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2.2. Solubility characteristicsThe EP [1] and USP [9] both indicate that tramadol hydrochloride is freely
soluble in water and in methanol and very slightly soluble in acetone. The
drug substance is also described as being readily soluble in water and ethanol
[4]. In our laboratory, the aqueous solubility of tramadol hydrochloride in
the 1.2–7.5 pH range has been found to be >20 mg/mL (see Table 11.1).
Table 11.1 Aqueous solubility of tramadol hydrochloride at different pHSolvent pH Solubility (mg/mL)
0.1N HCl 1.2 >20
SGF 1.3 >20
0.01N HCl 2.0 >20
0.05 M phosphate buffer 2.5 >20
0.05 M phosphate buffer 3.5 >20
0.05 M phosphate buffer 4.5 >20
0.05 M phosphate buffer 5.5 >20
0.05 M phosphate buffer 6.0 >20
0.05 M phosphate buffer 6.8 >20
0.05 M phosphate buffer 7.2 >20
0.05 M phosphate buffer 7.5 >20
SGF, simulated gastric fluid.
466 Robert Smyj et al.
2.3. Partition coefficient
Th
chl
e n-octanol/water log partition coefficient (log P) for tramadol hydro-
oride is known to be 1.35 at pH 7 [4].
2.4. Optical activityTramadol hydrochloride consists of a racemic mixture of the 1R,2R and
1S,2S isomers, thus lacks any optical activity. Methods for separating the
racemate of tramadol have been reported in Refs. [10,11]. The (1R,2R)
isomer as the hydrochloride salt is described to have a specific rotation:
[a]DRT¼þ29.6� (c¼1.00; methanol) with a melting point of 171–172 �C
[11]. While the (1S,2S) hydrochloride salt is reported to have a specific
rotation: [a]DRT¼�29.6� (c¼1.00; methanol) and a melting point of
172–173 �C [11].
2.5. Crystallographic propertiesTramadol hydrochloride is known to exist in crystalline and amorphous
forms [12–14]. Tramadol base has been reported to exist as a crystalline
monohydrate [15]. Tramadol base in anhydrous form at room temperature
is described as an oil [15].
(Counts)8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
00 10 20 30 (�2q) 40
Figure 11.1 X-ray powder diffraction pattern of crystalline tramadol hydrochloride.
467Tramadol Hydrochloride
The X-ray powder diffraction pattern of crystalline tramadol hydrochlo-
ride was obtained in our laboratory with a Phillips PW3710 X-ray diffrac-
tometer using Cu Ka irradiation and is displayed in Figure 11.1. The most
intense peaks observed in the X-ray powder diffraction pattern (Figure 11.1)
have 2y angles of 10.3�, 13.0�, 15.3�, 16.7�, 18.5�, 20.5�, 20.8�, 21.5�,24.4�, 26.1�, and 30.7�.
2.6. HygroscopicityIn our laboratory, tramadol hydrochloride was analyzed using dynamic
vapor sorption. For the analysis, a VTI SGA 100 Symmetric Vapor Sorption
Analyzer was used. The drug substance was first dried to a constant weight at
40 C, then the adsorption/desorption experiment was performed at 25 �C.Adsorption analysis occurred from 5% RH to 95% RH in 10% increments,
while desorption was monitored from 95%RH back to 5%RH, also in 10%
increments. The resulting adsorption/desorption isotherm that was obtained
is displayed in Figure 11.2. The experimental results indicate that tramadol
hydrochloride is nonhygroscopic below 75%RH. Above 85%RH, the drug
substance absorbs water readily resulting in an approximate 16% increase in
weight at the end of the absorption phase. During the desorption phase of
the experiment, some water is lost during the 85–75% RH interval; how-
ever, a water content of about 10% is retained throughout the 75–5% RH
desorption phase.
Adsorption
20,000
18,000
16,000
14,000
12,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
0,0000 10 20 30 40 50
% RH
60 70 80 90 100
Desorption
Weig
ht
(% c
han
ge
)
Figure 11.2 Adsorption/desorption isotherm of tramadol hydrochloride.
468 Robert Smyj et al.
2.7. Thermal methods of analysis2.7.1 Melting behaviorMelting points of 180–184 �C [1] and 180–181 �C [5,8] have been reported
for tramadol hydrochloride.
2.7.2 Differential scanning calorimetryDSC analysis of tramadol hydrochloride has been performed in our labora-
tory on a TA 2920 DSC unit with Universal Thermal Solutions V2.5H
Software. The sample was weighed directly into an aluminum holder with
the lid placed on top (uncrimped). After an initial equilibration at 25 �C, thesample was heated to 200 �C at a rate of 10 �C/min. All activities were car-
ried out under a N2 purge (50 cc/min). One endothermic event was
observed for the sample with melting onset and peak maximum tempera-
tures of 180.53 and 182.38 �C, respectively. The thermogram for tramadol
hydrochloride is presented in Figure 11.3.
2.7.3 Thermogravimetric analysisTGA analysis was performed in our laboratory on a TA Instruments Q500 Q
Series TGA unit using a dynamic high-resolution mode. The sample was
heated from ambient temperature to 220 �C at a rate of 10 �C/min. All activ-
ities were carried out under a helium purge (balance purge: 10 mL/min, sam-
ple purge: 60 mL/min). The thermogravimetric thermogram of tramadol
hydrochloride (Figure 11.4) indicates a weight loss of about 0.34% up to
Temperature (�C)
Wei
ght (
%)
Der
iv. w
eigh
t (%
/�C
)
0.3435%(0.03862 mg)
150.07 �C
Universal V3.5B TA instruments
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
50−20
100 150 200 250
0
2
4
6
8
10
−2
Figure 11.4 Thermogravimetric thermogram of tramadol hydrochloride.
0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Hea
t flo
w (
W/g
)
Exo up Temperature (�C)
182.38 °C
180.53 °C115.6 J/g
Universal V3.5B TA instruments
−2
−4
−6
−8
Figure 11.3 Differential scanning calorimetry thermogram of tramadol hydrochloride.
469Tramadol Hydrochloride
150 �C.Rapidweight loss of the drug substance starts to occur near its melting
point (ca. 180�185 �C), followed by complete decomposition by �205 �C.
2.8. Spectroscopy2.8.1 UV–vis spectroscopyThe UV spectrum of tramadol hydrochloride was obtained on a Perkin-
Elmer Lambda 2 UV/vis spectrometer. The drug substance was dissolved
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.00200 220 240 260 280 300
nm
A
320 340 360 380 400
Figure 11.5 Ultraviolet absorption spectrum of tramadol hydrochloride.
470 Robert Smyj et al.
in methanol at a concentration of 10.58 mg/L and scanned from 200 to
400 nm. The UV spectrum (Figure 11.5) shows absorption maxima at
217 nm (e¼7.2�103) and 272 nm (e¼2.0�103).
2.8.2 Vibrational spectroscopyThe FT-IR spectrum of tramadol hydrochloride was obtained using a
Perkin-Elmer Paragon 16PC FT-IR spectrometer. The spectrum was
recorded for a potassium bromide pellet containing 1.7 mg of the drug sub-
stance and 178 mg of KBr. The resulting spectrum is displayed in
Figure 11.6. A summary of the functional group assignments for the char-
acteristic absorption bands that were observed is provided in Table 11.2.
2.8.3 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopyBoth the 1H NMR (including a D2O exchange experiment) and 13C
NMR spectra of tramadol hydrochloride were obtained in a Bruker
AV-400 spectrometer, operating at 400.133 MHz (1H NMR) or at
100.623 MHz (13C NMR). Spectra were recorded for a solution of
tramadol hydrochloride in DMSO-d6. Chemical shifts are reported in
ppm relative to TMS.
2.8.3.1 1H NMR spectrumThe 1H NMR spectra of tramadol hydrochloride are shown in Figures 11.7
and 11.8 (D2O exchange spectrum), and the resonance signal assignments
are provided in Table 11.3.
Table 11.2 Band assignments for the infrared absorption spectrum of tramadolhydrochlorideBand energy (cm�1) Assignment
aapp, apparent; br, broad; d, doublet; dd, doublet of doublets; m, multiplet; s, singlet; t, triplet.bAssignments containing the letters “A” and “B” denote geminal chemical shift nonequivalent protons.cThese signals nearly disappear in the D2O exchange spectrum.dSignal originating from H9 can be assigned to the 7.09–7.07 ppm region.eThis signal partially overlaps with the solvent residual peak originating from DMSO-d6.fThis signal consists of an overlap with the signal originating from either H16 or H19 and H14B.
473Tramadol Hydrochloride
mass spectrometer. The sample was dissolved inmethanol and injected into a
5-mL sample loop of the mass spectrometer and carried into the ionization
source by the mobile phase (1:1 mixture of methanol and 0.1% aqueous
acetic acid) at a flow rate of 100 mL/min. The electrospray ionization mass
spectrum of tramadol hydrochloride is shown in Figure 11.11. The spectrum
displays the protonated tramadol molecular ion peak [MþH]þ at m/z 264.
TheMS/MS spectrum of this ion is shown in Figure 11.12. One major frag-
ment ion having an m/z of 58 is observed and is proposed to originate from
the protonated molecular ion of tramadol as shown in Scheme 11.1.
160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20180ppm
Figure 11.9 13C NMR spectrum of tramadol hydrochloride.
ppm 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20
Figure 11.10 DEPT-135 13C NMR spectrum of tramadol hydrochloride.
474 Robert Smyj et al.
Table 11.4 13C NMR spectral data for tramadol hydrochloride
1
2
8
14
9
N+
15
OH7
10
613
3
O17
12
11
CH3
H3C
H3C16
19
18
5
4
HH
Cl−
and enantiomer .
Chemical shift (ppm) DEPT Assignment
159.12 C C10
150.00 C C8
129.06 CH C12
117.22 CH C13
111.52, 111.12 Each CH C9, C11
73.87 C C1
59.33 CH2 C14
54.96 CH3 C18
44.77, 40.60 Each CH3 C16, C19
40.39 CH2 C6
40.21 CH C2
26.16, 24.47, 21.16 Each CH2 C3, C4, C5
475Tramadol Hydrochloride
3. STABILITY
3.1. Solid-state stability
From solid-state stress studies, tramadol hydrochloride has been observed to
be a stable compound. Subjecting the drug substance to thermal stress
Several high-performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry
(LC–MS) methods for the analysis of tramadol, its degradation products,
and metabolites have been published in the literature [37–40]. Godoy
et al. [37] recently reported a simultaneous analysis of tramadol and major
degradation products and metabolites using an HPLC–tandem mass spec-
trometry method (LC–MS–MS). Tramadol is available as a racemic mixture
of (þ)-trans-tramadol and (�)-trans-tramadol. This method was claimed to
be the first study using tandem mass spectrometry as a detection system for
the simultaneous analysis of two trans-tramadol enantiomers and their major
metabolites. The best chromatographic resolution was obtained on a
Chiralpak AD column, which was operated under normal-phase conditions
using a mixture of hexane–ethanol (95.5:4.5, v/v) plus 0.1% diethylamine as
mobile phase. Under these conditions, recovery of 80–90% was obtained.
Quantitation limit of 0.5, 0.5, and 0.1 ng/mL was obtained for each
trans-tramadol, O-desmethyltramadol, and N-desmethyltramadol enantio-
mers, respectively. The method was validated to be precise and accurate.
484 Robert Smyj et al.
4.7. Electrochemical analysisThere are a few examples of the determination of tramadol hydrochloride in
pharmaceutical dosage forms by an electrochemical analysis method [41,42].
Garrido et al. [41] reported a square-wave voltammetric (SWV) method and
a flow injection analysis system. Amperometric detection was developed for
the determination of tramadol hydrochloride in pharmaceutical dosage
forms. The SWV method enables the determination of tramadol over the
concentration range of 15–75 mM with a detection limit of 2.2 mM.
Tramadol could be determined concentrations between 9 and 50 mM at a
sampling rate of 90 samples/h with a detection limit of 1.7 mM using the
flow injections system. The electrochemical methods developed were suc-
cessfully applied to the determination of tramadol in pharmaceutical dosage
forms without any pretreatment of the samples. Recovery values were
between 97–102%.
4.8. Spectrophotometric analysisSeveral spectrophotometric analysis methods for tramadol and its related
impurities were reported in literature [43–45]. Rajasekhar et al. [43] devel-
oped a spectrophotometric assay determination method of tramadol in bulk
as well as capsule dosage forms. Tramadol obeyed Beer’s law in a concen-
tration of 10–150 mg/mL exhibiting maximum absorption at 270 nm. The
results have been validated statistically and recovery studies confirmed that
the accuracy of the assay method. Abdellatef et al. [44] reported two simple
and sensitive kinetic spectrophotometric analysis methods for the determi-
nation of tramadol hydrochloride. The first method is based upon a kinetic
investigation of the oxidation reaction of the drug with alkaline potassium
permanganate at room temperature for a fixed time at 20 min. The absor-
bance of the colored manganate ions was measured at 610 nm. The second
method is based on the reaction of tramadol hydrochloride with 4-chloro-7-
nitrobenzofurazan (NBD-Cl) in the presence of 0.1 M sodium bicarbonate.
The spectrophotometric measurements were recorded by measuring the
absorbance at 467 nm at fixed time at 25 min on thermostated water bath
at 90�1 �C. The absorbance concentration plots in both methods were lin-
ear over the range of 5–25 and 50–250 mg/mL, for the first and second
methods, respectively. The two methods have been applied successfully
to commercial capsules and other dosage forms. Vinay et al. [45] used
two sulfonthalein dyes in the extraction-free spectrophotometric assay of
tramadol in dosage forms and in spiked human urine based on the ion-pair
485Tramadol Hydrochloride
reaction followed by spectrophotometric analysis. Themethods are based on
the formation of yellow ion-pairs between tramadol and two sulfonthalein
dyes. Under the optimum conditions, tramadol could be assayed in the con-
centration ranges, 1–15 and 1–16 mg/mL with correlation coefficient
greater than 0.999.
4.9. Gas chromatography with flame ionization or massspectrometry detection
Several gas chromatographymethods were reported for the determination of
tramadol and its impurities with either flame ionization detection or mass
spectrometry detection [46–48]. Ho et al. [46] reported a rapid, sensitive,
precise, and accurate GCmethod with flame ionization detection. It is com-
prised of only a one-step extraction procedure with dichloromethane. The
recovery of tramadol was greater than 88%. Calibration graphs were linear
over the concentration range of 12.5–10,000 ng/mL with a coefficient of
variation, both within-day and between-day, of less than 10% at any level.
The limit of detection was 8 ng/mL based on signal-to-noise ratio of 3.
Chytil et al. [47] developed a GC–MS enantiomeric assay determination
method of tramadol and O-desmethyltramadol by GC–MS. Chromatogra-
phy was performed on an Rt-bDEXcst column containing alkylated
b-cyclodextrins as a chiral selector. Nefopam was used as an internal stan-
dard. The method involves a simple solid-phase extraction with chiral anal-
ysis by gas chromatography–electron ionization mass spectrometry. This
methodwas successfully used to determine the concentration of enantiomers
of tramadol and its metabolites.
4.10. Capillary electrophoresis analysisSeveral research groups have reported separation of tramadol enantiomers by
capillary electrophoresis (CE) [49–51]. For instance, Rudaz et al. [49] suc-
cessfully applied cyclodextrins to the enantiomeric resolution of racemic
tramadol in drug substance, drug dosage forms. The CE method has been
demonstrated to be selective, linear, accurate, and precise, and the method
was able to detect 0.3% and to quantitate 1% of the minor enantiomer in the
presence of the major one at the target value.
4.11. Potentiometric titrationThe EP/BP harmonized monograph prescribes an assay method by poten-
tiometric titration [1]. Bodiroga et al. [52] also reported a potentiometric
486 Robert Smyj et al.
titration method for the determination of tramadol. The titration is per-
formed in nonaqueous media with perchloric acid as titrant. The titration
with perchloric acid resulted in potentiometric and conductometric cur-
ves with a clear defined peak thus suitable for the determination of the
titration endpoint providing accurate and reproducible results. Each mil-
liliter of 0.1 mol/L HClO4 is equivalent to 29.98 mg of tramadol hydro-
chloride. The method is fast, accurate, reproducible, and convenient for
the quality control of tramadol hydrochloride in pure state and its dosage
forms.
5. PHARMACOKINETICS AND METABOLISM
The pharmacokinetics of tramadol has been well documented in sev-
eral reviews [53,54].
5.1. Absorption and bioavailabilityAfter oral administration, tramadol is rapidly and almost completely absorbed.
The plasma concentrations are detectable within approximately 0.5 h [55].
Times to reach peak plasma concentration (Tmax) are within 1.2 h after oral
administration of drops [56] and within 2 h after oral administration of solid
dose [55]. Peak plasma concentrations (Cmax) and area under the curve (AUC)
increase linearly over the dose range of 50–400 mg [53,56]. The extent of oral
absorption of tramadol is almost 100%. Due to the first-pass metabolism, the
absolute bioavailability is 70% [53,56].
Following multiple oral administration of tramadol 100 mg four times
daily,Cmax and AUC are 16% and 36% higher, respectively, than after a sin-
gle 100-mg dose. The increased bioavailability is likely due to the saturated
first-pass metabolism [53,57].
Oral administration of tramadol 100 mg following a high-fat food results
in a 17% higherCmax and a 10% higher AUC than the corresponding values
in fasted subjects. This increase of the bioavailability by food is not consid-
ered clinically relevant [53].
The absorption of tramadol after rectal administration of 100 mg
suppositories began within a few minutes. Cmax was reached within
3.3 h. The absolute bioavailability is slightly higher than that after oral
administration, probably due to a reduced first-pass metabolism after rectal
administration [58].
487Tramadol Hydrochloride
5.2. DistributionTramadol is rapidly distributed in the body after intravenous administration,
with a distribution half-life in the initial phase of 6 min, followed by a slower
distribution phase with a half-life of 1.7 h [53,54]. Volumes of distribution
following oral and intravenous administration to young healthy subjects
were 306 and 203 L, respectively, indicating that tramadol has a high tissue
affinity. Plasma protein binding is low (20%) [54,55].
Tramadol passes placental barrier with umbilical venous plasma concen-
trations being 80% of maternal concentration. Very small amount of
tramadol and its active metabolite are excreted in breast milk [53].
5.3. MetabolismTramadol is extensively metabolized in the liver by cytochrome P450 2D6
(CYP2D6) [59–61]. Tramadol undergoes biotransformation to form theN-
and O-demethylated compounds (phase 1 reactions) displayed in
Figure 11.13 [60]. The O-demethylated metabolites (M1, M4, and M5)
are further conjugated to glucuronides and sulfates (phase 2 reactions).
The main metabolites areO-demethyl tramadol (M1) and its conjugates,
di-N,O-demethyl tramadol (M5) and its conjugates and N-demethyl
tramadol (M2). N,N-Didemethyl tramadol (M3) and O-demethyl-N,N-
didemethyl tramodal (M4) and its conjugates are only formed in minor
quantities. Among them, M1 is pharmacologically active and is mainly
responsible for the analgesic efficacy of tramadol [62].
N
OH
O H2N
H2N
CH3
CH3
CH3
H3C
H3C H3C
H3C
H3C
H3C
H
and enantiomer
Tramadol
N
OH
OHO-demethylation
O-demethylation
O-demethylation
N-demethylation
N-demethylation
N-demethylation
N-demethylation
H
and enantiomer
NH
OH
O
H
and enantiomer
M1
M2
NH
OH
OH
H
and enantiomer
M5
OH
O
H
and enantiomer
M3
OH
OH
H
and enantiomer
M4
Figure 11.13 Metabolic pathways of tramadol in phase 1 reactions.
488 Robert Smyj et al.
5.4. EliminationTramadol is mainly excreted via the kidneys. Following oral administration
of 14C-labeled tramadol to humans, approximately 90% is excreted in urines
and 10% in feces [59]. 25–32% of an oral dose is excreted as unchanged
tramadol. The mean elimination half-life is about 5–6 h. The mean total
clearance of tramadol was 467 and 742 mL/min following intravenous
and oral administration.
5.5. Pharmacokinetics in special populationThe metabolism and analgesic effect of tramadol was higher in “extensive
metabolizers” of CYP2D6 than in “poor metabolisers.” M1 production
in microsomes prepared from the liver of a poor metabolizer was markedly
reduced [63]. Biotransformation of tramadol appears to be significantly
reduced in African subjects. In 10 Nigerian volunteers, about 96% of
tramadol was excreted unchanged in the urine after oral administration [64].
The terminal elimination half-life of tramadol is prolonged in patients
with impaired renal and hepatic function. Doses and intervals may be
adjusted [53,54].
6. PHARMACOLOGICAL EFFECTS
6.1. Mechanism of action
Tramadol produces its analgesia in humans by a multimodal mechanism
[53].
(a) (þ)-M1 enantiomer acts as a m opioid agonist. Its affinity for the m opi-
oid receptor is about 700-fold more than that of parent drug (�)-
tramadol [65]. (�)-M5 also has higher affinity than (�)-tramadol
[65]. However, since M5 does not penetrate the blood–brain barrier
due to its high polarity, its responsibility for the m opioid derived anal-
gesic effect is very limited [53].
(b) Tramadol inhibits serotonin reuptake of serotonin (5-HT). (þ)Enan-
tiomer is about fourfold more potent than the (�) Enantiomer [66].
(c) Tramadol inhibits norepinephrine reuptake. (�)Tramadol is a more
potent blocker than its (þ) counterpart or M1 [67].
6.2. Adverse reactionsThe most frequent adverse events of tramadol are nausea, dizziness, drows-
iness, fatigue, sweating, vomiting, and dry mouth [68]. Tramadol has less
489Tramadol Hydrochloride
respiratory depressant potential than other opioids, such as morphine and
oxycodone [69,70]. Tramadol also has a low abuse potential and does not
precipitate a withdrawal syndrome [71,72]. Overdose of tramadol is associ-
ated with neurological toxicity. Cardiovascular toxicity has not been
reported. The most common symptoms of tramadol overdose are lethargy,
nausea, tachycardia, agitation, seizures, coma, hypertension, and respiratory
depression [73].
6.3. Drug interactionsCoadministration of Cimetidine, a typical enzyme inhibitor, results in an
increase of tramadol AUC and elimination half-life. When coadministrated
with carbamazepine, a typical enzyme inducer, tramadol Cmax, AUC, and
elimination half-life is reduced by 51%, 26%, and 54%, respectively [53].
7. METHOD OF CHEMICAL SYNTHESIS
The synthesis of tramadol hydrochloride (Scheme 11.4) is known to
begin with a Mannich reaction between cyclohexanone (1), paraformalde-
hyde (2) (or formaldehyde [74,75]), and dimethylamine hydrochloride (3)
(or monodimethylamine sulfate [75]) to form 2-dimethylaminomethyl-
cyclohexanone hydrochloride (4) [15,74–77]. After converting 4 to the
free base (5), the addition of m-methoxyphenyl magnesium bromide (or
m-methoxyphenyl lithium [76,78]) to 5 occurs to produce tramadol base
O
X
N
O
N
OH
O
H
and enantiomer
Tramadol
+
X = Li or MgBr
O
+ (CH3)2NH·HCI(CH2O)n H3C
H3C
CH3
CH3
H3C
H3C
H3CH3C
H3C
CH3
H3C
N
OH
O
H
and enantiomer
Tramadol hydrochloride
NaOH· HCI
· HCI
HCI
1
2 3
N
O
4
5
Scheme 11.4 Synthesis of tramadol.
490 Robert Smyj et al.
[6,10,15,75–84], which is then converted to the HCl salt
[10,76,79,80,83,85]. In the addition reaction, the 1RS,2SR stereoisomer
of tramadol is produced as a by-product [10,74,75,77–84]. There are several
strategies given in the literature for the removal of the 1RS,2SR isomer from
tramadol [15,74,75,77,80–82,86] or tramadol hydrochloride [10,79,87].
Modifications to the addition reaction such as the use of additives [85] or
transition metal salts [78] are reported to increase stereoselectivity in the for-
mation of tramadol. Recently, a synthetic route for the asymmetric synthesis
of one enantiomer of tramadol has been described [88]. Continuous flow
conditions have also been used to produce tramadol [83,84].
ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe authors are indebted to Dr. Yan Alsmeyer for encouragement and management support.
We also wish to express our appreciation to Dr. Yuri Goldberg for his guidance and to
Ms. Janet Mensah for her assistance in retrieving the cited literature and lastly many
thanks go to our colleagues in the laboratories who contributed material needed for the
preparation of this chapter.
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