader's position to anticipate how he/she will react to the way you have phrased your thoughts.

Examples: Baby Sophia was delivered at 3:30 a.m. yesterday. (passive) and Dr. Susan Jones delivered baby Sophia at 3:30 a.m. yesterday. (active) The first sentence might be more appropriate in a birth announcement sent to family and friends - they are not likely to know Dr. Jones and are much more interested in the "object"(the baby) than in the actor (the doctor). A hospital report of yesterday's events might be more likely to focus on Dr. Jones' role. The reader / audience Before you start writing, identify your reader:

Do you know his/her level of expertise, what his/her requirements and interests are, what are his/her educational level and home language?

What is his/her position in the organisation?



What does my audience need or want to know?

How do you adapt your writing to make it easy and interesting for this specific reader?

What is your audience’s intellectual attention span and capacity to absorb the information? The intellectual span of attention is related not only to the expertise and intellectual qualities of the receiver, but also to the context in which the document is to be handled and to the physical limits of attention in the receiver.

Treat your reader with respect when writing for him/her. Don’t try to impress with your verbosity, but keep it simple and clear, with a well-organised structure. The reader should not have to work hard to receive your ideas. S/he is the reason why you are writing, and, therefore, you must work hard to make it easier for him/her. Use examples and case studies to illustrate difficult concepts. Remember, the higher the managerial level of the reader, the more his/her interests move from the technical how and why to the more commercial to what purpose and at what cost?

Class Activity 4: Narrative voice Please follow the instructions from the facilitator to complete the formative activity in your Learner Workbook

Module 2

Choose language structures and features to suit communicative purposes After completing this module, the learner will be able to choose language structures and features to suit communicative purposes, by successfully completing the following:

Use points in argument that are logically and deliberately sequenced to build up to a convincing conclusion

Employ devices to create particular rhythmic or tonal effects

Use stylistic devices that enhance meaning effectively Choose language structures and features to suit communicative purposes In this Module we will look at language structures and features, such as logical argument and the devices a writer can use to create specific effects in order to reach a particular audience. In conclusion, we will also look at the stylistic devices writers employ to improve their writing. Language features and conventions Languages have certain features and conventions, which can be manipulated (used) to persuade an audience and shape their perspective on the topic we are writing about. Conventions are the surface features of writing: the mechanics, usage, and sentence formation. Conventions are a courtesy to the reader, making writing easier to read by putting it in a form that the reader expects and is comfortable with. Usage refers to conventions of both written and spoken language that include word order, verb tense and subject-verb agreement. Sentence formation refers to the structure of sentences, the way that phrases and clauses are used to form simple and complex sentences. In oral language, words and sentences cannot be changed once they have been spoken, but the physical nature of writing allows writers to craft their sentences, combining and rearranging related ideas into a single, more compact sentence. As we become more adept at expressing our ideas in written language, our sentences can become longer and more complex.



Using formats, conventions, protocols and contexts Formats, protocol and contexts are the conventions of print that do not exist in oral language, and include spelling, punctuation, capitalisation, and paragraphs. Because they do not exist in oral language, we have to consciously learn the mechanics of written language. For example, while speakers do not have to be conscious of the spelling of words, writers not only have to use standard spelling for each word, but may even have to use different spellings for words that sound the same, but have different meanings; for example, pear and pair. The same holds true for punctuation: speakers do not have to think consciously about intonation and pauses, but writers have to decide where to use a full stop instead of a comma and how to indicate that they are quoting someone’s exact words. In this Module, we will be looking at the conventions of logical argument, such as distinguishing between fact and opinion, deduction and how to use logic. We will also be learning about the techniques we can use to create particular rhythmic or tonal effects in our writing, such as using rhetorical and stylistic devices. 2.1 Logical argument As a writer you would probably like to employ stronger arguments in your work, especially if you regularly need to write persuasive text to convince your customers or manager of something. Argument in this context does not mean to fight, squabble, yell, or brow-beat. Here argument refers to the process of reasoning by advancing proof.4 An effective writer sequences the points in an argument in a logical and deliberate way to build up to a convincing conclusion. Facts, deductions and opinions are often very thinly separated in a message. The communicator must know what each consists of, in order to express him/herself clearly and accurately. Facts A fact is something that has to be proved true by using existing data or material, or by means of research. Something is true only when it is statistically verifiable, or has been proven by means of thorough research. Some ways of verifying things are by using the senses, or using the statements or findings of reliable, qualified sources. People who have specialised training and vocational experience are good sources of information. The following facts are usually accepted without additional verification:

Small babies drown easily in shallow water

Copper is a softer metal than steel

Water is a combination of hydrogen and oxygen Deductions A deduction is a conclusion derived from reliable evidence, for which there are no documents to prove it to be fact. It is also a statement of probability. Consider the following examples:

A huge white diamond will be found at Kimberley next year

By the year 2020 people will still be using toothpaste

Next year all students will be writing on lined paper

In ten years’ time, farmers will still be growing maize

Tomorrow I shall wake up as usual to continue life Opinions An opinion is based on personal emotions and attitudes, rather than on objective, reliable evidence. Opinions cannot be accepted as facts. Judge the following statements:

Engineering students are more intelligent than metallurgical students

It is better to live in Cape Town than in Johannesburg

The Vaal Triangle is dangerous place to live in

4 Retrieved from: http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/comp1/logic.htm

http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/comp1/logic.htm



Using Logic The sender as well as the receiver of the message should be able to organise their ideas and thoughts in a logical and systematic way. There are many situations in which people have to reason, criticise or draw certain conclusions. Direct arguments This kind of argument is generally a comparison between something that exists already and something new that is being introduced. A direct argument for or against something new will follow a certain basic pattern. There are four issues which may serve as the starting point in this type of reasoning:

Needs or necessity

Practical value of applicability

Alternatives or choices

Desirability Example: Imagine you are asked to discuss the desirability of changing the format of this course. You would have to ask a number of questions to justify you argument: Does the need for change exist? Is it possible that you are not benefiting from the current system? Is it really necessary to make the changes? What are the advantages to such a move? Is the change practical? Will it promote enthusiasm? What are the other alternatives? Is the change more desirable? Why? Indirect arguments The basic pattern in the indirect argument is that of solving problems. It entails:

Analysis of the problem: Does a problem exist? What is the nature of the problem? What is the cause of the problem? What are the barriers to solving it?

Find a solution: What are the possible solutions? According to which criteria should solutions be evaluated? What should the final choice be?

If you follow these two rules you will be able to not only present a case but also be able to analyse information you read. Deductive arguments In this type of argument, one proposition follows another, and the former must be proved by the latter. Reasoning shifts from a general premise to a definite conclusion. Conclusions are often preceded by words such as “therefore, while, it then follows, as so that”. If the general argument is logical and valid, the conclusion must be true and correct. Here is an example of a deductive argument:

Every event has a cause (premise)

The universe has a beginning (premise)

All beginnings involve an event (premise)

This implies that the beginning of the universe involved an event (inference)

Therefore, the universe has a cause (inference and conclusion) The validity of an argument does not necessarily mean that the conclusion itself must be true. If one of the premises is invalid, the conclusion will also be wrong, although it seems quite logical. For example:

Few people are famous

Mandela is a person

Therefore, Mandela is not famous Another famous example of fallacious reasoning is the following:



"Although we said we had proof that weapons of mass destruction existed, and although we found no evidence that they really did, the war was still justified because the leader was a tyrant." The weakness in the deductive argument is that the logic is often clouded by incorrect reasoning.

Class Activity 5: Logical argument Please follow the instructions from the facilitator to complete the formative activity in your Learner Workbook

2.2 Devices to create particular rhythmic or tonal effects In this section, we are firstly going to be going to looking at the basics of good writing, namely spelling and grammar and how to structure a paragraph. However, creating good sentences and paragraphs are not the only things we need to focus on when we are getting to grips with the nuts and bolts of good writing. We also need to look at stylistic devices that will create rhythm and tonal effects: the ‘body language’ of writing! Devices such as repetition of sounds (alliteration and assonance) and stringing words together to create a particular rhythm are sometimes used to achieve an almost rhythmic or musical effect in our writing. The use of stylistic elements such as ambiguity, symbolism and irony can further enhance writing while often leaving it open to multiple interpretations. Spelling and grammar as codes Letters of the alphabet and words are put together in a certain order to denote meaning. “Spelling” and “grammar” are descriptors of the process by which order communicates meaning. There are certain standard criteria that apply to stringing letters together in what is regarded as acceptable spelling and words together in what is regarded as acceptable grammar. Nowadays, the main criterion that linguists apply to determining what is “acceptable” and what is “unacceptable” usage, is effectiveness and not so much grammatical structure. Bear in mind, though, that carelessness in the use of grammar can result in communication breakdown, because of the barrier created by defective encoding. The effectiveness of the communication process depends on the efficiency of both the encoder and decoder in handling the complex resources of language. As communication is a social process, there has to be a satisfactory common recognition and operation of conventions of vocabulary, structure and punctuation. Correct grammar is the foundation for creating good sentences, which will give you credibility and create a professional image when writing business documents. Effective sentences and paragraphs make it easier to understand the message and will reduce miscommunication. You can use three types of sentences when writing a document:

Simple sentences that have a single subject and a single verb e.g. Mrs Jones ate lunch. In this sentence Mrs Jones is the single subject and ate is the single verb.

Compound sentences have two or more independent, but related, clauses of equal importance that are linked together with “and”, “but” or “or” e.g. I would have sent the document, but the courier closed early.

Complex sentences have one dependent clause with one or more dependent clauses related to it which are separated by a comma, e.g. Even though the proposal was late, the client accepted it. In this sentence the dependent clause comes from before the comma, and is followed by the independent clause.



To make sure your sentences are effective, you should be aware of the following:

Be concise to avoid confusing the reader. Most sentences should be no more than 20 words but as an exception sentences may be a little longer.

Avoid unnecessary words which could make your sentences difficult to understand.

Use the active voice rather than the passive voice because passive languages could be difficult to read. An example would be “All incoming mail will be signed for by the MD’s secretary”. Passive voice and rather clumsy? In the active voice it would read “The MD’s secretary will sign for all incoming mail”. A shorter and much easier sentence to read. Active voice makes statements much stronger and more positive and to the point.

Avoid run-on sentences because they contain too many ideas and could confuse the reader. Many compound sentences are run-on sentences and should be split into shorter sentences. For example, “The company introduced a new medical aid, employees are excited about the pricing of the new plan.” This can be fixed by creating two separate sentences: “The company introduced a new medical aid. Employees are excited about the pricing of the new plan.”

Effective paragraphs Paragraphs can vary in length depending on the amount of information they cover. However, all good paragraphs consist of the following:

The topic sentence is located at the beginning of the paragraph. With this sentence you state what you are going to cover and indicate how you will discuss the subject of the paragraph.

Supporting sentences that explain the topic sentences follow. These provide specific information that clarify the rest of the information in the paragraph. A good paragraph forms a cohesive unit with enough information to clarify its topic.

Transitional words that makes to paragraph coherent and supports your train of thought. Examples of transitional words include “but”, “or”, however” and “in addition”.

In order to create effective paragraphs, you need to:

Focus on one idea at a time. Combining different topics in a paragraph can be confusing.

Keep your paragraphs short because long paragraphs lose their focus and become boring. Keep to one thought and no more than three sentences per paragraph.

Vary the length and structure of both your sentences and paragraphs as this will help keep you document interesting.

Creating good sentences and paragraphs are not the only things we need to focus on when we are getting to grips with the nuts and bolts of good writing. We also need to look at stylistic devices that will create rhythm and tonal effects. It is essentially the ‘body language’ of writing! When writing grammatically correct sentences, you need to be familiar with commas, semicolons, colons and dashes. All of these punctuation marks serve a purpose and help convey the true meaning of your writing. Commas Commas provide clarity and make a document easier to read by showing the reader when to slow down, pause or continue. The following common rules should be considered when using commas:

When two independent sections are joined together by a word such as “and”, “but”, “or”, “for”, “yet” or “so”, a comma is used after the first independent section of your sentence, e.g. She appreciates your offer, but the proposal is almost finished.

When there are a number of items in a series and you need to separate words or phrases e.g.: This morning before work I had to take a shower, get dressed, make my breakfast and brush my teeth. Note that there is no comma after the last word of phrase in the series.



Use a comma for a group of words that serve as an introduction in a sentence. By doing this you show that the introduction may be less important that the main sentence, e.g.: Every day, old Tom collects the mail from the post office.

Colons Colons are generally used for introductory purposes. They may be used:

To introduce a list at the end of an independent section e.g.: She did not receive all the information: monthly statistics, individual reports and sales figures.

To introduce a quotation that is longer than one sentence.

When introducing an explanation within a sentence: “You wanted to know the problem behind the new computer system: people do not know how to use it.”

Semicolons In addition to using a semicolon to join related independent clauses in compound sentences, you can use a semicolon to separate items in a series if the elements of the series already include commas.

Members of the band include Harold Smith, drummer; Tony Jones, tuba player; and Lee Jefferson, trumpeter.

Parentheses Parentheses are used when the information is not essential to the meaning of the sentence. It may also indicate additional information. For example: Monday (which happens to be my birthday) happens to be the only day I can attend the meeting. Remember the following rules:

If the information inside the parentheses is not a full sentence place the full stop outside the parentheses. The proposal was late (due to lack of support from sales).

If the information in the parentheses form a complete sentence but depends on the sentence around it for context place the full stop outside the parentheses.

If the information in parentheses is a complete sentence and can stand alone, put the full stop inside the parentheses.

Apostrophes Apostrophes are sometimes used to indicate the possessive form. To see if you are dealing with a singular or plural possessive, you must turn the phrase around and make it an “of the…” phrase. For example:

The boy’s hat = the hat of the boy

Three days’ journey = journey of three days

Apostrophes are also used in contractions. A contraction is a word or a set of numbers in which one or more letters (or numbers) have been left out. The apostrophe shows this omission. Contractions are common in speaking and in informal writing. To use an apostrophe to create a contraction, you need to place an apostrophe where the omitted letter(s) would go. Here are some examples:

Don’t = do not

I’m = I am

He’ll = he will

Could’ve = could have

’60 = 1960

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_clause.html



Hyphens Two words brought together as a compound may be written separately, written as one word, or connected by hyphens. For example, three modern dictionaries all have the same listings for the following compounds:

hair stylist

hair-splitter

hair-raiser Another modern dictionary, however, lists hairstylist, not hair stylist. Authorities do not always agree in all cases, but the uses of the hyphen offered here are generally agreed upon: 1. Use a hyphen to join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun:

chocolate-covered peanuts

well-known author 2. However, when compound modifiers come after a noun, they are not hyphenated:

The peanuts were chocolate covered.

The author was well known. 3. Use a hyphen with compound numbers:

forty-six

sixty-three 4. Use a hyphen to avoid confusion or an awkward combination of letters:

re-sign a petition (vs. resign from a job)

semi-independent (but semiconscious) 5. Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex- (meaning former), self-, all-; with the suffix -elect; between a

prefix and a capitalised word; and with figures or letters:

ex-husband

self-assured

mid-September

all-inclusive

T-shirt

pre-Civil War

mid-1980s Quotation marks Quotation marks can be difficult to use correctly. Therefore, it is important to understand how to place them. The following is a list of some of the items that are enclosed in quotation marks:

Direct quotations and dialogue: Ann said, “I am tired of this.”

Titles of books, songs, and speeches: “Silent Night”.

Nick names: Thomas “Tomcat” Jones. Numbers When preparing a document, there are occasions when you must spell out numbers instead of using numerals. The general rule is to write out all numbers from one to ten, and use numerals for numbers higher than ten. However, there are some exceptions to this rule:

Always spell out numbers at the beginning of a sentence, even when other numbers in the sentence are expressed as figures: “Sixty people came to the luncheon, although 100 were expected.”

Avoid placing two numbers referring to different things next to each other. For example, if one number immediately precedes another, spell out one, preferably the one with the fewer letters: “I bought twenty 3-meter pieces”



Express fractions in words or as decimals. For example, “Only two-thirds of the openings were filled.”

When writing business reports, use numerals if they make the document easier to comprehend. When you do so, be consistent throughout the document.

Use numerals for page numbers: “See page 3 for details.” Monetary amounts Follow these guidelines when writing monetary amounts:

Use numerals for amounts of money over one Rand. For example, “I made a car payment for R4520.50.”

When using an amount under one Rand, use numerals with the word “cents.” For example, “I paid 25 cents for the chewing gum.”

Dates and times There are some general guidelines to follow when writing dates and time:

When writing a date in a document, write the month in full and use figures for the day and year e.g.: 13 March 2010.”

Use numerals when stating a time with a.m. or p.m. For example, “The shop closes at 5 p.m.” Capitalisation You need to follow some basic capitalisation rules to write grammatically correct documents. Basic capitalisation rules are as follows: Every sentence should begin with a capital letter.

Proper nouns and the first letter of the first word in a direct quotation should be capitalised.

The first and last words in the salutation of a letter and the first word in the complimentary close should be capitalised: “Dear Madam,” and “Sincerely yours.”

The first word of a direct quotation that is a complete sentence is always capitalised: “James said, “I’ll wait here.”

The first word of a statement after a colon is capitalised if it is a formal rule, a direct quotation, or if it is introduced by a single word: “Remember: Do not touch the toner with your hands.”

Do not capitalise the terms “north,” “east,” “northwest,” and other points of the compass when they indicate direction or location: “The new highway runs north and south.”

Specific persons, tribes, races, and nationalities are capitalised: “African,” “French.

Specific places are capitalised: “Kruger National Park,” “Room 58,” “Pacific Ocean,” “Mandela Square,” and “Spain.”

The term “government,” is not capitalised unless it is part of an official name: “The South African Government.”

When a title is used instead of a name, the title is capitalised: “Mr. Secretary, please listen.”

Capitalise all titles of rank, honour, or respect when they come before the name or word they define: “President Mbeki,” “Minister Zuma,” “Doctor Jones,” and “Lord Rosewood.” However, if the title is used alone, do not capitalise it unless it is a high-ranking official: “Our marketing director is here.”

Capitalise “father” and “mother” when used to address a person directly: “Yes, Mother, I understand.” However, do not capitalise “father” and “mother” when they are used as possessive pronouns: “My father is at home.”

Rhetorical devices Rhetorical devices are figures of speech, which deviate from standard or “literal” language mainly by the arrangement of their words to create special effects. The goal of rhetoric is to persuade towards a particular view or a particular course of action, so appropriate rhetorical devices are used to construct sentences which are designed both to make the audience receptive through emotional appeal and to provide a rational argument for the argument or course of action. The devices we will look at here are:

Irony



Metaphor

Rhetorical questions

Repetition Irony Irony often refers to the use of words to convey a meaning that is the opposite of their literal meaning: the irony of her reply, “How nice!” when I said I had to work all weekend. The use of irony in rhetoric is primarily to convey to the audience an incongruity (absurdity) that is often used as a tool of humour in order to ridicule an idea or course of action. Example: An employee says to his boss in a large meeting with all his co-workers: “Sir, may I say you are as smart as Einstein ever was”. But now consider that everyone in the room - except the boss - knows that the employee has a dog named Einstein, and that dog was the real intent of of the employee's named reference. This would be exquisitely ironic, because the boss would truly believe the employee's statement to be high praise, whereas everyone else would understand the statement for the insult it was meant to be. Metaphor The use of metaphor in rhetoric is primarily to convey to the audience a new idea or meaning by linking it to an existing idea or meaning with which the audience is already familiar. By making the new appear to be linked to or a type of the old and familiar, the person using the metaphor hopes to help the audience understand the new. Examples:

"The rain came down in long knitting needles." (Enid Bagnold, National Velvet)

"Language is a road map of a culture. It tells you where its people come from and where they are going." (Rita Mae Brown)

"A man may break a word with you, sir, and words are but wind." (Shakespeare, The Comedy of Errors)

Rhetorical questions A rhetorical question is a question that is asked, not to elicit an actual reply, but to achieve an emphasis stronger than a direct statement, as you are requiring the audience to think about whether they agree with the statement or not: Examples:

“Who can deny that we, as managers in the modern corporation, are under ever-increasing pressure?”

If love is blind, why is lingerie so popular?

“Aren’t you ashamed of yourself?” Repetition Repetition is used to really drum home an important concept; to ensure that the reader does not miss the significance of an idea we deem crucial to our argument, we can repeat and restate a phrase or word (as we have done here!) 2.3 Stylistic devices To further enhance your writing there are a large number of stylistic devices you can use. For the purposes of this workshop you will explore the most commonly used devices but there many, many more in the English language.



Good writing depends upon more than making a collection of statements worthy of belief, because writing is intended to be read by others, with minds different from your own. Your reader does not make the same mental connections you make and does not see the world exactly as you see it. If your writing is to be read and considered at all, it must be interesting, clear, persuasive, and memorable, so that the reader will pay attention to, understand, believe, and remember the ideas it communicates. To fulfil these requirements successfully, your work must have an appropriate and clear thesis, sufficient arguments and reasons supporting the thesis, a logical and progressive arrangement, and, importantly, an effective style. The rhetorical devices presented here generally fall into three categories: those involving emphasis, association, clarification, and focus; those involving physical organisation, transition, and disposition or arrangement; and those involving decoration and variety:

Expletive is a single word or short phrase, usually interrupting normal syntax, used to lend emphasis to the words immediately proximate to the expletive. (We emphasise the words on each side of a pause or interruption in order to maintain continuity of the thought.) Compare:

But the lake was not drained before April.

But the lake was not, in fact, drained before April.

Understatement deliberately expresses an idea as less important than it actually is, either for ironic emphasis or for politeness and tact. When the writer's audience can be expected to know the true nature of a fact which might be rather difficult to describe adequately in a brief space, the writer may choose to understate the fact as a means of employing the reader's own powers of description. For example, instead of endeavouring to describe in a few words the horrors and destruction of the 1906 earthquake in San Francisco, a writer might state:

The 1906 San Francisco earthquake interrupted business somewhat in the downtown area.

Parallelism is recurrent syntactical similarity. Several parts of a sentence or several sentences are expressed similarly to show that the ideas in the parts or sentences are equal in importance. Parallelism also adds balance and rhythm and, most importantly, clarity to the sentence. Any sentence elements can be parallelled, any number of times (though, of course, excess quickly becomes ridiculous). You might choose parallel subjects with parallel modifiers attached to them:

Ferocious dragons breathing fire and wicked sorcerers casting their spells do their harm by night in the forest of Darkness.

Antithesis establishes a clear, contrasting relationship between two ideas by joining them together or juxtaposing them, often in parallel structure. Human beings are inveterate systematisers and categorisers, so the mind has a natural love for antithesis, which creates a definite and systematic relationship between ideas:

That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind. --Neil Armstrong

Simile is a comparison between two different things that resemble each other in at least one way. In formal prose the simile is a device both of art and explanation, comparing an unfamiliar thing to some familiar thing (an object, event, process, etc.) known to the reader. When you compare a noun to a noun, the simile is usually introduced by like:

The soul in the body is like a bird in a cage.

Analogy compares two things, which are alike in several respects, for the purpose of explaining or clarifying some unfamiliar or difficult idea or object by showing how the idea or object is similar to some familiar one. While simile and analogy often overlap, the simile is generally a more artistic likening, done briefly for effect and emphasis, while analogy serves the more practical end of explaining a thought process or a line of reasoning or the abstract in terms of the concrete, and may therefore be more extended.



You may abuse a tragedy, though you cannot write one. You may scold a carpenter who has made you a bad table, though you cannot make a table. It is not your trade to make tables. --Samuel Johnson

Allusion is a short, informal reference to a famous person or event:

If you take his parking place, you can expect World War II all over again.

Oxymoron can be useful when things have gone contrary to expectation, belief, desire, or assertion, or when your position is opposite to another's which you are discussing. The figure then produces an ironic contrast which shows, in your view, how something has been misunderstood or mislabelled:

The cost-saving program became an expensive economy.

Class Activity 6: Stylistic devices Please follow the instructions from the facilitator to complete the formative activity in your Learner Workbook

Module 3

Edit writing for fluency and unity After completing this module, the learner will be able to edit writing/signing for fluency and unity, by successfully completing the following:

Check the text for coherence, logical sequence and structure. Weaknesses and/or errors are identified and adjustments improve coherence and flow

Rearrange information in ways that promote interest in, and impact of, the text for a defined purpose, target audience and context

Check layout, spelling, punctuation, appropriate SASL structures (such as non-manual features) and syntax for accuracy and readability. Major grammatical and linguistic errors are identified and changes made as required

Check the completed text against the purposes for writing/presenting to verify that these purposes have been satisfied

Edit writing for fluency and unity In this Module we will be concentrating on editing: checking our text for coherence, logical sequence and structure and editing out weaknesses and/or errors to improve coherence and flow We will also check layout, spelling, punctuation and syntax for accuracy and readability. Finally, we will ensure that we have satisfied the purposes for writing our text. 3.1 Edit text Most writers understand how to edit for grammar, punctuation, and misspelled words, but editing for content can be a bit trickier. Content editing goes beyond the usage only. On the most basic level, content editing helps you determine that your report or story has been written in the same point of view throughout, and that it is in the most appropriate point of view for the context. It will help identify incorrectly used analogies, similes, and metaphors, and less than satisfactory examples. A basic content edit will also ensure that the content is in the correct order, such as that facts are presented consecutively and the plot doesn’t backtrack (unless on purpose). There are many other questions about the clarity of your writing that can be answered by a thorough content edit:

Are the explanations clear and unambiguous?

Do the explanations lead readers to the appropriate conclusions?

Are the facts, plot details, and character traits consistent throughout the text?



Are the case studies and anecdotes appropriate for the context?

Are images, lists, and side stories in the right places?

Does the information flow cleanly from one idea to the next?

Do page number or section references match?

Ask yourself who, what, when, where, why, and how when reading for content. Does the text answer all the questions you think it should?

Highlight the sentences that best answer these questions, just so you can see if the facts flow in logical order.

Double check any calculations.

Check every step in procedures to make sure they are complete, accurate, and in correct order.

Count the number of steps a list promises to make sure they are all there.

Check that figure numbers match their references in the text and are sequential.

Check that illustrations, pictographs, and models are right-side up 3.2 Rearrange information Content editing will also help you decide if anything is missing. Are there any gaps in the information or explanation provided? Have there been any new developments that should be added to the context? What could be added to the story or report to make it even better? Check for coherence, logical sequence and structure. The following are some guidelines:

Is it clear what you want the reader to do or know? Ask someone to read the document and comment if something is unclear and needs more description, explanation, or support.

Can you identify the most important information in the message quickly? In other words, have you used the inverted pyramid technique of structuring your writing?

Is the order of the points you have made logical? Does your document proceed in a logical and organised way from most important to next important facts? Ask others to read your document and tell you what they think are your most important ideas.

Is each paragraph organised around one main idea?

Did you include enough details and examples to support your main point?

Do any paragraphs seem shorter and in need of more material than others?

Is the supporting detail sufficient and relevant to the main idea?

Do you provide enough context for the message, or is more background information required?

Is all the information that you have included necessary? If you are not happy with the arrangement of the information, rearrange it in ways that you believe will promote interest in, and impact of, the text for your target audience. 3.3 Edit layout, spelling, punctuation and syntax Check the layout, spelling, punctuation and syntax for accuracy and readability. The following are some guidelines:

Are all of the parts of the message included and in the correct position?

Does the document look attractive on the page?

Does your document conform to standard business writing convention?

Are there problems that frequently occur in your writing? Keep a list of problems that recur and check for those specifically.



Read the document aloud to see and hear if there are any missing or wrong words, or other errors that you can spot.

For possible spelling errors, proofread backwards, from the end of a line to the beginning. Editing the Format The form business letters, memos, reports and e-mails take can vary from the traditional to the more contemporary. Some companies have a policy for writing these company documents, their form and layout. Before you write, check your company’s policy. In general:

Use single spaces between lines

Use double spaces between paragraphs

Place the beginning line of each paragraph flush left for a contemporary look.

Leave white space around the typed copy for a pleasant “feel” to the letter. White space makes a letter more readable.

Two-centimetre margins usually give a document enough white space to "feel" more readable. You could use the following checklist to check your final document:

Look for: Yes No

Correct document layout

Each new point is a new paragraph

Spell checked and proof read

Modern, up-to-date language and easy to read

Correct grammar

Good tone to suit the purpose of the document

Meaning is completely clear

Visual aids are neat and effective

Fonts and sizes are consistent

Numbering and headings are correct

Colour has been used discreetly

Copies are clear and bound properly

Overall the document achieves the communication purpose (logically solving the problem, conveying the required information, etc.) completely

The checklist allows you to check each document for readability before sending it out to recipients. This is the most crucial part, the output. This is everything you have prepared for and what the recipient expects- a high quality document that projects a positive image of your organisation and meets requirements. In order to check the detail of your document, you may also want to consider the following:

Most word-processing applications have tools to help you to check your spelling, sentence construction and other facets of writing. Make sure that you know how to use these functions in the application that you are working in. In particular, make sure that you know how to use the “help” function in your application. Remember to set your word processor to South African English.

You have already used and created a few checklists to aid you in communicating effectively in your text. Use these checklists to make sure that you have correct and accurate information.

Know and acknowledge the resources that you can use to help you to write more effectively.

If possible, let one or more people proofread your text for you. If you work often with a text, you tend to lose your sensitivity for its accuracy and correctness. A fresh pair of eyes can spot inaccuracies in incorrect information easier.

To check your lay-out, also check the following:



Do your page numbers follow logically?

Do your index (if any) and your text headings match?

Did you include any addenda as you said?

Is your document dated?

Did you acknowledge any resources you used (if needed)?

Is your information correct and accurate? Double-check any information tables and/or descriptions of data.

Did you comply effectively with any organisational, industry and/or national standards and requirements?

Have the (necessary) people approved your text? There are, of course, many other quality control questions that you can ask to check your text for accuracy and correctness. Those that are mentioned here serve only as a guideline. 3.4 Check against the purposes for writing Writers need to consider both audience and purpose in writing because the two elements affect writing significantly, and decisions about one affect the other. For instance, a main purpose in advertising is to sell a product. Advertisers seek the audience who is most likely to purchase a product. Once they have identified this group [called the "target audience"], they can write their ads to capture the attention of this audience. Hence, their purpose, which is to sell a product or service, shapes what they write. Your audience and writing purpose helped you determine your focus when you started writing your text. You knew that your audience (your manager, colleagues, customers, etc.) required specific information from you and that determined the way you wrote and the text type you chose. Knowing your audience enabled you to select or reject details for that specific audience. In addition, you were fully aware that different audiences expect different types or formats for texts. Knowing the knowledge level of your audience helped you determine how to write, how much information to include, how long to make your text, how subjective or objective you should be, and how formal or informal your text should be. Have you achieved your purpose? You have drafted, edited and redrafted your document to such an extent that you know it off by heart; which means that you are probably no longer able to view it objectively. The best way to determine whether your document will meet audience expectations is to ask an impartial person who is representative of the target audience to read through your document and give feedback.

Class Activity 7: Edit text Please follow the instructions from the facilitator to complete the formative activity in your Learner Workbook

Reflection Individually, complete the formative activity in your Learner Workbook

Facilitator Observation Checklist The facilitator will provide you with feedback about your participation during the class activities in your Learner Workbook

Summative Assessment You are required to complete a number of summative assessment activities in your Learner Portfolio of Evidence Guide. The Learner Portfolio of Evidence Guide will guide you as to what you are required to do:



Complete all the required administration documents and submit all the required documentation, such as a certified copy of your ID, a copy of your CV and relevant certificates of achievement:

Learner personal information form

Pre-assessment preparation sheet

Assessment plan document

Declaration of authenticity form

Appeals procedure declaration form

Place your complete Learner Workbook (with the completed Class Activities) in the specified place in the Learner Portfolio of Evidence Guide.

Complete the summative assessment activities in your workplace:

Knowledge Questions Individually, complete this summative activity in your Learner Portfolio of Evidence Guide

Practical Activities Individually, complete this summative activity in your Learner Portfolio of Evidence Guide

Witness Testimony Individually, complete this summative activity in your Learner Portfolio of Evidence Guide

Logbook Individually, complete this summative activity in your Learner Portfolio of Evidence Guide

Once you have completed all the summative activities in your Learner Portfolio of Evidence Guide, complete the Assessment Activities Checklist to ensure that you have submitted all the required evidence for your portfolio, before submitting your portfolio for assessment. References and Further Reading

Abrams, M.H. 1971. A glossary of literary terms. 3rd edition. NY:Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.

http://grammar.about.com/od/mo/g/narrative2term.htm

http://grammar.about.com/od/developingparagraphs/a/samdescpars.htm

http://www.buzzle.com/articles/persuasive-letter-example.html

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/642/01/

http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/passivevoice.html

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/passive.htm

http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/comp1/logic.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetorical_device

http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_are_some_examples_of_irony

http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/rhetorical.html

http://www.suite101.com/content/what-is-content-editing-a13967#ixzz10SZPU5m2

http://jobsearch.about.com/od/coverlettersamples/a/construction.htm

http://www.usingenglish.com/forum/editing-writing-topics/5781-writing-srories-factual-reports.html

http://www.usingenglish.com/forum/editing-writing-topics/5781-writing-srories-factual-reports.html

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