PROFESSIONAL ENGLISH INTERMEDIATE ENGINEERING HANDBOOK Teacher Alejandra Cabrera Casillas Grammar: Students will be able to identify the parts of speech. Students will have mastered correct usage of parts of speech and basic punctuation marks. Students will be introduced to the following aspects of sentence structure: subjects and predicates, simple clauses, complex and compound sentences. Students will be introduced to the following punctuation marks: comma, apostrophe, semi-colon, colon, quotation marks, end marks and capitalization. Students will have a full working knowledge of sentence structure, including compound and complex sentences and clauses. Students will have mastered knowledge regarding clause and phrase structures. Students will understand and practice the following aspects of grammar: pronoun case, tenses and verbal phrases. 1. Parts of speech and their functions within sentences Nouns and nominals (infinitives, gerunds, etc.) Articles Verbs Pronouns Adjectives Adverbs Prepositions Conjunctions Interjections 2. THE MAIN ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE Subject Verbs and verb phrases Direct and indirect object(s) Complements with verbs that express feeling, appearing, being and seeming Modifiers (Adjectives and Adverbs) Clauses Phrases Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases 2 A. Types of sentences and their syntax E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 1 de 91
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Professional English Grammar Handbook INTERMEDIATE 2011
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PROFESSIONAL ENGLISH INTERMEDIATE ENGINEERING HANDBOOKTeacher Alejandra Cabrera CasillasGrammar:
Students will be able to identify the parts of speech. Students will have mastered correct usage of parts of speech and basic punctuation
marks. Students will be introduced to the following aspects of sentence structure: subjects and
predicates, simple clauses, complex and compound sentences. Students will be introduced to the following punctuation marks: comma, apostrophe,
semi-colon, colon, quotation marks, end marks and capitalization. Students will have a full working knowledge of sentence structure, including compound
and complex sentences and clauses. Students will have mastered knowledge regarding clause and phrase structures. Students will understand and practice the following aspects of grammar: pronoun case,
tenses and verbal phrases.
1. Parts of speech and their functions within sentences
Subject Verbs and verb phrases Direct and indirect object(s) Complements with verbs that express feeling, appearing, being and seeming Modifiers (Adjectives and Adverbs) Clauses Phrases Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases
Agreement Tense Sequence and consistency of tenses
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Regular Verbs Irregular Verbs Mood Active or passive voice Modals Phrasal verbs
REVIEW I.The Eight Parts of Speech
Noun: A word which is a person, place, thing or idea. Examples: Mount Everest, book, horse, Peter, strength, car, Empire State Building,
China, house, child Pronoun: A word that is used to take the place of a noun. Examples: I, they, their, ourselves, itself, your, my, nobody, who, which, her, we Adjective :A word that is used to describe a noun or pronoun. Examples: proud, purple, French, few, this, huge, sad, second, none Verb: A word that indicates an action, being or state or being. Examples: play, run, think, study, smell, wait, be, drive, renounce, fill Adverb: A word that is used to describe a verb which tells how, where, or when
something is done. Examples: carefully, often, very, intelligently, quite, too, rarely, never Conjunction: A word that is used to join words or groups of words. Examples: and, or, but, neither, because, while, since, although Preposition: A word used indicating the relationship of a noun or pronoun to another
word. Examples: in, until, of, from, after, under, beyond, across, toward Interjection: A single word used to express strong emotion. Examples: Wow! Ah! Oh! No!
Sentences
The basic element of English grammar is the sentence. A sentence, simply put, contains a subject and a predicate, and expresses a complete thought.Sentences can be quite complex, but in a simple sentence, someone or something performs an action. The subject of the sentence is the person or thing that performs the action. The predicate of the sentence is the action that is performed.
Consider the following examples:He runs.Subject: HePredicate: runsJoe ate dinner.Subject: JoePredicate: ate dinner
I am hungry.Subject: IPredicate: am hungryTuktoyaktuk is in the Arctic.Subject: TuktoyaktukPredicate: is in the Arctic
Sometimes the subject can be left out, if the sentence is giving a command. In the following examples, the subject is "you," and it is implied:Stop.Go away.Help me!
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SENTENCE STRUCTURES REVIEW
AFFIRMATIVESUBJECT VERB COMPLEMENT
WHAT WHERE WHEN
I bought a book in the library yesterday.He is tired.
Susan became an engineer.They got a fabulous painting.
Will and Susan jog in the park.
NEGATIVESUBJECT AUXILIARY
+NOT+VERBOBJECT COMPLEMENT
WHAT WHERE WHENHe didn’t leave the door open.We shouldn’t have elected him president of the U.S.A.They named her Jane.
INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES PATTERNS
There are 2 kinds of questions in English: “Yes/No Answer” questions and “Complete Answers” questions.
Yes/No Questions.
AUXILIARY VERB
SUBJECT MAIN VERB
COMPLEMENT ANSWER
Do you have money? Yes, I do. No, I don’t.
Has he got a cell phone? Yes, he has. No, he hasn’t.
QUESTION EXPRESSION-WORD
AUXILIARY VERB SUBJECT MAIN VERB COMPLEMENT?
Where can I find a café?
ANSWER: There is one on Montejo Avenue.
What kind of music do you like?
ANSWER: I like rock and classical music.
NOTE: The “Who” can have a special pattern:
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WHO AUXILIARY MAIN VERB COMPLEMENT?
Who can answer the phone?
Who XXXXXXXXXXX wants a banana?
COMPOUND SENTENCE
A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinator. The coordinators are as follows: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. (Helpful hint: The first letter of each of the coordinators spells FANBOYS.) Except for very short sentences, coordinators are always preceded by a comma. In the following compound sentences, subjects are in yellow, verbs are in green, and the coordinators and the commas that precede them are in red.
A. I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English. B. Alejandro played football, so Maria went shopping. C. Alejandro played football, for Maria went shopping.
The above three sentences are compound sentences. Each sentence contains two independent clauses, and they are joined by a coordinator with a comma preceding it. Note how the conscious use of coordinators can change the relationship between the clauses. Sentences B and C, for example, are identical except for the coordinators. In sentence B, which action occurred first? Obviously, "Alejandro played football" first, and as a consequence, "Maria went shopping. In sentence C, "Maria went shopping" first. In sentence C, "Alejandro played football" because, possibly, he didn't have anything else to do, for or because "Maria went shopping." How can the use of other coordinators change the relationship between the two clauses? What implications would the use of "yet" or "but" have on the meaning of the sentence?
COMPLEX SENTENCE
A complex sentence has an independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses. A complex sentence always has a subordinator such as because, since, after, although, or when or a relative pronoun such as that, who, or which. In the following complex sentences, subjects are in yellow, verbs are in green, and the subordinators and their commas (when required) are in red.
A. When he handed in his homework, he forgot to give the teacher the last page. B. The teacher returned the homework after she noticed the error. C. The students are studying because they have a test tomorrow.D. After they finished studying, Juan and Maria went to the movies. E. Juan and Maria went to the movies after they finished studying.
When a complex sentence begins with a subordinator such as sentences A and D, a comma is required at the end of the dependent clause. When the independent clause begins the sentence with subordinators in the middle as in sentences B, C, and E, no comma is required. If a comma is placed before the subordinators in sentences B, C, and E, it is wrong.
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Note that sentences D and E are the same except sentence D begins with the dependent clause which is followed by a comma, and sentence E begins with the independent clause which contains no comma. The comma after the dependent clause in sentence D is required, and experienced listeners of English will often hear a slight pause there. In sentence E, however, there will be no pause when the independent clause begins the sentence.
COMPLEX SENTENCES / ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
Finally, sentences containing adjective clauses (or dependent clauses) are also complex because they contain an independent clause and a dependent clause. The subjects, verbs, and subordinators are marked the same as in the previous sentences, and in these sentences, the independent clauses are also underlined.
A. The woman who(m) my mom talked to sells cosmetics .B. The book that Jonathan read is on the shelf .C. The house which Abraham Lincoln was born in is still standing .D. The town where I grew up is in the United States .
Adjective Clauses are studied in this site separately, but for now it is important to know that sentences containing adjective clauses are complex.
Tenses in English
In English, there are three basic tenses: present, past, and future. Each has a perfect form, indicating completed action; each has a progressive form, indicating ongoing action; and each has a perfect progressive form, indicating ongoing action that will be completed at some definite time. Here is a list of examples of these tenses and their definitions:
Simple Forms Progressive Forms Perfect FormsPerfect Progressive
Forms
Present take/s am/is/are taking have/has taken have/has been taking
Past took was/were taking had taken had been taking
Future will/shall take will be taking will have taken will have been taking
Simple Forms
Present Tense
Present tense expresses an unchanging, repeated, or reoccurring action or situation that exists only now. It can also represent a widespread truth.
Example Meaning
The mountains are tall and white. Unchanging action
Every year, the school council elects new members. Recurring action
Pb is the chemical symbol for lead. Widespread truth
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Past tense expresses an action or situation that was started and finished in the past. Most past tense verbs end in -ed. The irregular verbs have special past tense forms which must be memorized.
Example Form
W.W.II ended in 1945. Regular -ed past
Ernest Hemmingway wrote "The Old Man and the Sea." Irregular form
Future Tense
Future tense expresses an action or situation that will occur in the future. This tense is formed by using will/shall with the simple form of the verb.
The speaker of the House will finish her term in May of 1998.
The future tense can also be expressed by using am, is, or are with going to.
The surgeon is going to perform the first bypass in Minnesota.
We can also use the present tense form with an adverb or adverbial phrase to show future time.
The president speaks tomorrow. (Tomorrow is a future time adverb.)
Progressive Forms
Present Progressive Tense
Present progressive tense describes an ongoing action that is happening at the same time the statement is written. This tense is formed by using am/is/are with the verb form ending in -ing.
The sociologist is examining the effects that racial discrimination has on society.
Past Progressive Tense
Past progressive tense describes a past action which was happening when another action occurred. This tense is formed by using was/were with the verb form ending in -ing.
The explorer was explaining the lastest discovery in Egypt when protests began on the streets.
Future Progressive Tense
Future progressive tense describes an ongoing or continuous action that will take place in the future. This tense is formed by using will be or shall be with the verb form ending in -ing.
Dr. Jones will be presenting ongoing research on sexist language next week.
Perfect Forms
Present Perfect Tense
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Present perfect tense describes an action that happened at an indefinite time in the past or that began in the past and continues in the present.This tense is formed by using has/have with the past participle of the verb. Most past participles end in -ed. Irregular verbs have special past participles that must be memorized.
Example Meaning
The researchers have traveled to many countries in order to collect more significant data.
At an indefinite time
Women have voted in presidential elections since 1921.
Continues in the present
Past Perfect Tense
Past perfect tense describes an action that took place in the past before another past action. This tense is formed by using had with the past participle of the verb.
By the time the troops arrived, the war had ended.
Future Perfect Tense
Future perfect tense describes an action that will occur in the future before some other action. This tense is formed by using will have with the past participle of the verb.
By the time the troops arrive, the combat group will have spent several weeks waiting.
Perfect Progressive Forms
Present Perfect Progressive
Present perfect progressive tense describes an action that began in the past, continues in the present, and may continue into the future. This tense is formed by using has/have been and the present participle of the verb (the verb form ending in -ing).
The CEO has been considering a transfer to the state of Texas where profits would be larger.
Past Perfect Progressive
Past perfect progressive tense describes a past, ongoing action that was completed before some other past action. This tense is formed by using had been and the present perfect of the verb (the verb form ending in -ing).
Before the budget cuts, the students had been participating in many extracurricular activities.
Future Perfect Progressive
Future perfect progressive tense describes a future, ongoing action that will occur before some specified future time. This tense is formed by using will have been and the present participle of the verb (the verb form ending in -ing).
By the year 2020, linguists will have been studying and defining the Indo-European language family for more than 200 years.
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What are transitive verbs?
Transitive verbs take objects. That is, these verbs carry the action of a subject and apply it to an object. They tells us what the subject (agent) does to something else (object). Examples: He bought a shirt. (agent) (did something) (object- answers the question "what?")
She brushes her hair every hour. Marina will lose the race.Note that the transitive verb can take any tense
What are intransitive verbs?
Intransitive verbs do not take an object; they express actions that do not require the agent's doing something to something else. Examples: Tom danced.
The intransitive verb "danced" is a complete action by itself and does not require a direct object to receive the action.
They ran down the road.
They ran, but they do not run "something" in this sentence. The sentence contains no object.
Jack fell on the rocks in the alley.
Tip: Some verbs can function as both transitive and intransitive verbs. Example: intransitive: She dances. transitive: She dances the rhumba.
Linking Verbs
Linking verbs link the relationship between the agent and the rest of the sentence. They explain the connection between the subject and its complement or that which completes the subject's description.
The most common linking verb is "to be." Some other linking verbs are:
Examples: Opera seems overly dramatic to the music novice.
"overly dramatic" describes the agent or subject "opera" but it does not express an action that "opera" performs.
He appeared jubilant at the news of the inheritance.
I am pathetically inept in such situations.
He is a doctor of bioethics.
Note: while "a doctor" answers the question "what?" the verb is not an action verb, but rather a "state of being" verb. Therefore, is is not a transitive verb; it links the subject
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(he) with his state of being (doctor).
Remember, however, if what follows the verb can provide an answer to the question "what," then the verb is not a linking verb.
Compare: He tastes the soup as he cooks it.
"tastes" is transitive: he tastes "what?"
The fruit tastes rotten.
"rotten" describes or complements the state of the fruit, and therefore tastes links the agent (fruit) and its condition (rotten).Problem:
The two pair of verbs lay/lie and raise/rise are often misused. In each set there is a transitive verb and an intransitive verb, but they are often confused because of their similar sounds.
LIE is intransitive and means to recline or be situated.LAY is transitive and means to place or put something.
RISE is intransitive and means to get up.RAISE is transitive and means to lift something up. (Intr.) (Tr.) (Intr.) (Tr.)Infinitive lie lay rise raisePast Tense lay laid rose raisedPast Participle lain laid risen raisedPresent Participle lying laying rising raisingS-form lies lays rises raises
Examples:
Intr: She lay on the couch watching television. Tr: He laid the child gently on the bed. Intr: The alligator rose out of the water. Tr: She raised the child above the crowd, so he could see.
Identify whether the highlighted verb or compound verb is used transitively or intransitively:
1. The old woman struggled up the hill, pulling a grocery cart that had lost one wheel behind her.
2. Hermione is editing her uncle's memoirs of his lifetime as a green grocer.
3. Much to the amusement of the onlookers, Paul danced a minuet to the polka music that drifted out of the beer tent.
4. At the beginning of the play, the entire cast dances manically across the stage.
5. Stella is reading quietly in the upstairs bedroom instead of doing her chores.
6. This term I am reading all of the works of Sylvia Townsend Warner.
7. At the feast, we will eat heartily.
8. Charles opened up his lunch, examined the contents carefully, and ate his dessert first.
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9. The Stephens sisters are both very talented; Virginia writes and Vanessa paints.
10. When I was three years old, my father left a can of paint open in my bedroom, and early one morning, I painted my baby brother's face green.
ClausesA clause is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate. An independent clause can form a sentence all by itself. Every sentence contains at least one independent clause. A sentence can also contain one or more subordinate clauses. Two independent clauses can even be linked together in one sentence.
Independent ClausesAn independent clause can stand on its own as a complete sentence. Here are some simple examples:It is warm outside.I am done my work.I am going for a walk.
Independent clauses can be linked together with a semicolon or with coordinating conjunctions. Coordinating conjunctions are words like "and," "but," and "yet."It is warm outside, and I am done my work.It is even possible to link more than two independent clauses in one sentence:It is warm outside, I am done my work, and I am going for a walk.
Dependent ClausesA dependent clause cannot stand on its own as a complete sentence. Usually, the dependent clause begins with a linking word that makes it dependent. If the first word was removed, the dependent clause could stand on its own as an independent clause. Here are some examples of dependent clauses:Although it is earlyBecause of the summer sunWhile the sun is up
Here are some examples of a dependent clause linked to an independent clause:Although it is early, I am done my work.It is warm outside because of the summer sun.I am going for a walk while the sun is up.
Active Voice
In sentences written in active voice, the subject performs the action expressed in the verb; the subject acts.
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In each example above, the subject of the sentence performs the action expressed in the verb.
You can see examples of all the verb tenses in active voice at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_tenses2.html.
Passive Voice
In sentences written in passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed in the verb; the subject is acted upon. The agent performing the action may appear in a "by the . . ." phrase or may be omitted.
(agent performing action has been omitted.)
Sometimes the use of passive voice can create awkward sentences, as in the last example above. Also, overuse of passive voice throughout an essay can cause your prose to seem flat and uninteresting. In scientific writing, however, passive voice is more readily accepted since using it allows one to write without using personal pronouns or the names of particular researchers as the subjects of sentences (see the third example above). This practice helps to create the appearance of an objective, fact-based discourse because writers can present research and conclusions without attributing them to particular agents. Instead, the writing appears to convey information that is not limited or biased by individual perspectives or personal interests.
You can recognize passive-voice expressions because the verb phrase will always include a form of be, such as am, is, was, were, are, or been. The presence of a be-verb, however, does not necessarily mean that the sentence is in passive voice. Another way to recognize passive-voice sentences is that they may include a "by the..." phrase after the verb; the agent performing the action, if named, is the object of the preposition in this phrase.
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You can see examples of all the verb tenses in passive voice at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_tenses2.html.
Choosing Active Voice
In most nonscientific writing situations, active voice is preferable to passive for the majority of your sentences. Even in scientific writing, overuse of passive voice or use of passive voice in long and complicated sentences can cause readers to lose interest or to become confused. Sentences in active voice are generally--though not always-- clearer and more direct than those in passive voice.
passive (indirect) active (direct):
Sentences in active voice are also more concise than those in passive voice because fewer words are required to express action in active voice than in passive.
passive (more wordy) active (more concise)
Changing passive to active
If you want to change a passive-voice sentence to active voice, find the agent in a "by the..." phrase, or consider carefully who or what is performing the action expressed in the verb. Make that agent the subject of the sentence, and change the verb accordingly. Sometimes you will need to infer the agent from the surrounding sentences which provide context. E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 12 de 83
Passive Voice Agent Changed to Active Voice
most of the class
agent not specified; most likely agents such as "the researchers"
the CIA director and his close advisors
agent not specified; most likely agents such as "we"
Choosing Passive Voice
While active voice helps to create clear and direct sentences, sometimes writers find that using an indirect expression is rhetorically effective in a given situation, so they choose passive voice. Also, as mentioned above, writers in the sciences conventionally use passive voice more often than writers in other discourses. Passive voice makes sense when the agent performing the action is obvious, unimportant, or unknown or when a writer wishes to postpone mentioning the agent until the last part of the sentence or to avoid mentioning the agent at all. The passive voice is effective in such circumstances because it highlights the action and what is acted upon rather than the agent performing the action.
active passive
The dispatcher is notifying police that three prisoners have escaped.
Police are being notified that three prisoners have escaped.
Surgeons successfully performed a new experimental liver-transplant operation yesterday.
A new experimental liver-transplant operation was performed successfully yesterday.
"Authorities make rules to be broken," he said defiantly.
"Rules are made to be broken," he said defiantly.
In each of these examples, the passive voice makes sense because the agent is relatively unimportant compared to the action itself and what is acted upon.
Changing active to passive
If you want to change an active-voice sentence to passive voice, consider carefully who or what is performing the action expressed in the verb, and then make that agent the object of a "by the..." phrase. Make what is acted upon the subject of the sentence, and change the verb to a form of be + past participle. Including an explicit "by the..." phrase is optional.E.I. ALEJANDRA CABRERA CASILLAS, C.P.E. Página 13 de 83
Active Voice Agent Changed to Passive Voice
The presiding officer
The leaders
The scientists
In each of these examples, the passive voice is useful for highlighting the action and what is acted upon instead of the agent.
What are Modal Verbs?
Modal verbs are special verbs which behave very differently from normal verbs. Here are some important differences:
1. Modal verbs do not take "-s" in the third person.
Examples:
He can speak Chinese.
She should be here by 9:00.
2. You use "not" to make modal verbs negative, even in Simple Present and Simple Past.
Examples:
He should not be late.
They might not come to the party.
3. Many modal verbs cannot be used in the past tenses or the future tenses.
Examples:
He will can go with us. Not Correct
She must study very hard. Not Correct
Common Modal Verbs Can Could May Might Must
Ought to Shall Should Will Would
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For the purposes of this tutorial, we have included some expressions which are not modal verbs including had better, have to, and have got to. These expressions are closely related to modals in meaning and are often interchanged with them.
ModalTraditional definitions
Present/Future Past
can ability I can juggle. I could juggle when I was young.
can request Can I look at your costumes?
can permissionYou can look at my costumes.
can possibilityYou can pet the lion if you want.
can past ability I could juggle when I was young.
could requestCould you hold this for me?
could possibilityI could be up there right now.
I could have been juggling now.
may request(formal) May I pet the lion?
may permission(formal)Yes, you may pet the lion.
may probabilityThe trapeze artist may be tired after the show.
The acrobats may have performed already.
might slight probabilityThe clown might be tired, too.
The elephants might have performed, too.
shall polite questionShall we go say hello to the crown?
shall formal futureLadies and gentlemen, the circus shall begin shortly.
should adviceJugglers should practice everyday.
I should have tried juggling.
should expectationThe circus should begin in a minute.
They should have started by now.
must necessityChildren must be careful around lions.
The children had to leave before the clowns began.
must logical deduction
The lion does not hurt his trainer. They must have known each other for a long time.
They must be friends. They must have known each other for a long time.
will intention or promiseWe will see the seals today.
will future time certaintyWe will see them by 9:30.
would past time habit When I was young, we would go to the circus.
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would conditional3I were you, I would be careful around the lions.
would polite questionWould you mind if I borrow your make up today?
would preferenceI would rather juggle than do trapeze stunts.
I would rather have juggled than done trapeze stunts.
Sentences in English can be simple, brief, and clear, or they can be elaborate and marvelously complex. Make sure that each sentence expresses a complete thought, and enjoy the wonderful range of choices that English offers.
THERE IS AN EXERCISE WHICH WILL HELP YOU READ AND UNDERSTAND ENGLISH
SENTENCES MUCH BETTER; THIS IS DIAGRAMMING.
As you surely can remember; a sentence (to be a sentence) at the very least must have a Subject (noun or pronoun) and a Predicate (verb). The remaining words in a sentence serve to describe, clarify or give us more information about the subject or the verb. A diagram arranges the parts of a sentence like a picture in order to show the relationship of words and groups of words within the sentence. Let us take a look at how this is done. We will begin learning how to diagram sentences and use this tool to become better readers and writers.
Step #1
Look for the VERB in the sentence. A verb is a word that shows action (dance, sing, walk, run, etc.) or state of being (am, is, are, was, were, etc.)
Ask the question, "What action is taking place, or what happened in the sentence?" The answer you get will let you know which word (or group of words) serves as the verb in the sentence. The VERB is placed on the right hand side of the base line.
Examples:
Aunt Polly punished Tom for ditching school.
Tom started a fight with the new boy in town.
Try these:
Tom’s friends were painting the fence for him.
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Huck Finn was a homeless boy.
Step #2
Find the SUBJECT of the verb (the person or thing that performs the action).
Ask the question, "Who? or What?" before the verb. The answer you get will let you know which word (or group of words) serves as the subject of the verb. The SUBJECT is placed on the left hand side of the base line.
Examples:
Aunt Polly punished Tom for ditching school.
Tom started a fight with the new boy in town.
Try these:
Tom’s friends were painting the fence for him.
Huck Finn was a homeless boy.
Step #3
Find the DIRECT OBJECT. (If there is one in the sentence, it is the person or thing that receives the action of the verb.)
Ask the question, "Whom? or What?" after the verb. The answer you get will let you know which word serves as the direct object of the verb. The DIRECT OBJECT is placed on the base line to the right of the verb separated by a line that goes upward from the base line.
Examples:
Aunt Polly punished Tom for ditching school.
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Tom started a fight with the new boy in town.
Now try these:
We will buy a farm.The evil beauty killed a man.
Step #4
Look for ARTICLES (a, an, the) or POSSESSIVES (my, your, his, hers, its, their, Joe’s, Maria’s, etc.) Ask the question, "Whose?" ARTICLES and POSSESSIVES are attached to the base line beneath the word they describe.
Examples:
Tom’s friends were painting the fence for him.
Now try these:
A child has painted the toy.
June’s son is my friend.
Step #5
Look for ADJECTIVES (words that describe or limit a noun or pronoun). Ask the questions, " Which one? How many? What kind? What size? What color? " ADJECTIVES are connected beneath the words they modify.
Examples:
Becky Thatcher wore two long braids
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Tom’s little brother discovered the black thread.
Huck Finn was a homeless boy.
Cathy has become a great dancer.Her strict father wanted to whip the naughty boy.
Step #6
Look for ADVERBS (words that modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs). Ask the questions, "How? When? Where? How much? Why?" ADVERBS are connected beneath the words they modify.
Examples:
Injun Joe ran away.
Huck bravely saved the Widow Douglas
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Now, try these:
Now Cathy started early every morning.Nobody could clearly notice her true plans.
Step #7
Look for PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. (These are groups of words that begin with a preposition and end with a noun or pronoun which is the object of the preposition. Together they serve the same function as an adjective or an adverb.) PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES are connected beneath the line of the words they modify.
Examples:
Huck overheard a conversation between two men.
Tom was exploring the cave with Becky.
The two of them were lost in the cave.
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Now, try these:
Cathy had learned about her true story.The Big Bad Wolf had run through the forest.
Now let's put what you have learned into practice. Try these sentences:
We read a book about Tom Sawyer in English class.
Each student made a report on a chapter from the story.
These are more examples.
Simple subject and predicate
Samson slept.
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Understood subject (for commands, directives)
Sit!
Questions
Where are you going?
What were you reading this morning?
Whose bike were you using?
May I postpone this assignment?
Compound predicate
The cat howled and scratched ferociously.
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Compound subject and predicate
Juanita and Celso worked hard and then rested.
Three subjects
Juanita, Federica, and Celso are working.
Direct object
Tashonda sent e-mail.
Compound direct objects
Tashonda sent cards and letters.
Three direct objects
Tashonda sent e-mail, cards, and letters.
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Compound predicate with direct objects
Joselyn cooked breakfast and ate it.
Compound predicate with one direct object
Samantha proofreads and edits her essays.
Compound adverbs
Dr. Turveydrop waited patiently and quietly at the door.
Prepositional phrase
Charles is working in the garden.
Prepositional phrase modifying another prepositional phrase
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Preposition with compound objects
The thought of getting up and working is alarming.
Prepositional phrase modifying an adverb
Carlita does her best work early during the semester.
Prepositional Phrase as Subjective Complement
She felt under the weather..
Participle
The crumbling bridge must be repaired.
Participle/Participial Phrase
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The screaming crowd watched the bridge falling into the river.
Gerund phrase as subject
Working hard can be profitable.
Gerund phrase as sentence object
Terminita hates eating broccoli.
NOMINALS
Nominals consist of any grammatical structure that can fill the same function as a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence.
Present Participles (the -ing form of the verb) when used to substitute for a noun phrase are called gerunds. Examples:
Drinking makes me sick.Telling the truth was her doom.The man couldn`t believe her constant lying.
Other kind of nominals are infinitives (to run, to buy) Examples:
To wait for a chance was her only option.Harry Potter knew that to learn spells was necessary.
Clauses: Clauses used in this way are called nominal clauses. Nominal clauses are introducedby two methods: the expletive that and interrogative words, such as what or how. However, there is one form of a nominal that is not a substitute for a noun phrase. Instead it simply duplicates the noun phrase and occurs in the same slot. These structures are called appositives.
An appositive is imply a noun phrase placed next to another noun phrase, as in this sentence:
Sophie, my German shepherd, died last year.
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The underlined phrase is the appositive. It simply provides extra information about who Sophie is. Because the appositive in this sentence provides extra information—that is its only purpose—it is set off from the rest of the sentence by commas. Sometimes, the appositive provides information necessary to the meaning of the sentence. In this sentence, for example, I am describing a situation in which I have two dogs:
My dog Sophie can catch a Frisbee in her teeth. Grice, on the other hand, was never able tomaster this trick.
In this case, the appositive “Sophie” is not set off with commas because it provides information that is necessary to the meaning of the sentence. The appositive is being used to identify which dog I am talking about. Notice that this is the same principle that you use to determine when to put commas around a relative clause. It is as if there is such a thing as a restrictive appositive and a nonrestrictive appositive. Only the latter uses commas.
RESTATING:
Gerund is the name given to a present participle when it substitutes for a noun phrase. Not all -ing verbs are gerunds. A gerund can fill any one of the NP (noun phrases) slots as described in the opposite column:
Subject: Running through the kitchen has become Bonnie’s favoriteactivity. Direct object: Bonnie really likes running.Subject complement: One of her favorite activities is running.Object of preposition: Bonnie can burn up extra energy in the evening by running around the backyard.
The “it” test: The easiest way to detect a gerund is to see if you can substitute the word “it” or “something” for the phrase that you think is a gerund. For example, for the sentence above, we would come up with these sentences:
EXAMPLE:It has become Bonnie’s favorite activity. What is it? RUNNING.
Bonnie really likes it. What does Bonnie really like? RUNNING.
One of her favorite activities is something. What is that something? RUNNING.
Bonnie can burn up extra energy in the evening by something. What is that something? RUNNING!
Notice that the -ing constructions in the following sentences fails the “it” test:
Running around the house, Bonnie slipped on the corner in the kitchen.Bonnie was running past the bed when Charlie jumped on her.
They fail this test because there are no gerunds in these sentences. It is important to recognize that a gerund has a pattern of its own that is based on the sentence that it comes from. In the sentence above, the gerund comes from a Type VI sentence like “Bonnie runs.” But in the sentence below, the underlying pattern is morecomplex:Bonnie’s favorite activity is chasing the cat.
ADJECTIVES: An adjective’s job is to modify a noun or pronoun. They are always near the noun or pronoun they are describing. Be careful how you use adjectives such as interesting, beautiful, great, wonderful, or exciting. Many adjectives like these are overused and add little definition to a sentence.
Adjectives are often used to describe the degree of modification.
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The adjective forms are positive, comparative, and superlative.
This tree is tall. (positive)
That tree is taller. (comparative)
The last tree in the row is the tallest. (superlative)
A handful of adjectives have irregular forms of positive, comparative, and superlative usage.
These include:
good/better/best,
bad/worse/worst,
little/less/least,
much-many-some/more/most,
far/further/furthest.
My lunch was good, hers was better, and yours was the best.
Proper adjectives are derived from proper nouns. They commonly describe something in terms
of nationality, religious affiliation, or culture. Like proper nouns, proper adjectives have their first
letter capitalized. Some examples of proper adjectives include:
American
French
Japanese
Latino
Asian
Australian
Catholic
Lutheran
Jewish
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Descriptive AdjectivesDescriptive adjectives can be divided into different categories such as colors, sizes, sound, taste, touch, shapes, qualities, time, personality and ages. The following lists provide a few examples of descriptive adjectives in each of their categories:
Colors are adjectives - list: black, blue, white, green, red Sizes - list: big, small, large, thin, thick
How these forms are created depends on how many syllables there are in the adjective. Syllables are like "sound beats". For instance, "sing" contains one syllable, but "singing" contains two -- sing and ing. Here are the rules:
Adjective form Comparative Superlative
Only one syllable, ending in E. Examples:wide, fine, cute
Add -R:wider, finer, cuter
Add -ST:widest, finest, cutest
Only one syllable, with one vowel and one consonant at the end. Examples:hot, big, fat
Double the consonant, and add -ER:hotter, bigger, fatter
Double the consonant, and add -EST:hottest, biggest, fattest
Only one syllable, with more than one vowel or more than one consonant at the end. Examples:light, neat, fast
Add -ER:lighter, neater, faster
Add -EST:lightest, neatest, fastest
Two syllables, ending in Y. Examples:happy, silly, lonely
Change Y to I, then add -ER:happier, sillier, lonelier
Change Y to I, then add -EST:happiest, silliest, loneliest
Two syllables or more, not ending in Y. Examples:modern, interesting, beautiful
Use MORE before the adjective:more modern, more interesting, more beautiful
Use MOST before the adjective:most modern, most interesting, most beautiful
How to use comparatives and superlatives
Comparatives are used to compare two things. You can use sentences with THAN, or you can use a conjunction like BUT. Examples:
Jiro is taller than Yukio. Yukio is tall, but Jiro is taller. Yuriko is more handsome than Julio.
Sonia is more intelligent.
Superlatives are used to compare more than two things. Superlative sentences usually use THE, because there is only one superlative. Examples:
Masami is the tallest in the class. Yukio is tall, and Jiro is taller, but Masami is the tallest. Sue is the most attractive girl in the class.
June is the most gorgeous.
Adjective Placement
When using more than one adjective to describe a noun place the adjectives in the following order before the noun.
NOTE: We usually use no more than three adjectives preceding a noun.
1. Opinion Example: an interesting book, a boring lecture
2. Dimension Example: a big apple, a thin wallet
3. Age Example: a new car, a modern building, an ancient ruin
4. Shape Example: a square box, an oval mask, a round ball
5. Color Example: a pink hat, a blue book, a black coat
6. Origin Example: some Italian shoes, a Canadian town, an American car
7. Material Example: a wooden box, a woolen sweater, a plastic toy
Here are some examples of nouns modified with three adjectives in the correct order based on the list above. Notice that the adjectives are not separated by commas.
A wonderful old Italian clock. (opinion - age - origin) A big square blue box. (dimension - shape - color) A disgusting pink plastic ornament. (opinion - color - material) Some slim new French trousers. (dimension - age - origin)
Some examples of adjective order
Opinion Size Age Shape Colour Origin Material Purpose
a silly young English man
a huge round metal bowl
a small red sleeping bag
Which is the correct order?1. a Canadian small thin lady2. a carving steel new knife3. a sailing beautiful blue boat4. a square wooden old table
5. an exciting French new band6. a red big plastic hat7. a Japanese small serving bowl8. a dirty cotton old tie
Regular Verbs List
There are thousands of regular verbs in English. This is a list of 600 of the more common regular verbs. Note that there are some spelling variations in American English (for example, "practise" becomes "practice" in American English).
talk tame tap taste tease telephone tempt terrify test
thank
thaw tick tickle tie time tip tire touch tour
tow
trace trade train transport trap travel treat tremble trick trip
trot trouble trust try tug tumble turn twist
type
undress
unfasten
unite
unlock
unpack untidy
use
vanish visit
wail wait walk wander want warm warn
wash
waste watch water wave weigh welcome whine
whip
whirl whisper whistle wink wipe wish wobble
wonder
work worry wrap wreck wrestle
wriggle
x-ray yawn yell zip zoom
IRREGULAR VERBS
Infinitive Simple Past Past Participle Spanish
arise arose arisen surgir
be was / were been ser
beat beat beaten golpear
become became become convertirse
begin
began begun
comenzar
bet bet/betted bet/betted apostar
bite bit bitten morder
bleed bled bled sangrar
blow blew blown soplar
break broke broken romper
bring brought brought traer
build built built construir
buy bought bought comprar
catch caught caught atrapar
choose chose chosen elegir
come came come venir
cost cost cost costar
creep crept crept arrastrarse
cut
cut cut
cortar
deal dealt dealt dar, repartir
do did done hacer
draw drew drawn dibujar
dream dreamt/dreamed dreamt/dreamed soñar
drink drank drunk beber
drive drove driven conducir
eat ate eaten comer
fall fell fallen caer
feed fed fed alimentar
feel felt felt sentir
fight fought fought pelear
find found found encontrar
flee fled fled huir
fly flew flown volar
forget forgot forgotten olvidar
forgive forgave forgiven perdonar
forsake forsook forsaken abandonar
freeze froze frozen congelar
get got got tener, obtener
give gave given dar
go went gone ir
grind ground ground moler
grow grew grown crecer
hang hung hung colgar
have had had tener
hear heard heard oír
hide hid hidden esconderse
hit hit hit golpear
hold held held tener, mantener
hurt hurt hurt herir, doler
keep kept kept guardar
kneel knelt knelt arrodillarse
know knew known saber
lead led led encabezar
learn learnt/learned learnt/learned aprender
leave left left dejar
lend lent lent prestar
let let let dejar
lie lay lain yacer
lose lost lost perder
make made made hacer
mean meant meant significar
meet met met conocer, encontrar
pay paid paid pagar
put put put poner
quit quit/quitted quit/quitted abandonar
read read read leer
ride rode ridden montar, ir
ring rang rung llamar por teléfono
rise rose risen elevar
run ran run correr
say said said decir
see saw seen ver
sell sold sold vender
send sent sent enviar
set set set fijar
sew sewed sewn/sewed coser
shake shook shaken sacudir
shine shone shone brillar
shoot shot shot disparar
show showed shown/showed mostrar
shrink shrank/shrunk shrunk encoger
shut shut shut cerrar
sing sang sung cantar
sink sank sunk hundir
sit sat sat sentarse
sleep slept slept dormir
slide slid slid deslizar
sow sowed sown/sowed sembrar
speak spoke spoken hablar
spell spelt/spelled spelt/spelled deletrear
spend spent spent gastar
spill spilt/spilled spilt/spilled derramar
split split split partir
spoil spoilt/spoiled spoilt/spoiled estropear
spread spread spread extenderse
stand stood stood estar de pie
steal stole stolen robar
sting stung stung picar
stink stank/stunk stunk apestar
strike struck struck golpear
swear swore sworn jurar
sweep swept swept barrer
swim swam swum nadar
take took taken tomar
teach taught taught enseñar
tear tore torn romper
tell told told decir
think thought thought pensar
throw threw thrown lanzar
tread trode trodden/trod pisar
wake woke woken despertarse
wear wore worn llevar puesto
weave wove woven tejer
weep wept wept llorar
win won won ganar
wring wrung wrung retorcer
write wrote written escribir
List of Common Adverbs
A
abnormally
absentmindedly
accidentally
acidly
actually
adventurously
afterwards
almost
always
angrily
annually
anxiously
arrogantly
awkwardly
B
badly
bashfully
beautifully
bitterly
bleakly
blindly
blissfully
boastfully
boldly
bravely
briefly
brightly
briskly
broadly
busily
C
calmly
carefully
carelessly
cautiously
certainly
cheerfully
clearly
cleverly
closely
coaxingly
colorfully
commonly
continually
coolly
correctly
courageously
crossly
cruelly
curiously
D
daily
daintily
dearly
deceivingly
delightfully
deeply
defiantly
deliberately
delightfully
diligently
dimly
doubtfully
dreamily
E
easily
elegantly
energetically
enormously
enthusiastically
equally
especially
even
evenly
eventually
exactly
excitedly
extremely
F
fairly
faithfully
famously
far
fast
fatally
ferociously
fervently
fiercely
fondly
foolishly
fortunately
frankly
frantically
freely
frenetically
frightfully
fully
furiously
G
generally
generously
gently
gladly
gleefully
gracefully
gratefully
greatly
greedily
H
happily
hastily
healthily
heavily
helpfully
helplessly
highly
honestly
hopelessly
hourly
hungrily
I
immediately
innocently
inquisitively
instantly
intensely
intently
interestingly
inwardly
irritably
J
jaggedly
jealously
joshingly
joyfully
joyously
jovially
jubilantly
judgementally
justly
K
keenly
kiddingly
kindheartedly
kindly
kissingly
knavishly
knottily
knowingly
knowledgeably
kookily
L
lazily
less
lightly
likely
limply
lively
loftily
longingly
loosely
lovingly
loudly
loyally
M
madly
majestically
meaningfully
mechanically
merrily
miserably
mockingly
monthly
more
mortally
mostly
mysteriously
N
naturally
nearly
neatly
needily
nervously
never
nicely
noisily
not
O
obediently
obnoxiously
oddly
offensively
officially
often
only
openly
optimistically
overconfidently
owlishly
P
painfully
partially
patiently
perfectly
physically
playfully
politely
poorly
positively
potentially
powerfully
promptly
properly
punctually
Q
quaintly
quarrelsomely
queasily
queerly
questionably
questioningly
quicker
quickly
quietly
quirkily
quizzically
R
rapidly
rarely
readily
really
reassuringly
recklessly
regularly
reluctantly
repeatedly
reproachfully
restfully
righteously
rightfully
rigidly
roughly
rudely
S
sadly
safely
scarcely
scarily
searchingly
sedately
seemingly
seldom
selfishly
separately
seriously
shakily
sharply
sheepishly
shrilly
shyly
silently
sleepily
slowly
smoothly
softly
solemnly
solidly
sometimes
soon
speedily
stealthily
sternly
strictly
successfully
suddenly
surprisingly
suspiciously
sweetly
swiftly
sympathetically
T
tenderly
tensely
terribly
thankfully
thoroughly
thoughtfully
tightly
tomorrow
too
tremendously
triumphantly
truly
truthfully
U
ultimately
unabashedly
unaccountably
unbearably
unethically
unexpectedly
unfortunately
unimpressively
unnaturally
unnecessarily
utterly
upbeat
upliftingly
upright
upside-down
upward
upwardly
urgently
usefully
uselessly
usually
utterly
V
vacantly
vaguely
vainly
valiantly
vastly
verbally
very
viciously
victoriously
violently
vivaciously
voluntarily
W
warmly
weakly
wearily
well
wetly
wholly
wildly
willfully
wisely
woefully
wonderfully
worriedly
wrongly
Using Adverb Clauses
What is an Adverb Clause?
"He saw Mary when he was in New York" and "They studied hard because they had a test" are adverb clauses. Adverb clauses express when, why, opposition and conditions and are dependent clauses. This means that an adverb clause can not stand by itself - in other words, "When he went to New York." is not a complete sentence. It needs to be completed by an independent clause. Example: He went to the Guggenheim museum when he was in New York.
Punctuation
When an adverb clause begins the sentence use a comma to separate the two clauses. Example: As soon as he arrives, we will have some lunch.. When the adverb clause finishes the sentence there is no need for a comma. Example: He gave me a call when he arrived in town.
List of Words (subordinating conjunctions) Introducing Adverb Clauses
TIME CAUSE AND EFFECT OPPOSITION CONDITION
after, before, when, while, as, by the time (that), as soon as, since, until, whenever, the first time (that), the next time (that), the last time (that), every time (that) -
because, since, as, as long as, so long as, due to the fact that -
although, even though, though, whereas, while -
if, only if, unless, whether (or not), even if, providing (that), in case (that), provided (that), in the event (that) -
Adverb Clauses Showing Cause and Effect (because, as, since, etc.)
Adverb Clauses Expressing Conditions (if, unless, only if, even if, etc.)
Adverb Clauses with Time Expressions (when, as soon as, before, etc.)
Adverb Clauses Expressing Opposition (though, even though, whereas, etc.)
Collocations
have do makehave a bathhave a drink
have a good timehave a haircuthave a holidayhave a problem
have a relationshiphave a resthave lunch
have sympathy
do businessdo nothing
do someone a favourdo the cooking
do the houseworkdo the shopping
do the washing updo your bestdo your hair
do your homework
make a differencemake a mess
make a mistakemake a noisemake an effortmake furnituremake money
make progressmake room
make trouble
take break catchtake a break break a habit catch a ball
(to) lay off: despedir/ dejar en paz, dejar de molestar/ parar.
(to) lay on: facilitar, suministrar/ cargar.
(to) lay out: tender, extender/ disponer, colocar/ presentar, exponer/ hacer el trazado de/ diseñar/ dejar fuera de combate/ desembolsar.
(to) lay over: hacer una parada ((at/in, en)): (plane) hacer escala ((at/in, en)).
(to) lay up: almacenar.
(to) leave off: dejar de/ acabar, terminar.
(to) leave out: omitir, excluir/ excluir.
(to) let down: bajar/ alargar/ desinflar/ fallar, defraudar.
(to) let in: dejar entrar.
(to) let into: dejar entrar / incrustar en/ revelar.
(to) let off: dejar/ hacer explotar/ hacer estallar/ perdonar/ dejar marcharse/ dejar en libertad.
(to) let on: decir, descubrir/ hacer ver.
(to) let out: dejar salir/ soltar ((from, de))/ soltar: he let out a shriek of pain, soltó un grito de dolor/ ensanchar/ divulgar, hacer público,-a/ alquilar.
(to) let through: dejar pasar.
(to) let up: parar.
(to) let up on: dejar en paz.
(to) look after: ocuparse de, atender a/ cuidar (de).
(to) look ahead: mirar hacia adelante.
(to) look at: mirar, considerer/ mirar.
(to) look back: mirar atrás.
(to) look down on: despreciar.
(to) look for: buscar.
(to) look forward to: esperar (con ansia).
(to) look in on: pasar (un momento) por.
(to) look into: investigar.
(to) look on: considerer/observar.
(to) look like: parecerse a.
(to) look onto: dar a.
(to) look out: ir con cuidado, buscarse.
(to) look out for: esperar, estar al tanto.
(to) look over: mirar por encima.
(to) look round: volver la cabeza/ mirar/ mirar/ visitar.
(to) look through: revisar/ ojear.
(to) look to: contar con/ centrarse en.
(to) look up: mejorar/ consultar, buscar/ ir a ver.
(to) look up to: respetar.
(to) make after: seguir a, perseguir a.
(to) make for: dirigirse hacia/ abalanzarse sobre/ contribuir a, crear, conducir a.
(to) make into: convertir en, transformar en.
(to) make of: pensar, opinar, parecer/ entender/ dar importancia a.
(to) make off: escaparse, largarse, huir.
(to) make off with / make away with: llevarse, escaparse con.
(to) make out: hacer/ extender, hacer/ redactor/ distinguir, divisar/ descifrar/ entender, comprender/ pretender, hacerse pasar por/ arreglárselas, apañárselas/ darse el lote, pegarse el lote.
(to) make over: ceder, transferir, traspasar/convertir, transformar.
(to) make up: inventar/hacer/ montar/ preparer/ componer/ confeccionar, hacer/ completer/ componer, formar, integrar/ representar/ maquillar/ compensar/ cubrir/ suplir/ recuperar/ maquillarse, pintarse/ hacer las paces, reconciliarse.
(to) make up for: compensar.
(to) make up to: halagar a/ congraciarse con/ recompensar, pagar.
(to) make with: dar, traer.
(to) mark down: rebajar el precio de/ bajar la nota de/ apuntar.
(to) mark off: separar, dividir, distinguir/ delimiter/ tachar.
(to) mark out: marcar, delimiter/ marcar, trazar/ señalar, seleccionar.
(to) mark up: subir (el precio de), aumentar (el precio de)/ subir la nota de.
(to) pick up on: hacer reseña de/ volver a/ señalar.
(to) pitch forward: caer de bruces, caer de cabeza.
(to) pitch in: empezar/empezar a comer/ cooperar/ contribuir.
(to) pitch into: emprender enérgicamente algo/ atacar, arremeter contra, poner como un trapo.
(to) pitch off: quitar de encima, sacudir/ caer.
(to) pitch out: tirar/ echar, expulsar, poner de patitas en la calle.
(to) pitch over: tirar/ volcarse.
(to) pitch (up) on: elegir, escoger/ encontrar, dar con.
(to) pull about: manosear, estropear.
(to) pull along: arrastrar/arrastrarse.
(to) pull apart: romper, partir en dos/ desmontar/ criticar duramente/ separar, despegar, desunir.
(to) pull away: arrancar/ quitar arrancando/ adelantarse/ seguir remando, tirar enérgicamente de los remos/ apartarse bruscamente de uno.
(to) pull back: retirar/ retener, tirar hacia atrás/ tirar hacia sí, descorrer/ remontar un gol/retirar/ contenerse/ rajarse.
(to) pull down: bajar, tirar hacia abajo, rebajar, hacer caer, tumbar/ derribar, demoler, derribar/ debilitar/ ganar.
(to) pull in: tirar hacia sí/ recoger/ cobrar/ detener/ enfrenar/ ganar/ atraer/ parar/ llegar a la estación/ apretarse el cinturón.
(to) pull off: arrancar, separar/ quitar de un tirón/quitarse de prisa/ llevar a cabo/ cerrar/ concluir con éxito algo/ ganar/ lograrlo/ llevarlo a cabo/ vencer./ salir.
(to) pull on: ponerse (de prisa)/ tirar de.
(to) pull out: sacar, extraer/ tirar hacia fuera/ tirar a uno de un hoyo a estirones/ sacar a uno de un río/ estirar, extender/ retirar/ irse, marcharse/ retirarse/ salirse/ salir (de la estación)/ sale fácilmente.
(to) pull over: acercar tirando/ derribar, volcar/ hacerse a un lado, desviarse hacia un lado.
(to) pull round: ayudar a uno a reponerse/ reponerse.
(to) pull through: sacar a uno de un apuro o de una enfermedad/ salir de un apuro/ reponerse, recobrar la salud.
(to) pull together: reorganizar un escrito, recuperar/ trabajar con un espíritu común, trabajar con espíritu de equipo/ sobreponerse, serenarse, recuperar la calma, animarse.
(to) put about, (to put around: diseminar, hacer correr/ dar a entender que..., hacer creer que..., hacer correr el rumor de que.../ hacer virar/ virar, cambiar de bordada,.
(to) put across: comunicar/ hacer entender/ hacer aceptar/ presentar/ cerrar/ engañar a uno, embaucar a uno/ dar una paliza a uno/ impresionar con su personalidad/ presentarse de manera eficaz/ comunicar eficazmente lo que uno quiere decir.
(to) put apart: separar a alguien de otras personas.
(to) put aside: rechazar, desechar, dejar, poner a un lado/ dejar de lado, poner a parte/ guardar, poner aparte, ahorrar/ devolver a su lugar/ poner en el garaje/ envainar/ guardar/ desechar/ descartar, repudiar/ encarcelar, recluir en un manicomio/ alojar/ zamparse.
(to) put back: devolver a su lugar/ restituir, volver a poner/ guardar/ volver/ restituir/ dejar/ retrasar/ aplazar/ beberse/ volver a puerto.
(to) put by: ahorrar, tener dinero ahorrado= (to) put away.
(to) put down: poner en tierra/ poner en el suelo/ depositar/ bajar/ soltar/ dejar/ dejar apearse/ déjalo/ suéltalo/ poner en tierra/ cerrar/ pagar como desembolso inicial/ poner en cava/ suprimir/ sofocar/ dominar/ hacer callar/ dejar sin réplica posible, humillar/ apuntar, poner por escrito/ degradar, pasar a una división inferior/ atribuir/ considerar/ sacrificar.
(to) put forth: alargar/ tender/ extender/ echar/ emplear, desplegar.
(to) put forward: nombrar, presentar, proponer/ hacer/ presentar, proponer, exponer/adelantar/ ofrecerse con poca modestia, ponerse en evidencia, llamar la atención sobre sí.
(to) put in: meter, introducir/ insertar/ interponer/ presentar, aducir/ votar a, elegir/ dedicar, instalar, conectar/ plantar, sembrar/ entrar a puerto, hacer escala en un puerto/ presentarse a un puesto, solicitar un puesto.
(to) put off: aplazar, postponer, dejar para después/ disuadir/ desconcertar/ desanimar/ dejar/ quitarse/ apagar/ hacerse a la mar/ salir.
(to) put on: ponerse/ aplicar/ acelerar, cobrar velocidad/ asumir/ poner/ representar, poner en escena/ poner/ encender/ aplicar/ echar/ poner a calentar/ adelantar/ dar el nombre, sugerir un nombre, tomar el pelo a .
(to) put out: sacar, poner fuera, mandar a pasearse, echar, expulsar, poner en la calle/ desahuciar/ tender la ropa, poner la ropa a secar/ echar al mar/ alargar, tender/ sacar, extender/ asomar, sacar/ echar/ ordenar, disponer, desplegar/ apagar, sofocar/ desconcertar/ enojar, irritar/ incomodar/ dislocarse/ publicar/ sacar a la luz/ hacer/ diseminar/ hacer correr/ , poner el dinero a interés/ hacerse a la mar/ salir de/ tomarse la molestia, molestarse.
(to) put over= (to) put across.
(to) put one over on sb.= ganar por la mano a uno, engañar a uno, dar a uno gato por liebre.
(to) put through: cerrar/ despachar/ hacer aprobar/ poner una llamada/ someter a uno a una prueba.
(to) run across: cruzar corriendo/ encontrar, tropezar con.
(to) run after: perseguir.
(to) run along: irse.
(to) run away: irse corriendo, escaparse.
(to) run away with: escaparse con/ no te vayas a creer que/ te dejas llevar por.
(to) run down: atropellar/ criticar/ agotar/ bajar corriendo/ agotarse/ pararse.
(to) run in: rodar/ detener/ entrar corriendo.
(to) run into: entrar corriendo en/ chocar con/ tropezar con.
(to) run off: imprimir/ irse corriendo.
(to) run off with: escaparse con, llevarse.
(to) run out: salir corriendo/ acabarse/ agotarse/ caducar.
(to) run over: atropellar/ rebosar/ derramar.
(to) run through: ensayar/ repasar/ echar un vistazo a.
(to) run up: subir corriendo/ acumular/ izar/ subir corriendo.
(to) set about: empezar a, ponerse a/ atacar, agredir.
(to) set against: enemistar con, poner en contra de/ contraponer, sopesar, comparar con/ desgravar.
(to) set apart: distinguir ((from, de)), hacer diferente ((from, de)).
(to) set aside: guardar, ahorrar/ dejar/ reservar/ dejar de lado/ anular.
(to) set back: apartar, retirar/ retrasar, atrasar/ costar.
(to) set down: poner por escrito, escribir/ dejar/ establecer, fijar.
(to) set forth: emprender marcha, partir.
(to) set in: empezar, comenzar/ surgir/ declararse.
(to) set off: salir, ponerse en camino/ hacer estallar, hacer explotar/ hacer sonar/ lanzar, tirar/ hacer empezar, provocar, desencadenar/ hacer resaltar, realzar.
(to) set on: echar/ atacar, agredir.
(to) set out: partir, salir ((for, para))/ proponerse ((to, -)), tener la intención de, querer/ disponer, exponer/ exponer.
(to) slip up: equivocarse, cometer un error/ cometer un desliz, meter la pata.
(to) stand aside: apartarse, quitarse de en medio/ no tomar parte, mantenerse al margen.
(to) stand back: apartarse, echarse hacia atrás, alejarse/ distanciarse ((from, de)).
(to) stand by: cruzarse de brazos, quedarse sin hacer nada/ estar preparado,-a, estar listo,-a/ estar en estado de alerta/ no abandonar, respaldar, apoyar, defender/ atenerse a/ cumplir.
(to) stand down: retirarse/ dimitir/ retirarse, abandonar el estrado.
(to) stand for: significar, querer decir/ representar/ defender, apoyar, ser partidario,-a de/ tolerar, permitir, consentir.
(to) stand in for: sustituir, suplir.
(to) stand out: destacar, sobresalir/ destacarse, sobresalir/ oponerse ((against, a)).
(to) stand over: vigilar a, velar a.
(to) stand to: estar en estado de alerta/ poner en estado de alerta.
(to) stand up: ponerse de pie, levantarse/ estar de pie/ ponte derecho/ resistir ((to, -)), soportar ((to, -))/ poner en posición vertical/ dejar plantado,-a a, dar un plantón a.
(to) stand up for: defender: (support) apoyar.
(to) stand up to: hacer frente a, resistir a.
(to) show off: fardar, fanfarronear, presumir, lucirse/ hacerse el/la gracioso,-a/ hacer resaltar, realzar/ hacer alarde de, presumir de, fardar con, lucirse con.
(to) show up: hacer resaltar, hacer destacar/ revelar, sacar a la luz, poner de manifiesto/ dejar en ridículo, poner en evidencia/ notarse, verse/ acudir, presentarse, aparecer.
(to) stand aside: apartarse, quitarse de en medio/ no tomar parte, mantenerse al margen.
(to) stand back: apartarse, echarse hacia atrás, alejarse/ distanciarse ((from, de)).
(to) stand by: cruzarse de brazos, quedarse sin hacer nada/ estar preparado,-a, estar listo,-a/ estar en estado de alerta/ no abandonar, respaldar, apoyar, defender/ atenerse a/ cumplir.
(to) stand down: retirarse/ dimitir/ retirarse, abandonar el estrado.
(to) stand for: significar, querer decir/ representar/ defender, apoyar, ser partidario,-a de/ tolerar, permitir, consentir.
(to) stand in for: sustituir, suplir.
(to) stand out: destacar, sobresalir/ destacarse, sobresalir/ oponerse ((against, a)).
(to) stand over: vigilar a, velar a.
(to) stand to: estar en estado de alerta/ poner en estado de alerta.
(to) stand up: ponerse de pie, levantarse/ estar de pie/ resistir ((to, -)), soportar ((to, -))/ poner en posición vertical/ dejar plantado,-a a, dar un plantón a.
(to) stand up for: defender/ apoyar.
(to) stand up to: hacer frente a, resistir a.
(to) take after: parecerse a.
(to) take apart: desmontar, deshacer/ echar por tierra.
(to) take aside: llevar a un lado.
(to) take away: llevarse, quitar/ restar/ llevar.
(to) take back: recibir otra vez, aceptar algo devuelto/ readmitir/ devolver/ retirar, retractar/ hacer recordar.
(to) take down: quitar, bajar/ desmontar/ apuntar/ humillar.
(to) take for: tomar por.
(to) take in: dar cobijo a, alojar, recoger/ engañar/ asimilar, entender, captar/ incluir, abarcar/ meterle a, estrechar.
(to) take off: quitarse/ quitar, sacar/ llevar/ tomarse/ imitar/ descontar, rebajar/ despegar/ irse, marcharse/ hacerse popular, tener éxito, ponerse de moda.
(to) take on: hacerse cargo de, encargarse de, aceptar/ asumir/ contratar, coger/ desafiar, enfrentarse con/ asumir, tomar, adquirir/ agitarse, ponerse nervioso,-a.
(to) take out: sacar, quitar/ invitar a salir/ llevar de paseo/ hacerse, sacar/ obtener/ llevar comida a casa/ eliminar.
(to) take out on: tomarla con, desquitarse con, descargarse.
(to) turn on: conectar/ encender/ abrir/ poner en marcha, encender/ atacar, arremeter contra/ apuntar, dirigir/ excitar, entusiasmar/ depender de, girar en torno a/ encenderse.
(to) turn out: apagar/ producir, fabricar/ vaciar/ desmoldar/ expulsar, echar/ salir, resultar/ salir/ asistir, acudir/ salir a la calle.
(to) turn over: dar la vuelta a, volver, poner al revés/ dar vueltas a/ entregar/ volver/ facturar, hacer/ darse la vuelta/ volcar/ marchar en vacío, funcionar.
(to) turn to: acudir a, recorrer a, recurrir a/ buscar, pasar a/ pasar a/ dedicarse a, recurrir a, darse a, empezar.
(to) turn up: llegar, presentarse/ aparecer/ doblar hacia arriba, levantar/ acortar/ subir, poner más fuerte/ descubrir, encontrar.
(to) wait about, (to) wait around: esperar, perder el tiempo.
(to) wait behind: quedarse, quedarse para esperar a uno.
(to) wait in: estar en casa esperando a uno.
(to) wait on, (to) wait upon: servir a uno, desvivirse por mimar a uno.
(to) wait out: quedarse hasta el final de, esperar más que uno.
(to) wait up: velar, no acostarse, seguir sin acostarse.
(to) wait upon: cumplimentar a uno, presentar sus respetos a uno.
(to) walk about: pasearse, ir y venir.
(to) walk across: cruzar.
(to) walk around: dar una vuelta, pasearse.
(to) walk away: irse, alejarse, negarse a, evadirse de.
(to) walk away with: llevarse, copar, largarse con, robar.
(to) walk back: volver a pie, regresar andando.
(to) walk down: bajar a pie.
(to) walk in: entrar, entrar sin llamar/ interrumpir a alguien.
(to) walk into: entrar/ caer en una trampa/ ser embaucado/ chocar con/ dar con o contra/ topar/ tropezar con o contra/ devorar, zampar/ atacar a uno, arremeter a uno/ conseguir fácilmente un puesto.
(to) walk off: quitarse un dolor de encima dando un paseo/ dar una vuelta para quitarse un dolor/ bajar la comida dando un paseo.
(to) walk on: seguir andando o caminando/ salir de figurante.
(to) walk out: salir, retirarse/ declararse en huelga/ marcharse/ abandonar a uno/ dejar plantado a alguien/
plantar a alguien.
(to) walk over: atropellar a uno, tratar a uno a coces/ dar una paliza a alguien en algún deporte/ ganar/ ganar la carrera por ser el único caballo que participa.
(to) walk through: ensayar por primera vez.
(to) walk up: subir a pie
http://www.usingenglish.com/reference/phrasal-verbs/g.html (Here you can find more phrasal verbs)
PREPOSITIONS AND PREPOSITIONALS PHRASES
AT BY FOR FROM UNDER
at firstat leastat mostat times
at any rateat last
at the latestat once
at short noticeat an advantage
at a disadvantageat risk
at a profit / loss
by accidentby far
by all meansby heart
by chanceby and byby the wayby the time
by no means
by nameby sightby nowby then
for nowfor instancefor example
for salefor a while
for the momentfor ages
for a changefor better or
worse
from now onfrom then on
from bad to worsefrom my point of view
from what I understandfrom personal
experience
under ageunder control
under the impressionunder guarantee
under the influence of
under obligationunder no obligation
under suspicionunder his thumbunder discussionunder consider
Adjective Preposition Combinations ABOUT Use the following adjectives followed by 'about'. Each group of adjectives have the same or related meanings. Use the verb 'to be' with these expressions.
angry / annoyed / furious about something Example: I'm really angry about our losses on the stock market!
excited about something Example: He's excited about his birthday party next week.
worried / upset about something Example: He's worried about his upcoming examinations.
sorry about something Example: I'm very sorry about Losing your book.
AT Use the following adjectives followed by 'at'. Each group of adjectives have the same or related meanings. Use the verb 'to be' with these expressions.
good / excellent / brillant at something OR at doing something Example: They are excellent at planning fun parties.
bad / hopeless at something OR at doing something Example: Unfortunately, I'm hopeless at being on time.
AT / BY Use the following adjectives followed by 'at' or 'by'. Each group of adjectives have the same or related meanings. Use the verb 'to be' with these expressions.
amazed / astonished / shocked / surprised at OR by something Example: I was amazed at his stamina.
Use the following adjectives followed by 'for'. Each group of adjectives have the same or related meanings. Use the verb 'to be' with these expressions.
angry with someone for something Example: I'm really angry with John for his total lack of responsibility.
famous for something Example: She's famous for her watercolor paintings.
responsible for something Example: You'll have to speak to John, he's responsible for customer complaints.
sorry for doing something Example: He says he's sorry for shouting at you.
(to feel or be) sorry for someone Example: I really feel sorry for Pam.
FROM Use the following adjectives followed by 'from'.
different from someone / something Example: His photographs are very different from his paintings.
'of / on / to / with'
OF Use the following adjectives followed by 'of'. Each group of adjectives have the same or related meanings. Use the verb 'to be' with these expressions.
nice / kind / good / generous of someone (to do something) Example: It was very nice of him to buy me a present.
mean of someone (to do something) Example: It was very mean of Susan to say that to Tom.
stupid / silly of someone (to do something) Example: I'm afraid it was stupid of me to come.
intelligent / clever / sensible of someone (to do something) Example: That was quite sensible of Tom.
polite of someone (to do something) Example: It was very polite of Peter to invite my sister to the party.
impolite / rude of someone (to do something) Example: I can't believe how rude it was of Jack to shout at his daughter in front of all those people.
unreasonable of someone (to do something) Example: Don't be so hard on yourself! It's unreasonable of you to expect to understand everything immediately.
proud of something or someone Example: I'm very proud of my daughter's wonderful progress in school.
ashamed of someone or something Example: She's ashamed of her bad grades.
jealous / envious of someone or something Example: She's really envious of her sister's wealth.
aware / conscious of something Example: Teens are often overly conscious of skin blemishes.
capable / incapable of something Example: Peter is quite capable of conducting the meeting on his own.
fond of someone or something Example: She is so fond of her niece.
short of something Example: I'm afraid I'm short of cash tonight.
tired of something Example: I'm tired of your complaining!
ON Use the following adjective followed by 'on'. Use the verb 'to be' with these expressions.
to be keen on something Example: She is very keen on horses.
TO
Use the following adjectives followed by 'to'. Each group of adjectives have the same or related meanings. Use the verb 'to be' with these expressions.
married / engaged to someone Example: Jack is engaged to Jill.
nice / kind / good / generous to someone Example: She was very generous to me when I was staying with her.
mean / impolite / rude / unpleasant / unfriendly / cruel to someone Example: How can you be so unfriendly to your neighbors?
similar to something Example: His painting is similar to Van Gough.
WITH Use the following adjectives followed by 'with'. Each group of adjectives have the same or related meanings. Use the verb 'to be' with these expressions.
angry / annoyed / furious with someone for something Example: I'm furious with my brother for having lied to me!
delighted / pleased / satisfied with something Example: He is quite satisfied with his results.
disappointed with something Example: She's really disappointed with her new car.
bored / fed up with something Example: Let's go. I'm fed up with this party.
crowded with (people, tourists, etc.) Example: Disneyland is crowded with tourists in July.
Prepositions of Place and Direction Look at this plan of the ground floor of a skyscraper: Here are a number of preposition combinations that can be used to describe the floor plan:
Prepositions of Position at the back ofat the bottom ofat the top ofbehindbetweenin the corner ofin the middle ofnext toto the left ofon the other side ofto the right ofon the side ofon top ofopposite Example Sentences There is a large garden in the middle of the skyscraper. The smallest room is located to the left of the internal garden. The entrance to room number three is opposite the entrance to room number two.
Prepositions of Direction Here are a number of prepositions that can be used to show direction and movement around the floor plan: acrossbetweenintoout ofpastroundthroughtowardsExample Sentences
Walk through the exit of room two and enter into building number three. Walk across the indoor garden to reach room number five. Walk past the side entrance to reach the main entrance.
CONJUNCTIONS
The Case of Then and Than
Than is used to make comparisons. In the sentence "Piggy would rather be rescued then stay on the island," we have employed the wrong word because a comparison is being made between Piggy's two choices; we need than instead. In the sentence, "Other than Pincher Martin, Golding did not write another popular novel," the adverbial construction "other than" helps us make an implied comparison; this usage is perfectly acceptable in the United States but careful writers in the UK try to avoid it (Burchfield).
Generally, the only question about than arises when we have to decide whether the word is being used as a conjunction or as a preposition. If it's a preposition (and Merriam-Webster's dictionary provides for this usage), then the word that follows it should be in the object form.
He's taller and somewhat more handsome than me. Just because you look like him doesn't mean you can play better than him.
Most careful writers, however, will insist that than be used as a conjunction; it's as if part of the clause introduced by than has been left out:
He's taller and somewhat more handsome than I [am handsome]. You can play better than he [can play].
In formal, academic text, you should probably use than as a conjunction and follow it with the subject form of a pronoun (where a pronoun is appropriate).
Then is a conjunction used to connect two independent clauses; usually, it will be accompanied (preceded) by a comma.
Omitting That
The word that is used as a conjunction to connect a subordinate clause to a preceding verb. In this construction that is sometimes called the "expletive that." Indeed, the word is often omitted to good effect, but it must be translated into Spanish like “que”.
Isabel knew [that] she was about to be fired. She definitely felt [that] her fellow employees hadn't supported her.
I hope [that] she doesn't blame me.
Sometimes omitting the that can be adequately bridged with the use of a comma:
The problem is, that production in her department has dropped. Remember, that we didn't have these problems before she started working here. The boss said yesterday that production in this department was down fifty percent.(Notice
the position of "yesterday.") Our annual report revealed that some losses sustained by this department in the third quarter
of last year were worse than previously thought.
The CEO said that Isabel's department was slacking off and that production dropped precipitously in the fourth quarter. (Did the CEO say that production dropped or was the drop a result of what he said about Isabel's department? The second that makes the sentence clear.)
Authority for this section: Dos, Don'ts & Maybes of English Usage by Theodore Bernstein. Gramercy Books: New York. 1999. p. 217.
Subordinating Conjunctions
A Subordinating Conjunction (sometimes called a dependent word or subordinator) comes at the beginning of a Subordinate (or Dependent) Clause and establishes the relationship between the dependent clause and the rest of the sentence. It also turns the clause into something that depends on the rest of the sentence for its meaning.
He took to the stage as though he had been preparing for this moment all his life. Because he loved acting, he refused to give up his dream of being in the movies. Unless we act now, all is lost.
Notice that some of the subordinating conjunctions in the table below — after, before, since — are also prepositions, but as subordinators they are being used to introduce a clause and to subordinate the following clause to the independent element in the sentence.
Common Subordinating Conjunctions
afteralthoughasas ifas long asas thoughbecausebeforeeven ifeven though
ifif onlyin order thatnow thatoncerather thansinceso thatthanthat
Strictly speaking, the word like is a preposition, not a conjunction. It can, therefore, be used to introduce a prepositional phrase ("My brother is tall like my father"), but it should not be used to introduce a clause ("My brother can't play the piano like as he did before the accident" or "It looks like as if basketball is quickly overtaking baseball as America's national sport."). To introduce a clause, it's a good idea to use as, as though, or as if, instead.
Like As I told you earlier, the lecture has been postponed. It looks like as if it's going to snow this afternoon. Johnson kept looking out the window like as though he had someone waiting for him.
In formal, academic text, it's a good idea to reserve the use of like for situations in which similarities are being pointed out:
This community college is like a two-year liberal arts college.
However, when you are listing things that have similarities, such as is probably more suitable:
The college has several highly regarded neighbors, like such as the Mark Twain House, St. Francis Hospital, the Connecticut Historical Society, and the UConn Law School.
Beginning a Sentence with Because
Because e-mail now plays such a huge role in our communications industry. Because e-mail now plays such a huge role in our communications industry, the postal
service would very much like to see it taxed in some manner.
Correlative Conjunctions
Some conjunctions combine with other words to form what are called correlative conjunctions. They always travel in pairs, joining various sentence elements that should be treated as grammatically equal.
She led the team not only in statistics but also by virtue of her enthusiasm. Polonius said, "Neither a borrower nor a lender be." Whether you win this race or lose it doesn't matter as long as you do your best.
Correlative conjunctions sometimes create problems in parallel form. Click HERE for help with those
problems. Here is a brief list of common correlative conjunctions.
both . . . andnot only . . . but also
not . . . buteither . . . or
neither . . . norwhether . . . or
as . . . as
Conjunctive Adverbs
The conjunctive adverbs such as however, moreover, nevertheless, consequently, as a result are used to create complex relationships between ideas. Refer to the section on Coherence: Transitions Between Ideas for an extensive list of conjunctive adverbs categorized according to their various uses and for some advice on their application within sentences (including punctuation issues).
Tenses in English
In English, there are three basic tenses: present, past, and future. Each has a perfect form, indicating completed action; each has a progressive form, indicating ongoing action; and each has a perfect progressive form, indicating ongoing action that will be completed at some definite time. Here is a list of examples of these tenses and their definitions:
Simple Forms Progressive Forms Perfect FormsPerfect Progressive
Forms
Present take/s am/is/are taking have/has taken have/has been taking
Past took was/were taking had taken had been taking
Future will/shall take will be taking will have taken will have been taking
Simple Forms
Present Tense
Present tense expresses an unchanging, repeated, or reoccurring action or situation that exists only now. It can also represent a widespread truth.
The mountains are tall and white. Unchanging action
Every year, the school council elects new members. Recurring action
Pb is the chemical symbol for lead. Widespread truth
Past Tense
Past tense expresses an action or situation that was started and finished in the past. Most past tense verbs end in -ed. The irregular verbs have special past tense forms which must be memorized.
Example Form
W.W.II ended in 1945. Regular -ed past
Ernest Hemmingway wrote "The Old Man and the Sea." Irregular form
Future Tense
Future tense expresses an action or situation that will occur in the future. This tense is formed by using will/shall with the simple form of the verb.
The speaker of the House will finish her term in May of 1998.
The future tense can also be expressed by using am, is, or are with going to.
The surgeon is going to perform the first bypass in Minnesota.
We can also use the present tense form with an adverb or adverbial phrase to show future time.
The president speaks tomorrow. (Tomorrow is a future time adverb.)
Progressive Forms
Present Progressive Tense
Present progressive tense describes an ongoing action that is happening at the same time the statement is written. This tense is formed by using am/is/are with the verb form ending in -ing.
The sociologist is examining the effects that racial discrimination has on society.
Past Progressive Tense
Past progressive tense describes a past action which was happening when another action occurred. This tense is formed by using was/were with the verb form ending in -ing.
The explorer was explaining the lastest discovery in Egypt when protests began on the streets.
Future Progressive Tense
Future progressive tense describes an ongoing or continuous action that will take place in the future. This tense is formed by using will be or shall be with the verb form ending in -ing.
Dr. Jones will be presenting ongoing research on sexist language next week.
Perfect Forms
Present Perfect Tense
Present perfect tense describes an action that happened at an indefinite time in the past or that began in the past and continues in the present.This tense is formed by using has/have with the past participle of the verb. Most past participles end in -ed. Irregular verbs have special past participles that must be memorized.
Example Meaning
The researchers have traveled to many countries in order to collect more significant data.
At an indefinite time
Women have voted in presidential elections since 1921.
Continues in the present
Past Perfect Tense
Past perfect tense describes an action that took place in the past before another past action. This tense is formed by using had with the past participle of the verb.
By the time the troops arrived, the war had ended.
Future Perfect Tense
Future perfect tense describes an action that will occur in the future before some other action. This tense is formed by using will have with the past participle of the verb.
By the time the troops arrive, the combat group will have spent several weeks waiting.
Perfect Progressive Forms
Present Perfect Progressive
Present perfect progressive tense describes an action that began in the past, continues in the present, and may continue into the future. This tense is formed by using has/have been and the present participle of the verb (the verb form ending in -ing).
The CEO has been considering a transfer to the state of Texas where profits would be larger.
Past Perfect Progressive
Past perfect progressive tense describes a past, ongoing action that was completed before some other past action. This tense is formed by using had been and the present perfect of the verb (the verb form ending in -ing).
Before the budget cuts, the students had been participating in many extracurricular activities.
Future Perfect Progressive
Future perfect progressive tense describes a future, ongoing action that will occur before some specified future time. This tense is formed by using will have been and the present participle of the verb (the verb form ending in -ing).
By the year 2020, linguists will have been studying and defining the Indo-European language family for more than 200 years.
What are transitive verbs?
Transitive verbs take objects. That is, these verbs carry the action of a subject and apply it to an object. They tells us what the subject (agent) does to something else (object). Examples: He bought a shirt. (agent) (did something) (object- answers the question "what?")
She brushes her hair every hour. Marina will lose the race.Note that the transitive verb can take any tense
What are intransitive verbs?
Intransitive verbs do not take an object; they express actions that do not require the agent's doing something to something else. Examples: Tom danced.
The intransitive verb "danced" is a complete action by itself and does not require a direct object to receive the action.
They ran down the road.
They ran, but they do not run "something" in this sentence. The sentence contains no object.
Jack fell on the rocks in the alley.
Tip: Some verbs can function as both transitive and intransitive verbs. Example: intransitive: She dances. transitive: She dances the rhumba.
Linking Verbs
Linking verbs link the relationship between the agent and the rest of the sentence. They explain the connection between the subject and its complement or that which completes the subject's description.
The most common linking verb is "to be." Some other linking verbs are:
Examples: Opera seems overly dramatic to the music novice.
"overly dramatic" describes the agent or subject "opera" but it does not express an action that "opera" performs.
He appeared jubilant at the news of the inheritance.
I am pathetically inept in such situations.
He is a doctor of bioethics.
Note: while "a doctor" answers the question "what?" the verb is not an action verb, but rather a "state of being" verb. Therefore, is is not a transitive verb; it links the subject (he) with his state of being (doctor).
Remember, however, if what follows the verb can provide an answer to the question "what," then the verb is not a linking verb.
Compare: He tastes the soup as he cooks it.
"tastes" is transitive: he tastes "what?"
The fruit tastes rotten.
"rotten" describes or complements the state of the fruit, and therefore tastes links the agent (fruit) and its condition (rotten).Problem:
The two pair of verbs lay/lie and raise/rise are often misused. In each set there is a transitive verb and an intransitive verb, but they are often confused because of their similar sounds.
LIE is intransitive and means to recline or be situated.LAY is transitive and means to place or put something.
RISE is intransitive and means to get up.RAISE is transitive and means to lift something up. (Intr.) (Tr.) (Intr.) (Tr.)Infinitive lie lay rise raisePast Tense lay laid rose raisedPast Participle lain laid risen raisedPresent Participle lying laying rising raisingS-form lies lays rises raises
Examples:
Intr: She lay on the couch watching television. Tr: He laid the child gently on the bed. Intr: The alligator rose out of the water. Tr: She raised the child above the crowd, so he could see.
Identify whether the highlighted verb or compound verb is used transitively or intransitively:
11. The old woman struggled up the hill, pulling a grocery cart that had lost one wheel behind her.12. Hermione is editing her uncle's memoirs of his lifetime as a green grocer.
13. Much to the amusement of the onlookers, Paul danced a minuet to the polka music that drifted out of the beer tent.
14. At the beginning of the play, the entire cast dances manically across the stage.
15. Stella is reading quietly in the upstairs bedroom instead of doing her chores.
16. This term I am reading all of the works of Sylvia Townsend Warner.
18. Charles opened up his lunch, examined the contents carefully, and ate his dessert first.
19. The Stephens sisters are both very talented; Virginia writes and Vanessa paints.
20. When I was three years old, my father left a can of paint open in my bedroom, and early one morning, I painted my baby brother's face green.
Active Voice
In sentences written in active voice, the subject performs the action expressed in the verb; the subject acts.
In each example above, the subject of the sentence performs the action expressed in the verb.
You can see examples of all the verb tenses in active voice at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_tenses2.html.
Passive Voice
In sentences written in passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed in the verb; the subject is acted upon. The agent performing the action may appear in a "by the . . ." phrase or may be omitted.
(agent performing action has been omitted.)
Sometimes the use of passive voice can create awkward sentences, as in the last example above. Also, overuse of passive voice throughout an essay can cause your prose to seem flat and uninteresting. In scientific writing, however, passive voice is more readily accepted since using it allows one to write without using personal pronouns or the names of particular researchers as the subjects of sentences (see the third example above). This practice helps to create the appearance of an objective, fact-based discourse because writers can present research and conclusions without attributing them to particular agents. Instead, the writing appears to convey information that is not limited or biased by individual perspectives or personal interests.
You can recognize passive-voice expressions because the verb phrase will always include a form of be, such as am, is, was, were, are, or been. The presence of a be-verb, however, does not necessarily mean that the sentence is in passive voice. Another way to recognize passive-voice sentences is that they may include a "by the..." phrase after the verb; the agent performing the action, if named, is the object of the preposition in this phrase.
You can see examples of all the verb tenses in passive voice at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_tenses2.html.
Choosing Active Voice
In most nonscientific writing situations, active voice is preferable to passive for the majority of your sentences. Even in scientific writing, overuse of passive voice or use of passive voice in long and complicated sentences can cause readers to lose interest or to become confused. Sentences in active voice are generally--though not always-- clearer and more direct than those in passive voice.
passive (indirect) active (direct):
Sentences in active voice are also more concise than those in passive voice because fewer words are required to express action in active voice than in passive.
passive (more wordy) active (more concise)
Changing passive to active
If you want to change a passive-voice sentence to active voice, find the agent in a "by the..." phrase, or consider carefully who or what is performing the action expressed in the verb. Make that agent the subject of the sentence, and change the verb accordingly. Sometimes you will need to infer the agent from the surrounding sentences which provide context.
Passive Voice Agent Changed to Active Voice
most of the class
agent not specified; most likely agents such as "the researchers"
the CIA director and his close advisors
agent not specified; most likely agents such as "we"
Choosing Passive Voice
While active voice helps to create clear and direct sentences, sometimes writers find that using an indirect expression is rhetorically effective in a given situation, so they choose passive voice. Also, as mentioned above, writers in the sciences conventionally use passive voice more often than writers in other discourses. Passive voice makes sense when the agent performing the action is obvious, unimportant, or unknown or when a writer wishes to postpone mentioning the agent until the last part of the sentence or to avoid mentioning the agent at all. The passive voice is effective in such circumstances because it highlights the action and what is acted upon rather than the agent performing the action.
active passive
The dispatcher is notifying police that three prisoners have escaped.
Police are being notified that three prisoners have escaped.
Surgeons successfully performed a new experimental liver-transplant operation yesterday.
A new experimental liver-transplant operation was performed successfully yesterday.
"Authorities make rules to be broken," he said defiantly.
"Rules are made to be broken," he said defiantly.
In each of these examples, the passive voice makes sense because the agent is relatively unimportant compared to the action itself and what is acted upon.
Changing active to passive
If you want to change an active-voice sentence to passive voice, consider carefully who or what is performing the action expressed in the verb, and then make that agent the object of a "by the..." phrase. Make what is acted upon the subject of the sentence, and change the verb to a form of be + past participle. Including an explicit "by the..." phrase is optional.
Active Voice Agent Changed to Passive Voice
The presiding officer
The leaders
The scientists
In each of these examples, the passive voice is useful for highlighting the action and what is acted upon instead of the agent.
What are Modal Verbs?
Modal verbs are special verbs which behave very differently from normal verbs. Here are some important differences:
1. Modal verbs do not take "-s" in the third person.
Examples:
He can speak Chinese.
She should be here by 9:00.
2. You use "not" to make modal verbs negative, even in Simple Present and Simple Past.
Examples:
He should not be late.
They might not come to the party.
3. Many modal verbs cannot be used in the past tenses or the future tenses.
Examples:
He will can go with us. Not Correct
She musted study very hard. Not Correct
Complete the sentences using the words listed in the box below, then click the "Check" button to check your answers. Don't forget to capitalize when necessary. Some gaps may have more than one correct
answer.can could have to must might should
1. Ted's flight from Amsterdam took more than 11 hours. He be exhausted after such a long
flight. He prefer to stay in tonight and get some rest.
2. If you want to get a better feeling for how the city is laid out, you walk downtown and explore the waterfront.
3. Hiking the trail to the peak be dangerous if you are not well prepared for dramatic weather
changes. You research the route a little more before you attempt the ascent.
4. When you have a small child in the house, you leave small objects lying around. Such
objects be swallowed, causing serious injury or even death.
5. Dave: you hold your breath for more than a minute?Nathan: No, I can't.
6. Jenny's engagement ring is enormous! It have cost a fortune.
7. Please make sure to water my plants while I am gone. If they don't get enough water, they die.
8. I speak Arabic fluently when I was a child and we lived in Egypt. But after we moved back to Canada, I had very little exposure to the language and forgot almost everything I knew as a child. Now, I
just say a few things in the language.
9. The book is optional. My professor said we read it if we needed extra credit. But we
read it if we don't want to.
10. Leo: Where is the spatula? It be in this drawer but it's not here.
Nancy: I just did a load of dishes last night and they're still in the dish washer. It be in there.
That's the only other place it be.
11. You take your umbrella along with you today. The weatherman on the news said there's a
storm north of here and it rain later on this afternoon.
12. we pull over at the next rest stop? I really use the bathroom and I don't know if I
hold it until we get to Chicago.
13. Oh no! Frank's wallet is lying on the coffee table. He have left it here last night.
14. Ned: I borrow your lighter for a minute?
Stephen: Sure, no problem. Actually, you keep it if you want to. I've given up smoking.
15. I believe she said that to Megan! She insult her cooking in front of everyone
at the party last night. She have just said she was full or had some salad if she didn't like the meal.
16. Do you chew with your mouth open like that? Geez, it's making me sick watching you eat that piece of pizza.
17. Mrs. Scarlett's body was found in the lounge just moments ago, and it's still warm! Nobody has left the
mansion this evening, so the killer be someone in this room. It be any one of us!!!
18. Ted: I don't know why Denise starting crying when I mentioned the wedding.
Pamela: It have been what you said about her brother. Or, perhaps she is just nervous. After all, the big day is tomorrow.
19. you always say the first thing that pops into your head?
Modal Traditional definitions Present/Future Past
can ability I can juggle. I could juggle when I was young.
can request Can I look at your costumes?
can permission You can look at my costumes.
can possibility You can pet the lion if you want.
can past ability I could juggle when I was young.
could request Could you hold this for me?
could possibility I could be up there right now.I could have been juggling now.
may request(formal) May I pet the lion?
may permission(formal) Yes, you may pet the lion.
may probabilityThe trapeze artist may be tired after the show.
The acrobats may have performed already.
might slight probability The clown might be tired, too.The elephants might have performed, too.
shall polite question Shall we go say hello to the crown?
shall formal futureLadies and gentlemen, the circus shall begin shortly.
should advice Jugglers should practice everyday. I should have tried juggling.
should expectation The circus should begin in a minute.They should have started by now.
must necessity Children must be careful around lions.The children had to leave before the clowns began.
must logical deductionThe lion does not hurt his trainer. They must have known each other for a long time.
They must be friends. They must have known each other for a long time.
will intention or promise We will see the seals today.
will future time certainty We will see them by 9:30.
would past time habit When I was young, we would go to the circus.
would conditional3I were you, I would be careful around the lions.
would polite questionWould you mind if I borrow your make up today?
would preferenceI would rather juggle than do trapeze stunts.
I would rather have juggled than done trapeze stunts.
ACTIVITIES
If you continually use short sentences in your writing, your paragraphs will sound very choppy. Read this paragraph and notice how it sounds.
It was my birthday. I ask for a bike. My parents bought me a red bike. It had white strips on the fenders. I like to ride my bike everywhere. I like to ride on smooth payment best. I am not allowed to ride on the sidewalk. People walk on the side walk. If I have time. I ride on the bike trail in the park.
To make your writing more interesting, you can combine the short sentences to make longer sentences. The longer sentences can be either compound or complex. Read the revised paragraph below. Notice how the paragraph flows much better with longer sentences.
It was my birthday, so I ask for a bike. My parents bought me a red bike, and it had white strips on the fenders. I like to ride my bike everywhere, but I like to ride on smooth payment best. I am not allowed to ride on the sidewalk because people walk on the sidewalk. Whenever I have time, I ride on the bike trail in the park.
Did you notice the kind of changes that were made in the second paragraph? Conjunctions and commas were used to connect the sentences.
What are conjunctions? The most common conjunctions used in compound sentences are:
and, as, but, or, so
When you make a compound sentence you are joining two or more simple sentences together with a conjunction and a comma. If you took the conjunction away, the sentences would be complete and they would still make sense. Look at this example:
Sentence 1: I like to ride my bike everywhereSentence 2: I like to ride on smooth payment bestCompound sentence: I like to ride my bike everywhere, but I like to ride on smooth payment best.
Complex sentences use conjunctions and sometimes commas also. However, complex sentences don't just divide into neat, complete, simple sentences if you take out the conjunctions. In complex sentences the conjunction is used to join together clauses.
These conjunction are used most often in complex sentences:
after, although, because, before, until, since, when, whenever, while
What is a clause? A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb. Sometimes clauses are complete short sentences, but in a complex sentence at least one of them will depend on the conjunction for its meaning. This means if you take the conjunction away, the sentence won't divide into complete units that make sense by themselves. Look at these examples:
Clause 1: I am not allowed to ride on the sidewalkClause 2: People walk on the sidewalkComplex sentence: I am not allowed to ride on the sidewalk because people walk on the sidewalk.
Clause 1: If I have timeClause 2: I ride on the bike trail in the parkComplex sentence: Whenever I have time, I ride on the bike trail in the park.
Revise these paragraphs using compound and complex sentences. (Source: http://www.unt.edu/writing_center/wssentencecombining.htm)
Paragraph 1: It was a dark and stormy night. The wind was high. The trees waved and crashed against the barn. I looked around me and saw that I wasn’t alone. A man stood behind me. He was tall. He was mean. He had a knife. It was shining in the moonlight. It was long and slender. He reached back. He stabbed with it. I jumped out of the way. I ran away.
Paragraph 2: Tom prefers baseball to basketball. Baseball seems more interesting to Tom. Tom feels baseball is a gentleman’s sport. Baseball is more structured than basketball. Baseball requires athletes to use more skill than aggression when playing. Tom respects baseball players the most because of this.
Cited and adapted from Winkler, Anthony C., and Jo Ray McCuen. Writing Talk: Paragraphs and Short Essays with Readings. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2000. 369-372.
Practicing IRead the paired sentences aloud. Write "A" in the blank beside the sentence in the active voice,"P" in the blank beside the sentence in the passive voice.
a. _______ Louise made the coffee.b. _______ The coffee was made by Louise.c. _______ The package was advertised by the travel agent.d. _______ The travel agent advertised the package.
Practicing IIRewrite these sentences to put them in the active voice.a. The sugar water was relished by the hummingbirds.____________________________________________________________________b. Jogging is done by many people for exercise.____________________________________________________________________c. A standing ovation was given to the guitar player.____________________________________________________________________d. The syllabus was handed out by the professor.____________________________________________________________________
Practicing IIIUsing either a computer or a piece of scratch paper, rewrite the following paragraph in the activevoice.Last summer our house was painted by me. The job took about two weeks. First, theexterior was washed using warm water and a mild detergent. Then all the chinks and pores in thewalls were sealed with putty. After the putty had had a chance to dry, the exterior could bepainted. A latex paint was used because it is easy to apply and cleans up with water. A wholeweek was needed to finish this part of the job. I was very careful to apply the paint evenlybecause I did not want to have to apply two coats. A color was used that was very close to theoriginal color. Our house is a two-story house, which meant that a tall ladder was needed to dothe second story. The paint can had to be balanced on the top rung of the ladder while I worked.When the job was finished, a great deal of satisfaction was felt by me. I had to pat myself on theback. Even my dad said that a good job was done.
READ THE FOLLOWING ARTICLES AND DO THE FOLLOWING EXERCISES.
November. Initially, the government said it could take until Christmas, but engineers say theirwork is going well. From Chile, Gideon Long reports.
The engineers are digging two escape tunnels for the men and plan to start on a third onesoon. Work on the second of the tunnels is going particularly well. René Aguilar, one of thechief engineers at the site, said he expected the drill to reach the area where the miners aresheltering this weekend.
Then, the engineers will haul the drill up to the surface and start digging again, to widen theshaft until it's big enough to serve as an escape route. Aguilar said the team expected torescue the men in early November.
The news has been welcomed by relatives of the men, who have been celebrating the birth ofone of the miners' daughters. Baby Esperanza was born on Tuesday. Her father Ariel Ticonais trapped below ground.
Video images of the birth were sent down a supply chute to the miners' refuge so that hecould watch them.
Vocabulary and definitionsescape tunnels passages to help the miners to safetydrill machine used for making holessheltering staying in a safe placehaul…up lift up something heavyshaft long narrow passageserve as be used asrescue bring to safetytrapped stuck, unable to escapesupply chute passage for sending essential itemsrefuge safe place
FIND AT LEAST ONE NOMINAL:
CHOOSE A COMPLEX-COMPOUND SENTENCE AND DIAGRAM IT.
FIND AT LEAST ONE PASSIVE AND ONE ACTIVE SENTENCE.