Abstract Process Economics Program Report No. 195 ADVANCES IN FCC (July 1991) PROCESS ECONOMICS PROGRAM SRI INTERNATIONAL Menlo Park, California 94025 Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) is the dominant refinery conversion process today and it continues to evolve to meet changing refinery needs. This report covers the technology and economics of a modern FCC plant. As a base case, we evaluate an FCC unit processing con- ventional vacuum gas oil (VGC) feedstock derived from Arabian Light crude oil. Recent trends during the 198Os, including lead phaseout and the continually rising popu- larity of premium unleaded gasoline, increased the need for higher FCC gasoline octane. High octane FCC operation also provides increased yields of light olefins, which are increasingly important as feedstocks to produce oxygenates (MTBE, TAME, ETBE) . In this report, we review the options and economics for FCC gasoline octane enhancement. There has been rapid growth in the cracking of residual material in the FCC during the 1980s. This is a consequence of heavier crude availabilityat the same time that residual fuel oil demand steadily declined throughout the industrialized world. In this report, we evaluate the technology and economics for a resid FCC unit processing Arabian Light atmospheric resid. We include a discussion of the role of FCC in modern refining and lists of worldwide FCC and related unit capacities. This report also includes reviews of FCC catalysts and the world- wide catalyst market, and FCC-related technologies for emissions reduction, power recovery, and oxygen enrichment. PEP’87 SML
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Abstract
Process Economics Program Report No. 195
ADVANCES IN FCC
(July 1991)
l
PROCESS ECONOMICS
PROGRAM SRI INTERNATIONAL
Menlo Park, California
94025
Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) is the dominant refinery conversion process today and it continues to evolve to meet changing refinery needs. This report covers the technology and economics of a modern FCC plant. As a base case, we evaluate an FCC unit processing con- ventional vacuum gas oil (VGC) feedstock derived from Arabian Light crude oil.
Recent trends during the 198Os, including lead phaseout and the continually rising popu- larity of premium unleaded gasoline, increased the need for higher FCC gasoline octane. High octane FCC operation also provides increased yields of light olefins, which are increasingly important as feedstocks to produce oxygenates (MTBE, TAME, ETBE) . In this report, we review the options and economics for FCC gasoline octane enhancement.
There has been rapid growth in the cracking of residual material in the FCC during the 1980s. This is a consequence of heavier crude availability at the same time that residual fuel oil demand steadily declined throughout the industrialized world. In this report, we evaluate the technology and economics for a resid FCC unit processing Arabian Light atmospheric resid.
We include a discussion of the role of FCC in modern refining and lists of worldwide FCC and related unit capacities. This report also includes reviews of FCC catalysts and the world- wide catalyst market, and FCC-related technologies for emissions reduction, power recovery, and oxygen enrichment.
PEP’87 SML
a
I I a Cl m
Report No. 195
ADVANCES IN FCC
by SUSAN M. LEIBY
with contributions by
DON GREENAWAY
July 1991
A private report by the
PROCESS ECONOMICS PROGRAM
Menlo Park, California 94025
For detailed marketing data and information, the reader is referred to one of the SRI programs apeclallzlng in marketing research. The CHEMICAL ECONOMICS HANDBOOK
Progmm covers most major chemicals and chemicsl products produced in the United States and the WORLD PfTROCHfMCAlS Program covers major hydrocarbons and their derivatives on a worldwide bask In addition, the SRI DIRECTORY OF CHEMICAL
PRODUCERS services provide detailed lists of chemical producers by company, product,
and plant for the United States, Western Europe, Canada, and East Asia.
l
l
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ...............................................
LIST OF TABLES ......................................................
GLOSSARY ...........................................................
INTRODUCTION ....................................................
SUMMARY .........................................................
GENERAL ASPECTS .................................................
TECHNICAL ASPECTS ................................................
ECONOMIC ASPECTS ................................................
FCC’S REFINERY ROLE AND INDUSTRY STATUS ........................
FCC’S REFINERY ROLE ...............................................
Fuels Refinery Overview ...........................................
Hydroskimming Refinery Configuration ...............................
Conversion Refinery Configuration ..................................
FCC Products ...................................................
FCC Process Configuration and Operation ...........................
RECENT TRENDS IN FCC PROCESSING ..................................
Gasoline Lead Phaseout ..........................................
Declining Residual Fuel Oil Demand .................................
Gasoline Reformulation ...........................................
INSTALLED FCC CAPACITY ...........................................
United States ...................................................
Europe .........................................................
Latin America and Caribbean ......................................
Japan and Other East Asia ........................................
Canada and Australia .............................................
Middle East, India, and Africa ......................................
Worldwide Summary .............................................
ix
xi
xv
l-l
2-l
2-l
2-l
2-2
3-l
3-l
3-l
3-3
3-3
3-5
3-6
3-8
3-8
3-8
3-9
3-10
3-11
3-l 2
3-l 2
3-12
3-l 3
3-13
3-13
. . . - Ill -
CONTENTS (Continued)
4 GENERAL PROCESS CONSIDERATIONS ................................ 4-l
FCC FEEDSTOCKS .................................................. 4-l
CHEMISTRY OF CATALYTIC CRACKING .................................. 4-2
Basic Reactions ................................................. 44
Hydrocarbon Cracking (8 S&&on) .............................. 4-4
Thermal Cracking ............................................. 4-5
Hydrogen Transfer ............................................ 4-5
Coke Formation .............................................. 4-6
Thermodynamics of FCC Reactions ................................. 4-6
Some Aspects of Gas Oil Cracking Kinetics .......................... 4-6
FCC CATALYSTS .................................................... 4-7
Zeolite Catalysts ................................................. 4-9
Zeolite Structure ............................................. 4-9
Catalyst Matrix ............................................... 4-10
Bottoms Cracking with the Matrix ................................ 4-12
Octane Catalysts ............................................. 4-12
Resid Cracking Catalysts ....................................... 4-13
Additives .................................................... 4-13
FCC Catalyst Preparation .......................................... 4-14
Catalyst Characterization ................ ; ......................... 4-16
The FCC Catalyst Market .......................................... 4-16
5 TYPICAL VACUUM GAS OIL CRACKING ................................ 5-1
PROCESS REVIEW ................................................... 5-l
Cracking/Regeneration System ..................................... 5-l
FCC Development ............................................ 5-l
Reactor Riser ................................................ 5-2
Feed Injection ............................................ 5-6
Riser .................................................... 5-7
Vapor/Catalyst Separation .................................. 5-7
Spent Catalyst Stripper ..................................... 5-8
Catalyst Transfer to Regenerator ............................. 5-8
Regeneration ................................................ 5-9
Heat Balance ................................................ 5-l 1
Features of Independent Licensers .............................. 5-l 1
Primary Fractionation System ...................................... 5-12
CONTENTS (Continued)
5 TYPICAL VACUUM GAS OIL CRACKING (Concluded)
PROCESS REVIEW (Concluded)
Vapor Recovery Section ..........................................
Acid Gas Removal ............................................
Mercaptan Removal (Sweetening) ...............................
PROCESS DESCRIPTION ..............................................
Cracking and Primary Fractionation (Section 100) .....................
Vapor Recovery (Section 200) .....................................
PROCESS DISCUSSION ...............................................
Feedstock ......................................................
Cracking Section ................................................
Operating Conditions ..........................................
Product Yields ...............................................
Main Fractionation and Vapor Recovery .............................
Environmental Aspects - Sulfur Impurities ...........................
COST ESTIMATES ...................................................
Investment Costs ................................................
Production Costs ................................................
Petroleum Product Prices ......................................
Value of FCC Gasoline ........................................
Value of FCC C3’s and C4’s ...................................
Value of FCC Feed, LCO, and Slurry Oil .........................
Variable Costs ...............................................
Profitability ......................................................
5-13
5-14
5-14
5-15
5-18
5-20
5-28
5-28
5-28
5-28
5-27
5-27
5-28
5-29
5-29
5-29
5-30
5-30
5-31
5-31
5-32
5-33
6 OCTANE ENHANCEMENT ............................................ 6-l
PROCESS REVIEW ................................................... 6-l
USY Octane Catalysts ............................................ 6-2
Coke Selectivity .............................................. 8-3
ZSM-5 Octane Additive ........................................... 6-3
Operational Changes for Octane Enhancement ....................... 8-4
Reactor Temperature .......................................... 8-4
Conversion .................................................. 8-5
Coke on Regenerated Catalyst (CRC) ............................ 6-5
-v-
CONTENTS (Continued)
6 OCTANE ENHANCEMENT (Concluded)
PROCESS REVIEW (Concluded)
Operational Changes for Octane Enhancement (Concluded)
Hydrocarbon Partial Pressure ................................... 6-5
Contact Time ................................................ 6-5
Recycle Ratio ................................................ 6-5
Gasoline Boiling Range ........................................ 6-5
Mechanical Design Changes for Octane Enhancement ................. 6-8
PROCESS DESCRIPTION .............................................. 6-6
Cracking and Primary Fractionation (Section 100) ..................... 6-6
Vapor Recovery Section (Section 200) .............................. 6-9
PROCESS DISCUSSION ............................................... 6-9
Cracking Section ................................................ 6-9
Operating Conditions .......................................... 8-9
Yields ...................................................... 8-10
Gasoline Composition ......................................... 6-10
Mechanical Design.. .......................................... 6-10
Main Fractionation and Vapor Recovery Section ....................... 8-10
COSTESTlMATES ................................................... 8-15
Investment Costs ................................................ 6-15
Production Costs ................................................ 6-15
FCC Feed and Product Values .................................. 6-15
Variable Costs ............................................... 6-18
Profitability ...................................................... 6-16
7 RESID CRACKING ................................................... 7-l
PROCESS REVIEW.. ................................................. 7-l
Resid Feed Properties ............................................ 7-1
Resid Feed Pretreatment .......................................... 7-2
Deasphalting/Demetallization ................................... 7-2
Solvent Extraction ......................................... 7-2
Asphalt Residual Treating (ARTsR) ........................... 7-3
Resid Hydrotreating ........................................... 7-8
Resid Cracking Catalysts .......................................... 7-4
Metals Control and Passivation .................................. 7-4
SOx Control ................................................. 7-6
- vi -
-
0
l
CONTENTS (Continued)
7 RESID CRACKING (Concluded)
PROCESS REVIEW (Concluded)
Resid FCC Hardware Design .......................................
Riser Reactor ................................................
Feed Injection ............................................
Mix Temperature Control (MTC) .............................
Lift Gas Systems ..........................................
Contact Time .............................................
Vapor/Catalyst Separation ..................................
Catalyst Stripper ..........................................
Regenerator .................................................
Partial CO Combustion .....................................
Two-Stage Regeneration ...................................
Catalyst Coolers ..........................................
Resid FCC Unit Designs .......................................
Kellogg .................................................. Stone & Webster/Total .....................................
IFPlTotal .................................................
UOP/Ashland RCCsM Process ...............................
Shell ....................................................
PROCESS DESCRIPTION ..............................................
Cracking and Primary Fractionation (Section 100) .....................
Vapor Recovery (Section 200) .....................................
PROCESS DISCUSSION ...............................................
Feedstock ......................................................
Cracking Section ................................................
Riser Reactor/Regenerator .....................................
Operating Conditions ..........................................
Conversion and Yields .........................................
Main Fractionation and Vapor Recovery .............................
Environmental Considerations ......................................
Feed Pretreating Consideration .....................................
COST ESTIMATES ...................................................
Investment Costs ................................................
Production Costs ................................................
Variable Costs ...............................................
Profitability ......................................................
7-7
7-7
7-7
7-7
7-8 7-8
7-8 7-8
7-8 7-9 7-9 7-9
7-10
7-10
7-10 7-l 3 7-13 7-13
7-16
7-18
7-l 8
7-24
7-24
7-24
7-24
7-25
7-25
7-25
7-25
7-26
7-26
7-27
7-27
7-28
7-28
- vii -
CONTENTS (Concluded)
6 FCC RELATED PROCESSES .......................................... 8-l
EMISSIONS CONTROL ................................................ 8-l
Sulfur Oxides (SOx) .............................................. 8-2
Feed Hydrotreating ........................................... 8-2
SOx-Transfer Catalysts ........................................ 8-2
Flue Gas Treating ............................................. 8-2
Wet Scrubbing ............................................... 8-3
Dry and Semidry Scrubbing .................................... 8-3
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) ............................................ 8-5
Combustion Modification ....................................... 8-5
Flue Gas Treating ............................................. 8-5
Particulates ..................................................... 8-6
Carbon Monoxide ................................................ 8-7
FQWER RECOVERY .................................................. 8-7
OXYGEN ENRICHMENT ............................................... 8-8
Effect on FCC Operation .......................................... 8-8
Economic Incentive .............................................. 8-9
Oxygen Supply Alternatives ........................................ 8-9
APPENDIX A: PATENT SUMMARY TABLES ................................ A-l
APPENDIX B: DESIGN AND COST BASES ................................. B-l
DESIGN CONDITIONS ................................................ B-3
COST BASES ....................................................... B-3
CAPlTAL INVESTMENT ............................................... B-3
PRODUCTlON COSTS ................................................ B-4
EFFECT OF OPERATING LEVEL ON PRODUCTION COSTS ................... B-5
APPENDIX c: CITED REFERENCES ..,..,................................. C-l
APPENDIX D: PATENT REFERENCES BY COMPANY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-l
APPENDIX E: PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-l
a..
- VIII -
ILLUSTRATIONS
3.1 REFINERY BLOCK FLOW DIAGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
3.2 TYPICAL FCC REACTOR-REGENERATOR SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7
3.3 REGIONAL COMPARISON OF GLOBAL FCC REFINERY CAPACITY . , . . . . 3-14
4.1 MAIN REACTIONS IN FCC ..,.,,..........,,,.,,.............,.. 4-3
4.2 LUMPED KINETIC MODEL FOR FCC (JACOB ET AL.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
4.3 STRUCTURE OF FAUJASITE ZEOLlTE (TYPE X AND Y) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-l 1
4.4 CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES FOR REY AND USY CATALYST MANUFACTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
5.1 TYPICAL VACUUM GAS OIL CRACKING UOP FCC REACTOR-REGENERATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3
5.2 TYPICAL VACUUM GAS OIL CRACKING KELLOGG FCC REACTOR-REGENERATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 54
5.3 TYPICAL VACUUM GAS OIL CRACKING EXXON FLEXICRACKING UNIT REACTOR-REGENERATOR . . . . . . . . , . . , 5-5
5.4 FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING UNIT CRACKING AND PRIMARY FRACTlONATION SECTION PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-3
6.1 FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING UNIT MAXIMUM OCTANE CRACKING AND PRIMARY FRACTIONATION SECTlON PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..*.................. E-7
7.1 RESID CRACKING FCC REGENERATOR WITH CATALYST COOLER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-11
7.2 RESID CRACKING KELLOG RESID FCC REACTOR-REGENERATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-12
7.3 RESID CRACKING STONE & WEBSTER RESID FCC REACTOR-REGENERATOR . . . . . . . . . . . 7-14
7.4 RESID CRACKING UOP-ASHLAND RCCSM PROCESS REACTOR-REGENERATOR . . . . . . . . . 7-15
7.5 RESID CRACKING SHELL RESID FCC REACTOR-REGENERATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-17
- ix -
ILLUSTRATIONS (Concluded)
7.6 FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKlNG UNlT PRIMARY FRACTiONATON SECTION
l PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E-l 1
7.7 RESID CRACKING INTEGRATED REFINERY OPERATION USING ARABIAN LIGHT CRUDE . . . . 7-30
7.8 RESID CRACKING 0
INTEGRATED REFINERY OPERATION USING ARABIAN UGHT CRUDE FCC FLEXICOKING@ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..a.................. 7-31
8.1 EXXON WET GAS SCRUBBING PROCESS FOR FCC FLUE GAS . . . . . . . . 84
-x-
TABLES
0 2.1 SUMMARY OF COST ESTIMATES FOR FCC PROCESSING . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 INSTALLED FCC REFINERY CAPACITY U.S. GULF COAST - AS OF JANUARY 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 INSTALLED FCC REFINERY CAPACITY
l U.S. MIDWEST - AS OF JANUARY 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 INSTALLED FCC REFINERY CAPACITY U.S. WEST COAST - AS OF JANUARY 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 INSTALLED FCC REFINERY CAPACITY U.S. EAST COAST - AS OF JANUARY 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 INSTALLED FCC REFINERY CAPACITY REST OF UNITED STATES - AS OF JANUARY 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8 UNITED STATES FCC REFINERY CAPACITY SUMMARY JANUARY 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...*..
3.7 INSTALLED FCC REFINERY CAPACITY EUROPE - AS OF JANUARY 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..*............
3.8 INSTALLED FCC REFINERY CAPAClTY LATIN AMERICA AND CARIBBEAN - AS OF JANUARY 1991 . . . . . . . . , .
3.9 INSTALLED FCC REFINERY CAPAClTY JAPAN AND OTHER EAST ASIA - AS OF JANUARY 1991 . . . . . . . . . . , .
3.10 INSTALLED FCC REFINERY CAPACiTY CANADA AND AUSTRALIA - AS OF JANUARY 1991 . . . , . . . . . . . . , . . .
3.11 INSTALLED FCC REFINERY CAPACITY MIDDLE EAST AND INDIA - AS OF JANUARY 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.12 INSTALLED FCC REFINERY CAPACITY AFRICA - AS OF JANUARY 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.13 WORLDWIDE FCC REFINERY CAPACITY SUMMARY JANUARY 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
3-15
3-16
3-l 7
3-18
3-19
3-20
3-21
3-23
3-24
3-25
3-26
3-27
3-27
4.1 FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING - GENERAL CATALYST PREPARATIONS PATENT SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...*... A-3
I 5.1 FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING
PATENT SUMMARY I
. . . . . . . . . ..I............................... A-5
- xi -
TABLES (Continued)
5.2 TYPiCAL VACUUM GAS OIL CRACKING DESIGN BASIS AND ASSUMPTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-l 6
5.3 TYPICAL VACUUM GAS OIL CRACKING PRODUCT YIELDS AND PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-17
5.4 TYPiCAL VACUUM GAS OIL CRACKING STREAM FLOWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22
5.5 TYPlCAL VACUUM GAS OIL CRACKING MAJOR EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-23
5.6 TYPlCAL VACUUM GAS OIL CRACKING UTILlTlES SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-25
5.7 TYPICAL VACUUM GAS OIL CRACKING TOTAL CAFITAL INVESTMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-34
5.8 TYPICAL VACUUM GAS OIL CRACKING CAPITAL INVESTMENT BY SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-35
5.9 TYPlCAL VACUUM GAS OIL CRACKING PRODUCTION COSTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-38
8.1 OCTANE ENHANCEMENT PATENT SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-15
6.2 OCTANE ENHANCEMENT DESIGN BASES AND ASSUMPTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7
8.3 OCTANE ENHANCEMENT PRODUCT YIELDS AND PROPERTIES .m........................... 6-8
6.4 OCTANE ENHANCEMENT STREAM FLOWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11
6.5 OCTANE ENHANCEMENT MAJOR EQUIPMENT ,...,...................................... 6-12
6.6 OCTANE ENHANCEMENT UTILITIES SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-14
6.7 OCTANE ENHANCEMENT TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-19
6.8 OCTANE ENHANCEMENT CAPlTAL INVESTMENT BY SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20
- xii -
TABLES (Concluded)
6.9 OCTANE ENHANCEMENT PRODUCTION COSTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..*.*..... 8-21
7.1 RESID PROCESSING PATENT SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-18
7.2 RESID CRACKING DESIGN BASES AND ASSUMPTlONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..a.. 7-18
7.3 RESID CRACKING PRODUCT YIELDS AND PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-19
7.4 RESID CRACKING STREAM FLOWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..#....... 7-20
7.5 RESID CRACKING MAJOR EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a............ 7-21
7.6 RESID CRACKING UTIUTIES SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-23
7.7 RESID CRACKING TOTAL CAPlTAL INVESTMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . 7-32
7.8 RESID CRACKING CAPiTAL INVESTMENT BY SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..*a 7-33
7.9 RESID CRACKING PRODUCTlON COSTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-34
8.1 FCC RELATED PROCESSES PATENT SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-29
. . . - XIII -
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