Proceedings in Humanities

CONTENTS

  Author’s Name Affiliation Paper’s Title 1 Atcharabhorn Wannamakok

Suvannee Pothisri Kitiwat Kitibutra Pakpoom Pichawong  

Lampang Rajabhat University, THAILAND  

COMMUNICATION PROCESS TO BUILD PRIDE AND CULTURAL HERITAGE OF TAI LUE ETHNIC BY COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION AND YOUTH NETWORK

2 Bandana Baruah

Cotton College, Guwahati, INDIA  

THE ANTI-COLONIAL STRUGGLES OF NORTH-EAST INDIA (1826-57) - AN APPRAISAL

3 Chinenye Nwabueze Frank Nnaemeka  

Anambra State University, NIGERIA

CULTURAL VALUES AND JOURNALISM ETHICS: THE NIGERIAN EXPERIENCE

4 Sonia Dosoruth  

University of Mauritius, MAURITIUS

TEACHING FRENCH LITERATURE AT UNIVERSITY THROUGH PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING

5 G. Chiranjeevi Reddy

National Institute of Fashion Technology, Hyderabad, INDIA  

WORLD’S FASHION AND CREATIVE DESIGN EDUCATION AND ITS DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERISTICS: AN OVERVIEW

6 Konwea Patience Ayodele Clement  

Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, NIGERIA  

ATTITUDE OF UNDERGRADUATES TOWARDS THE PRACTICE OF ADOPTION IN NIGERIA

7 Nasrullah La Saundra Haynes Geraldine A. Moore Sofia Morote Stephanie Tatum

Dowling College, Oakdale, USA  

WHAT MATTERS IN RECRUITMENT OF MALE NURSES?  

8 Potana Venkateswara Rao  

University of Mysore, INDIA  

STREETS AS THE ARENA OF SOCIAL INCLUSION AND EXCLUSION OF CHILDREN: THE CASE OF STREET CHILDREN IN INDIA

9 Opoola Tajudeen Adeyera Christianah

Federal College of Education (Special) Oyo, NIGERIA  

INDIGENOUS LANGUAGES AS CATALYST FOR MORAL DEVELOPMENT AMONG NIGERIAN YOUTHS

10 Ruba AbdelMatloub Moawad  

King Saud University, Riyadh, SAUDI ARABIA  

EFFECTS OF WORD PHONOLOGICAL TYPE ON SHORT TERM MEMORY OF MONOLINGUAL AND BILINGUAL UNIVERSITY STUDENTS.  

Atcharabhorn Wannamakok

Suvannee Pothisri

Kitiwat Kitibutra

Pakpoom Pichawong

Lampang Rajabhat University, THAILAND

COMMUNICATION PROCESS TO BUILD PRIDE AND CULTURAL HERITAGE

OF TAI LUE ETHNIC BY COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION AND YOUTH NETWORK

* This research was supported in part by a grant from Lampang Rajabhat University and The Thailand

Research Fund.

Tai Lue Ethnic in Gluay Phae Sub-district, Muang Lampang District, Lampang Province have Culture,

beautiful and simple way of life, but in present mostly of youths of Tai Lue Community in Gluay Phae

Sub-district was uninterested and forgot own cultural. So people of Tai Lue Community and small group

of youth people in Gluay Phae Sub-district were worry about the situation and want to do something to

inheritance of Tai Lue culture.

Objective of the Study

The objective of this study was

1) for Tai Lue cultural heritage of Gluay Phae Sub-district by using participatory communication

process as the primary mechanism to drive

2) to empower and connect communities and youth networks Tai Lue cultural heritage

3) to create media for cultural heritage Tai Lue community and youth networks under participatory

communication processes.

Research Methodology

The research method was the Multiple Methodology such as

1/ Informal interview.

2/ In-depth interview with key informants.

3/ Participant Observation.

4/ Non-Participant Observation.

The Results

The research found that the inheritance of Tai Lue culture in Klauy Pae

sub-district by using Participatory Communication was done by promoting people in community and

children learn about their own roots, their social capital, as well as their good and weak points. The

research is done by searching data about a community context, analyze the situation about the cultural

inheritance to see an opportunity in building or linking youth networks in a community.

Next, the enhancement of community potential and create connection between a community and a youth

network of cultural inheritance in Klauy Pae sub-district by using Participatory Communication is done

by organizing special activities such as visiting Tai Lue Festival in Payao and Nan district. The objective

is to see an overall concept and use as a guideline for an activity in the future as well as create

connections. The cultural touring has provided them a chance to know more about Tai Lue and see a

trend of Tai Lue Festival in the future. Besides, there are also some supports from other organizations

and institutions such as temple, school, Tai Lue Association in Lampang. Thus, it becomes a youth

network entitled “Hoosoo Hootoo Hookon Tai Lue” (know yourself, know oneself, and know Tai Lue)

to promote Tai Lue culture in Klauy Pae sub-district. The activity is publicized and enlarged by words of

mouth and “friend’s invitation” plan.

The communication potential enhancement for community and youth to promote Tai Lue culture is

conducted by a research team and research assistant students. They are knowledgable of theory and

practice in communication field. The research team will fulfill the potential of the community and youth

to make creative media by concerning which kind of media they want to use as a tool to promote their

culture.

The research findings on the creation of media for promoting Tai Lue culture by a community and a

youth network by using Participatory Communication show that the participation starts since the

beginning until the end of process respectively; 1) searching data and surveying to collect for

information, 2) specify the cultural inheritance topics, 3) specify channel or media in communication, 4)

prepare for production, 5) making of media, 6) post-production process. Every process are participated

by people in the community, youth and researchers which might be difference in the participation levels.

The community participation is built by making regular visits and modest approach as one who needs to

learn from the community. The community takes part in 1) specifying the topics, 2) choosing

communicative channels, 3) passing on knowledge, 4) checking information, and 5) providing place and

support.

The youth participation is built by regular talks and contact in online social media and telephone

conversation. The communication is done in an informal manner like family and friends to create the

familiarity. The youth takes part in 1) specifying topics relating to the inheritance of Tai Lue culture, 2)

choosing communicative channels, 3) creating message they want to communicate, 4) planning on the

media process, 5) presenting knowledge on cultural aspects (in case that they are capable of), 6)

coordinating between researchers and the community, and 7) producing media to promote Tai Lue

culture.

The participation of researchers and research assistants are 1) stimulating and raising awareness,

changing of opinions as well as brainstorming to find some solutions for the communication to carry on

the Tai Lue culture between community and youth, 2) providing knowledge, techniques and

communication methods for community and youth during the communication process, and 3) providing

part of budget to support the media creation and communication process to promote Tai Lue culture

more than it used to be.

The youth network “Hoosoo Hootoo Hookon Tai Lue” (know yourself, know oneself, and know Tai

Lue) is an informal group of people who share the same interests and they are joining together by their

own wills. The network does not have structure and using the lateral or horizontal communication. The

core workers are the youth in Kluayluang village and some from other communes. The working process

is flexible and shifting roles between members.

The empirical results show that 1) the youth network “Hoosoo Hootoo Hookon Tai Lue”, who drives the

project and carry on Tai Lue culture and at the same time creating connections between youth in Klauy

Pae sub-district, will help in promoting the inheritance of Tai Lue culture, 2) they have made 3 sets of

creative media (2 types of media) which are illustration book in Tai Lue language, Tai Lue food

documentary film, and short film which are able to publicize and bring the dignity to Tai Lue youth, 3)

it becomes the working space for Tai Lue youth at Kluaypae Cultural Center where the youth can work

together since the beginning of the project and will use it in the future.

The abstract results are 1) the youth are being proud of being Tai Lue and themselves, 2) the project

creates higher collaborations between the youth, and 3) the community will facilitate and support the

works of the youth in the future.

References

Keyes, C.F. (1993).. Ethnic adaption and identity: the Karen on the Thai frontier with Burma.

Philadelphia : Institute for the study of human issues.

Bandana Baruah

Cotton College, Guwahati, INDIA

THE ANTI-COLONIAL STRUGGLES OF NORTH-EAST INDIA (1826-57) -

AN APPRAISAL

Assam, earlier known as Pragjyotisha and Kamarupa formerly encompassed a large area to include

almost the entire area of present day north eastern India with the exception of Manipur and Tripura

How-ever in the decades following independence (1947) several states were carved out, namely

Nagaland , Mizoram , Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya from Assam which led to the formation of a

total of seven states called seven sister states or collectively north east India. This northeastern part of

the present Republic of India too, like other parts of India witnessed colonial rule which began after

the conclusion of the first Anglo-Burmese war (1824-1826) in which the British forces were victorious

over the Burmese and subsequent signing of the Treaty of Yandaboo with the defeatist king of Ava

(Burma). In the beginning there was no resistance from the local populace and members of the Ahom

ruling classes including the royalist Satradhikars welcomed the British with utmost enthusiasm and

extended to them the most loyal co-operation which was but a natural re-action against the cruelties

perpetrated by their predecessors, the Burmese who were almost in control of the land from 1817 to

1824. The Ahom ruling class became optimistic about regaining their lost power and privileges with the

victory of the British but it was a shattered dream.

India was a colony of the British until 1947. Colonial rule was first established in Bengal after the battle

of Plassey in 1757. As British rule expanded from Bengal to other parts of India, new systems of

revenue were imposed, revenue extraction being the main motive of the British. The territories brought

under British administration were treated as part of the Presidency of Fort William in Bengal and

governed by the Governor – General of Bengal in Council through officers directly under their control

of whom David Scott was the chief in respect of political relations and civil administration (compare

Barpujari, 2007, p.25). The Supreme government in Bengal that is the British East India Company’s

government, a commercial company who gradually held the political reins were initially reluctant to

bring Assam under their sway as it was a far flung area. But for a long time, Burmese aggressiveness

and their arrogance had provoked the British Government in Bengal. The Burmese annoyed the British

by raiding frontier villages of British territory and developed a contempt for the might of the British .

They committed various acts of aggression in British territory of Goalpara, Sylhet and Chittagong. The

British Governor-General in Bengal made protests which were in vain and simply ignored by the

Burmese. Aggressions were committed by the Burmese in Manipur and Cachar too. Unable to tolerate

any further as the Burmese had taken Manipur were in possession of the Brahmaputra valley and had

even threatened to annex Cachar the British at last intervened. Though the Burmese replied that they had

come to restore Govindachandra the British got prepared for war. The British claimed Cachar as their

protected state and despatched forces to thwart Burmese invasions. The Anglo-Burmese war which thus

began climaxed in the expulsion of the Burmese from Assam. But soon after the retreat of the Burmese,

which concluded with the Treaty of Yandaboo on 24th February 1826 it was stated: ‘although by our

expulsion of the Burmese from the territory of Assam, the country would of right become ours by

conquest, the Governor – General in Council does not contemplate the permanent annexation of any part

of it to the British dominion‘. David Scott, Agent to the Governor General in the North East Frontier

too, in a proclamation stated ‘we are not led into your country by the thirst of conquest but are forced in

our defense to deprive the enemy of the means of annoying us’ (compare Barpujari, A Comprehensive

History of Assam, 2007, p. 6). Such statements led to rejoicing. But soon after the retreat of the

Burmese, the British changed their stand contrary to their assurances and decided to hold the

conquered territory under military occupation and to make arrangements for the temporary

administration of the land ,pending final decision.

The immediate reaction amongst the people of Assam who had enjoyed native rule for six hundred

years found the alien rule unacceptable, humiliating and difficult to adjust themselves. As a

consequence the initial enthusiasm soon evaporated and was substituted instead by deep abhorrence

and discontentment as the motives , policy and actions of the British were doubted by the members of

the Royal family for loosing estates and paiks in lieu of petty pensions, gratuities and offices in

subordinate ranks and amongst the nobles and the upper class people for losing their high social status

and position. They therefore organised themselves to restore the old Ahom monarchy and made repeated

attempts to oust the British. (compare Baruah, A Comprehensive History of Assam, 1985, p. 465)

David Scott and Lieutenant Colonel Richards were appointed as Joint Commissioners ,the former

entrusted in charge of Western Assam with headquarters at Guwahati while the latter of Eastern Assam

with headquarters at Rangpur. Colonel Richards was the Junior Commissioner and was to exercise civil

functions in addition to his military assignment, while David Scott was the Senior Commissioner

.Though both the Commissioners were to perform their duties independently they were expected to hold

discussion with each other so as to maintain a uniform system of administration throughout the

Brahmaputra valley. ‘They were empowered to decide all civil disputes, to administer criminal justice

(without authority to inflict capital punishment), to organize a police system and to set up jails’

(compare Barpujari A Comprehensive History of Assam, 2007, p. 7). Scott’s primary task was to

organise the revenue system.

The Governor-General, Lord William Bentinck, wrote on 24 June 1831: ‘…we must seek the best

military position on the Ava frontiers and show that we are prepared and as determined as prepared ,

not only to repel but chastise aggression. In such a situation it was natural to strengthen the position of

Gambhir Singh, ruler of Manipur, who was, in effect, the political and military warden of a vitally

important strategic area separating the British from the Burmese territories. He was allowed to maintain

an army 3,000 strong, to be trained and equipped by the British government. By an agreement dated 18

April 1833 it was arranged that ‘in the event of anything happening on the eastern frontier of the

British territories, the Raja (of Manipur) will assist the British Government with a portion of his troops.’

The provision of this Agreement hence did not place Manipur in the same status of ’subordinate co-

operation’ but was rather allowed to maintain an independent status though independence lost its usual

connotation as paramountcy acquired an extended meaning and during the crisis of 1891 the Governor –

General Lord Landsowne, described Manipur as a subordinate native state‘ which the British

government had rendered independent of Burma‘ and over which it had asserted suzerainty in many

ways (compare Barpujari, A Comprehensive History of Assam, 2007, pp. 3-4 ).

The status of Assam was a little different than what it was in Cachar, Jayantia and Manipur’ because

there was no Ahom prince to whom administrative responsibility could be handed over, as had been

done in the case of Govinda Chandra of Cachar, Ram Singh of Jayantia and Gambhir Singh of

Manipur.’ (compare Barpujari, A Comprehensive History of Assam, 2007, pp. 10-11). In all these

principalities there were ruling princes whom the British government could install by family inheritance

but unfortunately in Assam there were divisions in the Ahom royal family who had ruled the land for

almost six centuries. Hence in deciding the future of the Brahmaputra valley ,the Supreme

government had to attach great importance to the recommendations of David Scott . Scott hailed from

Scotland and after three years of training in the Fort William College in Calcutta, entered active official

career . ‘From the British point of view it was necessary to have in Assam a government capable of

maintaining internal peace, controlling the tribes and offering effective resistance to the Burmese if they

renewed their hostilities.’ (compare Barpujari, A Comprehensive History of Assam, 2007, p.11)

David Scott proposed in a letter to the authorities in Bengal for restoration of Ahom monarchy in

Assam on a tributary basis under the protection of the British government and alternately to retain

Lower Assam as far as Biswanath as a part of the British dominion making over the rest of the territory

with the exception of areas occupied by the Muttocks ,the Khamtis and the Singphos to an Ahom

prince. But his proposal did not receive consent from the Governor –General in Council as it meant

extension of British protectorate over areas , the resources of which were still to be ascertained. Scott

sent a revised proposal again recommending Lower Assam to be annexed permanently to British

dominion while Upper Assam be placed under an Ahom prince on terms to be specifically laid down.

The authorities in Calcutta this time reviewed the whole proposal from the economic beneficiary point

of view and estimated that since Lower Assam would yield a revenue upwards of three lakhs of rupees

and its inhabitants too were not sentimental about their erstwhile rulers , approved of Scott’s proposal

of permanent annexation of Lower Assam. They were however not keen in surrendering Upper Assam

to an Ahom prince since they felt that the Ahom Royal family had not extended any help to the

British in their war against the Burmese. The revenues of Upper Assam too were not stable and hence

did not merit consideration.

Soon arrangements were undertaken for collection of revenue , the highest priority accorded in their

agenda as well as new administrative measures in areas brought under direct control of British. But in

the actual working of the new measures, revenue and judicial, Scott was greatly disturbed and

dissatisfied and hence tried to solve the problem by replacing the locals with people from

neighbouring districts of Bengal .This abrupt change in policy produced great resentment amongst the

upper classes who felt that their future was extremely dark under the alien government and began to

think of ways to get rid of the British government and to place a ruler of their own in Upper Assam.

The first such struggle against British rule was led by Gomdhar Konwar, a prince of royal blood in

the year 1828. It was a planned revolt with support of some erstwhile nobles of the Ahom court serving

the British government at that time. The foresightedness of the timing of capturing the former Ahom

capital ,Rangpur and declaring himself as the Rajah was crucial as the capital then was protected by

a handful of soldiers who could be easily overpowered . Hence at a place called Bassa, in the

southeastern part of Jorhat, Gomdhar was formally enthroned with the insignia of royalty. Preparations

were underway to march against the British towards the end of 1828 but as the rebels advanced they

were intercepted by a detachment under Lieutenant Rutherford. After a feeble resistance Gomdhar fled

towards the Naga hills while his followers fell into the hands of the detachment. Gomdhar however

surrendered after a few days of wandering to Rutherford. The secret documents in his possession

revealed the involvement of Dhanjoy and his son and both of them were apprehended. In consideration

of the fact that Gomdhar was used as a mere tool the Agent to the Governor–General commuted the

capital punishment awarded to him by the panchayat to an imprisonment for a period of seven years.

Dhanjoy who was found guilty of aiding and abetting the rebellion was sentenced to death. Though the

rebellion was a failure it sent a warning to the British that the people of Assam were far from being

reconciled to their new rule In the middle of 1829 a second attempt was made to negate the British by

placing another Ahom prince ,Gadadhar Singha, a relative of Jogeswar Singha instigated by the

Burmese king. He was moving in the Burmese frontier in the guise of a Khamti priest and inciting

people to fight the invaders and proposed assasination of British officers. Though he tried to win over

the British regiment at Sadiya by diplomatic means Zalim Singh , the Subedar of the Regiment

succeeded in handing him over to the Agent to the Governor –General and he was sent to Gauhati for

trial for his conspiracy to start a rebellion against the British Government.

Yet another revolt was organized by some members of the Ahom nobility led by Peali Barphukan .This

revolt too was a failure and failed to achieve the desired goals due to last minute changes and betrayal

of Sadiya Khowa Gohain, the Khamti chief. The handing over of one of the Agents of the rebels to the

British authorities, by the Sadiya Khowa Gohain, the timely arrival of British forces and the

nonparticipation of Peali Bar Barooah ,one of the leaders of the revolt at the last moment were the main

reasons which defeated the cause of the rebels. Besides these , the rebels did not get the much needed

support from the people in general who were sceptical about the success of the revolt with the

experience of the two previous unsuccessful rebellions still fresh in their memory. This revolt too was

successfully suppressed by the British. In August 1830, Peali and Jeoram were hanged while other

prisoners had their capital sentences commuted to transportation for a period of fourteen years along

with confiscation of property for treason against the British government.

The discontentment and abhorrence of British rule was not confined to the Brahmaputra valley alone

but spread to the hills where slow but steady penetration of the British into the hilly region ( presently

called Meghalaya) started causing irritation to the Khasis. These were rooted in emotion. The emotion

was that they preferred to live independently and did not like interference. No motive was so strong

amongst the tribesmen as the preservation of their land and the forests, the encroachment on which was

stubbornly resisted by them. (Dihingia, 1980, p. 131 ). Among the other tribes who offered resistance

to colonial authority were the Jaintias ,the Nagas, the Garos, the Kukis, the Singphos , the Khamtis ,the

Mishmis ,the Bhutias ,the Daflas and the Abors.

There were several petty states in the Khasi Hills each under different Rajas. Resistance to Colonial

authority by the Khasis started in 1828 and continued until 1832 under Barmanik ,the Raja of Khyrim

in 1828 and by Terrut Singh, Raja of Nungklow in 1829 . British occupation of Lower Assam resulted

in suppression of the Khasis who had long been in possession of the lowlands known as Naduar or nine

duars north of their hills and having tasted freedom earlier under the Ahom government were in no

mood for reconciliation. The Khasi chiefs were allowed by the former government to occupy the

(passes) subject to their homage , good behaviour and payment of nominal rent in kind. But on account

of their complicity in the Burmese war , the British stripped several chiefs of their possessions. With the

remaining duars Scott entered into settlement with them for fixed sums of cash. But scarcity of cash

where barter was the prevailing transaction the Khasi chiefs could not fulfill their obligations which

resulted in huge arrears. Collectors had to be changed and in some cases duars were brought directly

under the British government. Within a few years the Khasis became conscious that they were deprived

of their lowlands so vital for their necessaries. Hence they became restive and the beginnings of

assertion was taken by Barmanik, the Raja of Khyrim. In August 1828 he descended in the plains of

Dimarua, near Gauhati and seized the collections made by the revenue officers and gave a public

declaration that the next year he was reoccupying the duars(Baruah,1985,pp-466-67 ) . But he was

suppressed very soon and entered into a treaty with the British,which stated … ‘ Whereas I, Burro

Manika, Raja of Khyrim have waged war against the government which have suffered great loss and

whereas they have taken possession of my country, I tender appearance and acknowledge my

dependence on and placing myself under the protection of the Hon’ble Company, I enter into this

agreement regarding my country with the consent of the Sudder Judges in the year 1830’(Mills,

A.J.M,Report on the Khasi and Jaintia Hills,1853.)There were several other sections which he was made

to agree.

It was Terrut Singh ,Raja or Siem of Nungklow who took the lead of ousting the British from their

land in 1829. In the beginning he was friendly with the British and as a price for mediation by the

British in his disputed succession he had been persuaded by David Scott to place himself under British

protection and agree to the opening up of a road across the Khasi hills , joining Assam with Sylhet.

When the road was cleared and a bungalow and a police outpost were erected at Nongkhlao , doubts

arose in the minds of the freedom loving Khasis that it was just the beginning of more wanton

aggression on their hills.( Baruah,1985,p.467). The Khasis then fought on 4th April 1829 against the

British for a year but having failed to match the superior military tactics and efficiency of the British all

the Khasi chiefs except Terrut Singh surrendered to them. Terrut Singh continued to defy the British for

four years but ultimately surrendered and entered into a treaty with the British . ‘ In the year 1826 our

intercourse first started with them. The then Government Agent, Mr.Scott deeming it expedient to have a

direct communication between Assam and Sylhet entered into a negotiation with the chieftains ;which

terminated in permission being granted to us to open a road and to establish a sanitorium at Nungklow

(Nongkhlao).The events which followed, viz, the massacre of two British officers, Lieutenants

Bedingfield and Burlton and some fifty or sixty native subjects at that place; the general disaffection of

the tribes, the consequent warfare; the apprehension of some of the outlaws; the eventual submission of

the chieftains; and the entire subjugation of the country are matters of history that I need not dwell upon.

It is sufficient for the purposes of this report to observe that all opposition having been finally overcome

, the Agency was established on the 11th February 1835 and Colonel Lister ,then Captain Lister was

appointed Political Agent of the Khasi Hills.’ (Mills, A.J.M,Report on Khasi and Jaintia Hills 1853).

Shortly after the establishment of the Agency its jurisdiction was extended by the annexation of the Hill

territory or Jaintia Hills belonging to the Jaintia Raja…’The Jaintia Raja at that time was in possession

of his territory but he had fallen under the displeasure of Government in consequence of the immolation

of three British subjects by a dependent chieftain of Jaintia at the shrine of Kali and of his refusal to give

up the murderers and shortly afterwards ,viz in March 1835 Colonel Lister was directed to hold and

annex to the British dominions the plains of Jaintia as a measure of retributive justice for the barbarities

that had been committed. The Raja ,however when shorn of this valuable portion of his territory

,declined to retain possession of the hill tract and this or the centrical portion of his territory was also

annexed and comprises the Jaintia Hills under Colonel Lister’s control.’(Mills,A.J.M,Report on the

Khasi and Jaintia Hills,1853)

The Angami Naga country was first visited by Europeans in January 1832 when Captains Jenkins and

Pemberton marched from Manipur to explore the opening of a route from Assam to Manipur through

the Naga territory. The party was opposed and obstructed in its progress by the Nagas who though

ignorant of the use of fire-arms gave stiff resistance which went all in vain as their village was occupied

by the troops. A stockade was taken at the point of bayonet.(Mills,A.J.M ,Report on the Province of

Assam, 1984, p.240 ).The tactics of the Nagas included rolling down stones from the summit of the hills

,throwing spears , by yelling and intimidation to obstruct the advance of the force.’ In the cold season

of 1833 Lieutenant Gordon conducted the second expedition into the Angami Naga hills and was

accompanied by the late Gumbheer Singh with a sufficient force, but a powerful coalition was entered

into by all the hill tribes to arrest his progress though ultimately the British won owing entirely to use of

fire-arms. As North Cachar was annexed to the district of Nowgong, on the 5th January 1839

Mr.Grange Sub-Assistant Commissioner was entrusted with a detachment to proceed to the Angami

country to endeavour to repress the yearly incursions of the Angami Nagas into Cachar for plunder and

slaves. Several such expeditions were sent. ‘When they begin to appreciate the benefits of trade, inroads

for plunder will be of less frequent occurence and we shall by stopping the trade have greater power in

punishing them and by tact in time we may induce them to surrender delinquents ,whereas to capture

them by military expeditions is perfectly impossible .’( Mills,A.J.M,Report on the Province of Assam

,1984,p.262). In 1853, it was decided by the British government to follow a policy of non-interference

in the internal affairs of the Nagas and of establishing commercial relation with them by freely allowing

them to come to the village markets and barter their commodities. But this policy also failed to achieve

its desired goal (Dihingia,1980,p.131) These indicate that the Nagas were determined to resist colonial

domination to the last howsoever superior their enemies may have been. They were imbued with the

idea that they were superior in the mountains and no leniency would be shown to anyone who ventured

to encroach their land or infringe upon their rights.

David Scott submitted a fresh proposal for restoration of Ahom monarchy in Upper Assam. Lord

William Bentinck the Governor –General agreed to Scott’s proposal but the latter’s death in 1830

delayed the matter until October 1832 when it was finally resolved to restore Upper Assam to a

member of the Ahom royal family. Of the several claimants to the throne the choice fell on Purandar

Singha. Accordingly, on March 2 ,1833 an agreement was made with Purandar Singha by which he

committed himself inter alia to pay an annual tribute of Rs 50,000, to obey the orders of the Political

Agent and to administer justice on the principles prevailing in Company’s territory. He was to govern

the area lying between the Dhansiri river and the Dihing river on the south bank and Biswanath and

Sadiya on the north bank of the river Brahmaputra. The British officials themselves knew that the tribute

imposed on Purandar Singha was too high to be realised from a miserable and impoverished land which

was yet to be set in order and which was the hotbed of rebellion and conspiracies. Yet they clung to it.

The declaration that the old monarchy was restored brought fresh hopes to the nobles who wanted

revival of their power and previleges. On 24th April Purandar Singha was installed as the king

according to Ahom rites. Chandrakanta another claimant to the throne proposed to pay the British

government an annual tribute of Rs 70,000 if placed on the throne. But he was pacified with a pension of

five hundred per month.

The restoration of Purandar Singha was an ostentatious measure by the British to appease the old

aristocracy whose only aim was restoration of native rule. In reality the British were careful to impose

such conditions on the king that their non-fulfillment would offer them a pretext for removing the king

and would facilitate annexation of Upper Assam to their dominion. As expected Purandar Singha could

not collect and pay up the required amount to the Company’s government in Bengal. The presence of

the Matak kingdom in the vicinity whose inhabitants enjoyed greater liberty and equality led to exodus

of people from Purandar Singha’s territory to the Matak kingdom. Despite these odds Purandar Singh

paid up the necessary amount for the first two years of his restoration. When he could not he urged the

company to grant him some remission. Captain White, the Political Agent solved the problem by

compelling the Matak chief to pay a higher tribute. Purandar Sngha had tried hard to win the confidence

of the Political Agent by apprehending Dhanjay and Harakanta , leaders of the resistance movement but

in the meantime the British grew lenient towards the erstwhile rebels and started causing fresh

harassments to Purandar despite his most faithful services to them. Purandar had other problems as well

.There was an outbreak of cholera in 1835 followed by that of a famine in the very next year. As a result

he failed to make regular payments of his tribute. His financial difficulties became more acute as there

was exodus of people from his area as capitation, house and hearth taxes as well as taxes on one’s caste

and calling were abolished in Central and Lower Assam. His own officials had also become inimical to

him, there were incursions from the hill tribes in his territory. The nobles in the meantime complained to

Major Jenkins , the Commissioner about Purandar Singha thinking that his removal would solve their

problems. That was exactly what the authorities were waiting for and so Major Jenkins visited Upper

Assam in the beginning of 1838 and submitted a report to the Calcutta government alleging that there

was misgovernment in Purandar’s territory and recommending its immediate resumption as Upper

Assam had vast potentialities of tea, coal and petroleum . In support of his contention he also forwarded

some anonymous petitions asking for the removal of Purandar. Accordingly, on September 16 , 1838

Upper Assam was permanently annexed to the Company’s territories. Purandar Singha was offered a

pension of one thousand rupees which was however refused by him.

The Khamti insurrection on 28th January 1839 broke out as the Khamtis were affected by British policy

of emancipation of hundreds of Assamese slaves on whose labour their agriculture depended their tract

being brought under assessment and under the Company’s occupation ,their mainstay being agriculture

. Being deprived of their land and freedom they had so long enjoyed gave vent to their indignation. The

growing insecurity on the frontier after annexation of Upper Assam compelled British decision and

action as the territories of the Khamtis, Singphos and Mataks lay between the Burmese and British

territories . Captain Hannay temporarily vested with the command of the regiment raided the Khamti

villages ,burnt their granaries and adopted vigorous measures to apprehend the ring leaders.To ensure

security of the frontier the cantonment was removed to Saikhowa and then to Sibsagar which

commanded the route to Ava. Doubtful fidelity of the Singphos made it necessary for the British to raise

up stockades at Delli, Tazee, Koojoo, and all lines of communication from Saikhowa to Jaypur and

thence to Ningroo so as to complete the line of defence. As the expeditions against the Khamtis were

being carried on, steps were also taken to annex the Matak kingdom .

David Scott had in May 1826 made an agreement with the Barsenapati of the Mataks by which the latter

agreed to give the British the service of an armed contingent 300 soldiers (paiks) and to supply provision

to any British expedition passing through his territory. So long the British authority in Upper Assam was

not consolidated , the British followed a conciliatory policy towards the Mataks, the Khamtis and the

Singphos on strategic grounds. But the Matak territory had been uppermost in the minds of the British as

the area was the best tea-growing area in Upper Assam along with its inhabitants to be profitably

engaged in the cultivation. By 1835,Captain White made significant advance towards annexing the

Matak kingdom, when its Barsenapati offered to commute the service of the 300 paiks, soldiers for Rs

1.800,00 at the rate of Rs 6 per head.This was only a temporary measure.In January 1839, the

Barsenapati died and was succceeded by his second son,Manju Gohain.A few days before his

assassination by the Khamtis Captain White visited the Matak kingdom and tried to revise the settlement

with a view to to increasing thhe tribute to Rs 10,000 and secondly in getting the wastelands in the

territory for tea cultivation. The Barsenapati agreed to the second proposal but not to the first.

Unfortunately at that time differences arose between the Marans and the rest of the Matak

populaton.Taking advantage of the situation the British annexed the kingdom in December 1842 and

placed it under the jurisdiction of thePrincipal Assistant stationed at Lakhimpur. For further safeguards

the Second Sebundry was also stationed at Rangagar, the former Matak capital and the headquarters

were shifted to Dibrugarh.

While measures for the security of the frontier were in progress the Singphos made an attack at Beesa

and Ningroo.The rebels were beaten off at the latter outpost but the detachment at Beesa surrendered

after two days when their ammunition became short, both the jamadar and the havildar were tied up in a

tree and hacked to pieces and most of the sepoys were sold out as slaves.The stockade at Koojoo was

also attacked but somehow got saved due to the timely arrival of a party of sepoys under Lieutenant

Lockett. All the Singpho chiefs including the Beesa and Ningro who had hitherto been loyal to the

government were involved in the outbreak, the acknowledged leader was however Serro-la-ten the

would be successor of the Beesa gaum. Feeling insecure the Beesa surrendered and Ningroola followed

suit. On being repulsed several chiefs took up their position near Ningroo wherefrom they were

dislodged by a party of sepoys under Lieutenant Reid, the Commandant of the Local

Artillery,Dibrugarh. Captain Vetch who arrived in time at Beesa to concert measures with Lieutenant

Lockett and Reynold succeeded in driving the enemy from their stockaded position at Beesa and

Kerempani. Thereafter the enemy could offer but little resistance and most of them beat a hasty retreat

abandoning their stocks and slaves.

The sudden and simultaneous attack on the two frontier outposts followed by a report that that

Saikhowa was also threatened by a body of the Khamtis, led Jenkins ,the Commissioner to conclude that

it was a well organised plan in which the Tipam Raja ,then governor of Maugaung, too had a secret

hand. The Tipam Raja was heir apparent to king Jogeswar Singha , living in Burma and had been

claiming Upper Assam .Through his agents the pretender made it known to his relatives that he would

anyhow take his rightful territory even if it involved application of force . In regard to the complicity of

Tipam Raja Jenkins held the view that the Raja connived and encouraged the Singphos to keep the

frontier disturbed.It was clear from the depositions of a number of captured Singphos that the main

reason for their agitation against the British rule was to regain their ancestral land which had been

grabbed by the British by force. The last series of insurrections of the Singphos to harass the British

Government took place in 1843 when a number of chiefs executed the attack in the British territory in

collaboration with the Singphos in Hookong in Burma.

While the British were implementing the measures for consolidating their rule in Upper Assam they also

in pursuance of their policy of territorial expansion turned their attention to the hills of North Cachar

ruled by a Kachari chief named Tularam. Tularam who was initially the commander of a wing of foot

soldiers soon asserted himself as an independent ruler in the hills of North Cachar. In the meantime

when the ruler Govinda Chandra sought British assistance to recover his throne from the Manipuri

adventurers Tularam became critical of him and began instigating people against Govinda Chandra as

the latter had killed his father. Tularam introduced himself as a direct descendent of Tamradhvaj and

began to make raids on his territory. Unable to do anything Govinda Chandra sought British assistance

but the latter brought about a compromise between the two. Tularam was however not content with that

and continued his raids in Govinda Chandra’s territory. Govinda Chandra having no male heir sought

the permission of the Company government for adoption but was murdered in April before a decision

could be arrived at. Thereafter there were several claimants to the throne .The Company’s Government

in Assam wanted to annex it and after the suggestion of Major Jenkins Cachar was annexed in August

1832.

The Garos used to indulge in frequent raids in British territory and several expeditions were sent against

them. Ultimately their raids were stopped in 1861 when the British government assuaged them by

granting stipends to some of the Garo chiefs by entrusting to them the responsibility of maintaining

peace and tranquility in their areas.

Prior to the advent of the British rule, the tribes inhabiting the northern hills , the Bhutias, the Akas, the

Daflas and the Abors often clashed with the Ahom rulers for penetration of their hills. During the time

of war with the Mughals the Ahom rulers became lenient towards them and followed a conciliatory

policy of granting all these tribes the right of collecting’ Posa’ so that they would refrain from

committing raids in the border villages. When Assam passed into the hands of the British they too

continued the same policy for sometime but later on they curtailed some of their privileges which

provoked them and therefore they renewed their raids which made the northern frontier unsafe. The

British government from time to time sent expeditions against them which they resisted.

The revolt in Assam (1857-58) co-incided with the revolt in other parts of India and was the last bid for

regaining native rule in Assam under the leadership of Maniram Dutta Barooah a distinguished

Assamese personality with a number of patriotic persons who had deep hatred for the British rule. The

uprisings of 1857 created severe financial strain on the British Indian Government.

Thus Assam passed into the hands of the British Raj after her victory in the Anglo-Burmese war and

consequent signing of the Treaty of Yandabo on February 24, 1826. Though they were initially

welcomed to get rid of Burmese rule their rule too, was resisted by the people of north-eastern India

and several vain attempts were made to dislodge them . The first rebellion to subvert British rule was by

Gomdhar Konwar in 1828 followed by that of Gadadhar Singha who was instigated by the Burmese

king. The third revolt by the Ahom nobility was under the leadership of Peali Bar Phukan though all of

them were abortive. British domination among the different tribes - the Khasis , the Nagas , the

Khamtis, Singhphos , the Jayantias, the Mishmis, the Bhutias the Daflas and the Abors was also

challenged. Though the people of northeastern India struggled against alien rule they were unsuccessful

for a number of factors which could be attributed to British efficiency and superiority in arms

,military tactics and strategy ,their military and civil discipline, their economic resources ,dynamic

leadership qualities which were unmatched in northeast India . The British no doubt suffered losses

both in men and money , averses and reverses yet they succeeded in ultimately establishing their hold

over northeastern India until their final departure in 1947 when India got independence.

Acknowledgements

1.Barpujari,H.K,The Comprehensive History of Asam,2007,Publicatin Board, Assam

2. Barpujari,H.K et al, History of Assam, Volume One,1826-1919,1977,Gauhati.

3.Baruah,S.L,A comprehensive History of Assam,2009,Delhi.

4.Dihingia, H,Assam’s struggles against British Rule,1980,Delhi.

5.Archival records, Assam State Archives, Dispur,Report on the Khasi and Jaintia Hills,1853.

Chinenye Nwabueze

Frank Nnaemeka

Anambra State University, NIGERIA

CULTURAL VALUES AND JOURNALISM ETHICS: THE NIGERIAN EXPERIENCE

Introduction

Journalism profession in Nigeria is not practiced in isolation. Journalists exist in specific societies and

are influenced in one way or the other by cultural forces, aspirations and convictions that make up the

society. The mass media have in fact been described as cultural institutions through which cultural

products flow in an increasingly fluid way (Murdock and Golding, 2005: 68). As Murdock and Golding

(2005) have observed cultural products do not only flow between and across the media, but media

workers are also influenced by cultural forces within the society they operate, in the discharge of their

duties. This postulation is buttressed by the fact that institutions in any society exist in a social matrix,

that is an interactional relationship which ensures that what affects one institution has a ripple effect on

other institutions in that society. This interactional and mutually inter-dependent nature of structures in

the society is premised on the functionalism theory which according to Udoakah (2007) personifies the

society as an organism which is made up of a system of interdependent parts that variously serve

functions that ensure the survival of the system. In the same vein, these institutions have an interactional

relationship with the culture of the society within which they exist.

Culture encompasses the totality of human behaviour, life style, beliefs, customs, values and value

system that shape any society. The nature of any society or distinct group of people is given expression

through the way of life of persons identified with that society or group. What people value gives

meaning to their culture. The value system largely determines how a people live, think, act, what they

cherish, what they wish to be associated with, and what they strive to achieve in order to be recognized

in the society. Socio-cultural values spell out esteemed life style and routine expectations that give

cultural identity to a people. Ethics constitutes one of the indices for ensuring professionalism in the

practice of journalism in any society. Without sincere adherence to the need to decipher what is good

from what is bad in the line of duty, as spelt out in a professional code of ethics, journalism practice

could lose the bite which is essential in effectively watch-dogging the society. However, the value

system of a specific society plays positive or negative roles as the case may be, in determining the

adherence to ethical standards by journalists.

In Nigeria, corruption has eaten deep into the value system and moral fabric of the society. To a large

extent corruption has been glorified by certain cultures, thereby giving value to activities, aspirations

and pursuits that should have otherwise been condemned. The Nigerian society is such that a person

who is known today as an unemployed idle person having little or nothing to make ends meet, suddenly

becomes wealthy tomorrow and nobody asks questions about the source of his wealth. Instead, he is

recognized with chieftaincy titles; he makes contributions to political office holders, builds churches and

gives scholarship to students. There have been instances where even known convicts of various crimes

have ended up as political god fathers. People no longer want to grow gradually or create wealth

gradually, but rather aspire to become wealthy by all means because that is what society seems to

glorify. Today’s journalist in Nigeria seems to be caught up in this scenario.

Mfumbusa (2008: 140) has asserted that “media professionals in Africa operate in a context marked by

the politics and culture of the larger society that are essentially dishonest and corrupt.” Mfumbusa’s

postulation is from the perspective of the influence of negative culture on ethical issues in journalism

practice. Value systems largely breed conscious journalism practice on corrupt or unethical foundations.

It is also possible that positive cultural practices could influence journalism practice premised on

professional ethics.

This article discusses the interplay between value systems, news values and professional ethics of

journalists in Nigeria. The article explores cultural convictions of journalists and the struggle to adhere

to ethical standards in their line of duty. It looks at the journalist as existing in the larger society which

not only determines how he lives and what he thinks about but what he values and strives to achieve.

This work contributes to the debate on the media and culture by arguing that the cultural environment

within which the Nigerian journalist exists and operates which, according to Mfumbasa, is essentially

dishonest and corrupt, exerts pressure and often times leads the journalist to go against the ethics of his

profession to make money. The paper emphasizes Mfumbasa’s observation concerning the relationship

between the media, politics, culture and values, using the Nigerian media environment as an example.

The way people engage in daily transactions, their inspirations and aspirations in life are largely

determined by their value system and cultural convictions. How does this postulation relate to

journalistic ethics? In what ways do journalists factor in cultural convictions shaped by value system of

the society in which they exist, in the discharge of their duties? These are questions this article seeks to

answer.

Theoretical Nexus

This paper is based on studies on ethics in the media, especially the influence of culture and poverty on

journalistic ethics regarding journalists’ attitudes towards corruption. Studies show that poor

remuneration (Okoro and Ugwuanyi 2006; Adeyemi and Okorie 2009; Nwabueze, 2010; Mabweazara,

2010) and the media in Africa exist in an atmosphere of politics and a culture that are essentially

dishonest and corrupt (Mfumbasa 2008). These exert pressure on the journalist leading to corrupt

practices such as acceptance of gratifications from news sources, and willfully not adhering to

journalistic ethics. This work establishes that there exists a relationship between societal pressure and

journalistic ethics (Nwabueze, 2010) but argues that the way out is adherence to professional tenets even

in the face of challenges and temptations. The journalist ought to realize that there also exists positive

values in the society which uphold integrity and credibility, and men of integrity still exist in Nigeria.

Engaging in media corruption on the grounds of negative value system is definitely not an excuse. There

are also positive cultural values which should be pursued.

Kasoma’s (1999) argument on journalism education as a panacea for professionalism receives credence

of this point. Kasoma argued that although practicalizing what was taught in journalism training schools

is a different thing all together, journalism education remains essential to professionalism in journalism.

His point is that journalists who did not receive journalism training are most likely to fall prey to

inducements and temptations to operate unethically either due to negative value system or other factors

and this costs media organizations their reputation. Ignorance, Kasoma (1999) argues, is the bedrock of

inability to resist extraneous pressures that discourage professionalism:

It is true that knowing about journalistic chores from the classroom is one thing and putting them into

practice is another. But it is also true that unless journalists know what they are supposed to do, they

cannot be expected to perform accordingly… It is precisely the act of trying to use people who are

ignorant of journalism that has cost many independent newspapers in Africa their reputation, credibility

and, often their very existence and greatly endangered press freedom on the continent.

Kasoma’s argument on the significant relationship between unprofessionalism and lack of journalism

education is to an extent debatable. This is because research evidence has shown that some trained

journalists in Nigeria and some other African countries engage in media corruption (acceptance of

gratifications or what is commonly referred to as brown envelope) due to various other factors among

which is poor remuneration/salaries (Okoro and Ugwuanyi 2006; Adeyemi and Okorie 2009; Nwabueze,

2010; Mabweazara, 2010) and societal value system. However, the argument by Kasoma (1999) could

be considered in an effort to ensure professionalism in journalism. Kasoma’s argument receives support

from observations by Mpagaze and White (2010) who, after a study of Tanzanian journalists’ perception

of their ethics, established the existence of bribery in the media (acceptance of gratifications from news

sources). Mpagaze and White (2010) therefore called for better training programme for journalists as

one of the ways out of this ethical challenge. They also saw the need to establish clear criteria in news

values and in dealing with pressures from news sources, especially in detecting and controlling bribery

in journalism, which can be translated into enforced codes of ethics for media houses and better training

of journalists to make the media houses’ codes of ethics more effective. This paper shares the view that

professionalism premised on better training can contribute immensely in checking corruption in the

media.

Conceptual Clarifications: Culture and Value Systems

Values constitute one of the major pillars that give identity to the culture of a people. The Oxford

Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defines values as beliefs about what is right and wrong and what is

important in life. If a people recognize an act or idea as essential in life, such act or idea becomes an

accepted norm in the society and invariably translates to acceptable cultural component of the people’s

existence.

Values, beliefs and norms are sometimes used interchangeably. However, specific definitions have

looked at values as beliefs or what people believe in. Values are core aspects of a people’s culture. What

then is culture? The term ‘Culture’ simply refers to the lifestyle a specific people are known for. Culture

has variously been defined as manifestations of human intellectual achievement regarded collectively,

the customs, civilization and achievements of a particular time or people (Sinclair, in Onyeisi 2007: 48);

all the material and spiritual characteristics and products of human intelligence acquired from the remote

past, in the advancement of humanity (Mbagwu 2007: 64). Culture is also seen as patterns of behaviour

and thinking that people living in a social group learn, create, and share (Encata Encyclopedia 2006); the

entirety of norms, values, belief systems and life patterns that give a group of people an identity

(Nwabueze, 2007: 184); a complex concept that refers to the common values, beliefs, social practices,

rules, and assumptions that bind a group of people together (Dominick, 2009: 45). Culture is an

important social reality which manifests in various aspects of life - religion, language, technology,

sports, education, media, etc.

Life in itself is to an extent, a reflection of a specific culture. Most definitions of culture mention value

as a major component of culture. Whether viewed as cultural, moral, social, or educational values, they

shape the life of a people. Gemstone (2009: 1) has this to say about values in any society:

Values are the fabric of any society. They influence the beliefs and morals of the people. The values of

any nation determine what is important to the people. They influence aspirations, thoughts, words and

actions.

Value system, therefore, is an organized, accepted or functional set of common thoughts, words and

actions which give a people cultural identity and determine what they cherish and recognize as

important. The value system influences aspirations, thoughts, words and actions of a people. The value

system cannot be divorced from a people’s culture. It has been described as “a major component of a

society’s culture”, that is, ”systems of values and beliefs which are characteristic of that society”

(Learning Commons, 2009: 1). Belief/value system significantly influences the culture of a people.

Culture has also been defined as consisting of learned behaviour. Beliefs and values affect virtually

every learned behaviour; thus, these systems are a central component of the larger cultural systems in

which they exist.” (Learning commons, 2009: 1).

Culture and News Values: The fusion

The basic role of journalism in any society is to inform, educate and entertain. Dominick (2009, p.31)

also refers to the information role as the surveillance function of the media. This, he says, is closely

related to the interpretation function which consists of providing information on the ultimate meaning

and significance of events.

News values are factors considered in determining which event, topic or issue to be covered as news.

Journalists use news values to decide what the audience would be interested in. The routine news values

are impact, timeliness, prominence, proximity, conflict, oddity, and currency. However, the focus here is

not just on journalists’ perception of what makes news based on the routine news values mentioned

above, but also on the other extraneous factors that inform the criteria for determining news stories.

Some of the common criteria for determining “good” news stories are defence of human rights, exposure

of social injustices and the need to inform and guide the public (Ogongo-Ongong’a and White 2008:

159). Also considered in determining what makes news are the classic journalistic norms of accuracy,

faithfulness to sources, avoidance of economic and political influences and critical loyalty to the news

organization and to one’s colleagues (Ogongo-Ongong’a and White, 2008, p. 159). These factors –

routine news values, and classic journalistic norms - influence the shaping of news template by

journalists.

News values as used in the context of this article consist of what journalists generally consider in

determining what makes news, what forces influence what should be given prominence, or what should

be considered timely, what should be treated as current, or what should be treated or selected as

proximity–based news story. The news value concept here also includes the criteria considered in

seeking out stories or picking out the important aspects of a story. For instance, after a study of young

journalists in Kenya (Ogongo-Ongang’a and White 2008) found that the following factors shape the

news values of the studied young journalists – setting the agenda for personal and public decision

making, educating the public regarding their rights, representing the views of the excluded, contributing

to social and political reform, and providing information for critical and discerning voting. These are the

criteria upon which the young journalists decide what should be given prominence, what should be

considered current or timely, what proximity-based news should be selected and worked on or which

report should be considered based on the impact value.

The interest of this discussion is specifically on how cultural values influence news values in relation to

Nigerian journalists. What aspects of culture are considered in shaping the news? The interaction

between cultural values and journalism practice cannot be ruled out. The journalist exists in the society

which has a cultural identity. There exists an interplay between the journalists and cultural forces in his

environment. Mfumbusa (2008: 140) notes that “media professionals in Africa operate in a context

marked by the politics and culture of the larger society”. Elliot (cited in Ogongo-Ongong’a and White

2008: 162) observes that “the bases upon which individuals develop value systems are unique and

complex combinations of religious beliefs, education, family and cultural norms, individual rationality

and consciously or unconsciously accepted conventions of the many subcultures in which one lives”.

Culture is measured in terms of the attitudes, beliefs, norms and values which the people of a nation

have and hold on to in general (Aluko 2003). In the Nigerian context, how has cultural value system

played out on news values and journalistic norms? The individual cultural convictions of specific

journalists and the more general value systems and norms of the society in which the journalists exist

and practice their profession possibly exert pressures on the journalists. Such pressures could lead to

conflict of interest capable of affecting credibility of the reporter and the profession in general. The

pressures could also further encourage professionalism in journalism practice, depending on the

perspective of cultural pressure at work on a reporter.

Value System Versus Journalistic Ethics: The Nigerian Experience

Ethics is concerned with what is morally good or bad, right or wrong. A code of ethics is a set of moral

principles, guidelines or rules that guide activities of a person or group of persons. This discussion

specifically deals with journalistic ethics which is a set of moral principles guiding the practice of

journalism. For instance, a journalist is not expected to glorify violence, sex and indecency in his/her

report. He/she is not expected to identify relatives or friends of accused persons/crime suspects without

their consent. A reporter should not make discriminatory or disapproving remarks about any gender,

ethnic group, class of society, religion etc. These are among many ethical issues associated with

journalism practice which the journalist is expected to factor into his/her actions in the line of duty.

However, the value system of a society could exert pressure on a journalist and possibly cause the

reporter to operate from an unethical pedestal if he/she is not strong enough to resist the culture-induced

temptation (Nwabueze, 2010: 499). Also, Hanson (2005: 419) writes that “ being fair and balanced are

the core of journalistic values …. At times, however, other factors can overwhelm that value”. The

argument being raised here is that cultural values could overwhelm the basic journalistic values of an

average Nigerian journalist. Germini de Alwis and Senathiraja (2003) write that work ethics in a society

is largely influenced by its culture and it has a direct relationship to its value systems. Cultural values

and journalism ethics are constantly at war (Nwabueze 2010: 499). Journalism ethics is played up where

a journalist is faced with conflicting values in the society, especially values that are incompatible with

tenets of professionalism. Kasoma (1999: 447) notes that journalism ethics is concerned with making

sound decisions in journalistic performance, and that it assumes the presence of societal morality.

Morality consists of actions guided by generally acceptable human values and responsibilities which,

according to Kasoma, constitute a moral system. Human beings subscribe to several moral systems at

any point in time and “ethics begins where elements within a moral system conflict, and a person

(Journalist) is called upon to choose between various alternatives” (Kasoma 1999: 447).

Inherent in the postulation above is that the journalist is always battling with conflicting norms, values,

and interests in the society which derive from the culture within which he exists and the need to foster

professionalism in his profession. Professionalism in journalism, in Kasoma’s view, simply means

“performing journalistic chores responsibly by following the tenets of the profession whose function lies

in disseminating news and informed opinion to the public” (Kasoma, 1999, p.446). A journalist battles

with meeting the challenges of living in an environment shaped by a specific culture and the challenges

of allowing ethical codes to guide the practice of his/her profession.

Culture has been defined as the totality of way of life evolved by a people in their attempt to meet the

challenges of living in their environment which gives order and meaning to their social, political,

economic, aesthetic and religious norms and modes of organization, and thus distinguishing them from

their neighbours (Emeana 2001: 43). The journalist is part of the society, living in a value system

cherished by people in that society.

Today, the culture of corruption has permeated virtually every sphere of life in the Nigerian society, as

in some other African countries. After an examination and analysis of Nigerian culture from the

perspective of the three major local languages in the country (Hausa, Igbo, and Yoruba), Aluko (2003)

observes among others that the craze for wealth is high, the culture of corruption has been

institutionalized in most work places, and Nigerian workers are largely motivated by monetary rewards.

In some parts of Nigeria, success is largely measured by how many houses an individual builds in the

cities and the type of house he builds in his village, not minding the source of his wealth. Integrity and

moral values play little or no roles in such societies. The emergence and boom of certain weird crimes in

Nigeria such as ritual killings and kidnapping largely derive from the value system that seems to glorify

unquestionable wealth. Recall that the journalist exists in the same society with the noveux riche, where

culture has virtually and gradually accommodated values premised on corruption. The journalist, in

order to meet with the challenges of existing meaningfully in such society, finds himself/herself battling

with conflicting values – that of the society in which he exists and that of his profession. It looks like

negative values tend to override positive values in a decaying, corruption-infested society in Nigeria.

While describing the gravity of corrupt value system in the Nigerian society, Dele Momodu, a renowned

columnist in Thisday newspaper observed that “even our society frowns at you if you remain as poor as

you went into government” (Thisday, November 7, 2009, p.72).

Within the context of the clash between negative societal value system and the attempt by journalists to

exist meaningfully in the society, brown envelope syndrome (acceptance of gratifications from news

sources) often thrives. Brown envelope syndrome is an unethical issue, although attempts to justify the

action exist even among journalists. Some journalists have even taken the brown envelope issue too far;

they have resorted to black mail and various forms of extortion in the name of brown envelope

syndrome. Aiyetan (2002: 32), quoting Nosa Igiebor of Tell Magazine, condemns the act of collecting

gratifications under any guise and describes it as “brazenly demanding bribe from people to publish or

kill a story and failing which they resort to black mailing you, blacking you out or out rightly concocting

stories that would embarrass you”. Some other factors may be responsible for the growth of brown

envelope syndrome but societal value system also plays a pivotal role in perpetrating it. Aiyetan, (2002:

34) refers to the observation by Reuben Abati of the Guardian Newspapers that,

The journalist is also a member of the society and if we agree that we are an exceptionally corrupt

society, then the media cannot be innocent. The media is just as corrupt as the society.

It may be suggested that a journalist guided by morals in the line of duty ends up struggling to make

ends meet. Studies on corruption in the Nigerian media show that poor remuneration/welfare package

are among the basic reasons why journalists accept gratifications (brown envelopes) from news sources

(Okoro and Ugwuanyi 2006; Adeyemi and Okorie 2009; Nwabueze 2010). Similarly, while carrying out

a study on when your “take home pay” can hardly take you home with regards to the Zimbabwean press,

Mabweazara (2010: 433) observes that bad treatment of editors, repressive conditions and poor salaries

are undermining the professionalism of journalists not only in Zimbabwe but in many other African

countries. “These conditions not only differentiate African journalists from their counterparts in the

economically developed world of the North, but also illuminate how the conditions of material

deprivation tend to subvert conventionalized ethical canons of journalism such as independence and

impartiality” (Mabweazara 2010: 433). Also, Mare and Brand (2010: 408) write that many media

organizations operate on shoe-string budgets, and journalists working in African media are poorly

remunerated. This invariably means that if journalists do not accept gratifications, their salaries will not

be adequate to meet their needs; as a result they will struggle to make ends meet. Where the journalist

attempts to get recognized in the society or overcome the challenges of existing in a value system that

glorifies corruption, he/she slides into the realm of unethical practices.

The question then is could the journalist have been able to live a decent life if the value system of the

society he exists in did not glorify the noveux riche syndrome or the get-rich-at-any-cost syndrome? The

fact remains that the quest to make ends meet within the context of the present value system exerts

pressure on the journalist and invariably affects news values. The journalist that engages in brown

envelope syndrome defines news based on who gives him/her what. Collection of gratification (or

brown envelope syndrome), including other forms of unethical practices distort the definition of news.

The values used in judging what makes news are defined by what the news source is willing to offer to

the journalist. Mfumbusa (2008: 151) asserts that cavalier attitude towards corrupt practices exists in

most African newsrooms and that journalists pretend to be objective. Mfumbusa further notes that open

remuneration (brown envelopes) that journalists get from political and economic patrons is a prevalent

practice, which is largely condoned in the African media circles. This unethical practice seems to have

permeated journalism practice in most African nations.

Conclusion: Looking Towards the Future

The interest of this article on Nigeria, with specific focus on how societal value system fosters unethical

practice has also examined the link between value system, news values and journalism practice. What

possibilities exist on how to get journalists focused on professionalism even in the face of besetting

value system that glorifies corruption?

Value re-orientation has become a cliché which now makes little or no meaning to the citizenry. The

truth, however, is that value-reorientation remains the the key to a meaningful reversal of the increasing

level of corruption in the Nigerian society. Most times, agents of corruption are moved by the urge to

meet the challenges of surviving in a society whose value system seems to glorify or condone the get-

rich-at-any-cost syndrome. The journalist finds himself/herself struggling to remain socially and

financially afloat in such a society in the face of conflicting values - negative societal values and

professional values.

Professionalism can hardly thrive on empty stomach. A well paid journalist possesses the possibility of

resisting pressures from conflicting values and is likely to uphold the tenets of professionalism more

than a poorly paid journalist.

There is also the need for further empirical studies to establish whether there exists a link between value

system and news judgment by Nigerian journalists. What has been presented in this article is a

qualitative analysis of the topic. A research–based study will establish the degree of relationship, if any,

and also reveal specific societal values that exert the most pressure on journalists in the line of duty. The

findings will provide empirical facts upon which to base the campaign on value re-orientation for

journalists and the need for adherence to journalism ethics/professionalism even in the face of a

challenging value system.

References

Adeyemi, A. & Okorie, N. (2009). The Perception of Nigerian Journalists on Brown Envelope

Syndrome: Southwest Media Practitioners in Perspective. A paper presented at the 2009 national

Conference of African Council for Communication Education (ACCE), Nigeria Chapter, at the

University of Maidugury. August.

Aiyetan, D. (2002, May 6). Corruption in the media. Tell Magazine, P. 32.

Aluko, M. (2003). The impact of culture on organizational performance in selected textile firms in

Nigeria. Nordic journal of African studies. 12: 164-179.

Dominick, J. (2009). The dynamics of mass communication: Media in the digital age, 10th edition.

Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Emeana, R. (2001). The theatre and Igbo culture: A proposal. Journal of Nigerian languages and culture

2 (1): 44-52.

Gamini de Alvis, W. & Senathiraja, R. (2003). The Impact of Socio-cultural Background of the

Entrepreneur on Management and Business Practices of Selected Small and Medium Scale Businesses

in Sri Lanka. Paper presented at the 9th international conference on Sri-Lanka studies.

www.freewebs.com/slageconr/9thicslsflpprs/fullpaper103.pdf Retrieved 23-01-2012.

Gemstone 2025 Nigeria (2009). Value system. http://www.gemstone2025.or. Retrieved23-10-09.

Hanson, R. (2005). Mass communication: Living in a media world. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Kasoma, F.P. (1999). Independent Media, professionalism and ethics in journalism education. In L.U.

Uka (ed), Mass communication, democracy and civil society in Africa: International perspectives.

Lagos: UNESCO-NATCOM, Pp.445-459.

Learning Commons (2009). What is Culture? Values & beliefs as components of Culture.

http://www/wsu.edu/ gened/learn-modules. Retrieved 25-10109 (check this date well).

Mare, A. & Brand, R. (2010). Business journalism ethics in Africa: A comparative study of newsrooms

in South Africa, Kenya and Zimbabwe. African Communication Research 3(3):407-430.

Mabweazara, H. (2010). When your “take home” can hardly take you home: Moonlighting and the quest

for economic survival in the Zimbabwean press. African Communication Research 3(3): 431-450.

Mbagwu, F. C. (2007). The relevance of traditional values for youth cultural development in Nigeria.

Journal of Nigeria Languages and culture 9 (1): 64-69.

Mfumbusa, B.F. (2008). Newsroom ethics in Africa: Quest for a normative framework. African

Communication Research. 1 (2):139-157.

Momodu, D. (2009, November 79. The anatomy of corruption II. Saturday, P. 72.

Mpagaze, D. & White, R. (2010). Tanzanian journalists’ ambivalent perception of their ethics: A “Jekyll

and Hyde” occupation. African Communication Research 3(3): 543-576.

Murdock, G. K. & Golding, P. (2005). Culture, communications and political economy. In J. Curran, &

M. Gurevitch (eds), Mass media and society, 4th edition, London: Hodder Education. Pp. 60-83.

Nwabueze, C. (2007). Cultural Marketing in a Globalized society: Critical role of Broadcasting. Journal

of Nigerian Languages and Culture 9 (1): 184-191.

Nwabueze, C. (2010). Brown Envelopes and the Need for Ethical Re-orientation: Perceptions of

Nigerian Journalists. African Communication Research 3(3): 497-521.

Ogongo-Ongong’a, S. & White, R.A. (2008). The shaping of news values of young journalists in Kenya.

African Communication Research 1 (2): 159-184.

Okoro, N. & Ugwuanyi, J. (2006). Brown Envelope Syndrome and Mass Media Objectivity in Nigeria.

African Journal of Communication and Development 1 (1): 123-148.

Onyeisi, E. M. (2007), Cultural mobilization through drama. Journal of Nigerian Languages and

Culture 9 (1): 48-50.

Udoakah, N. (2007). Communication and Society. An unpublished lecture material. Department of

Communication Arts, University of Uyo, Nigeria.

Sonia Dosoruth

University of Mauritius, MAURITIUS

TEACHING FRENCH LITERATURE AT UNIVERSITY THROUGH

PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING

Introduction

Problem-based Learning (PBL) is a technique in education which will help students to find

solution to complex problems with the support of their classmates. As John R. Savery points out, it

“is an instructional (and curricular) learner-centered approach that empowers learners to conduct

research, integrate theory and practice, and apply knowledge and skills to develop a viable

solution to a defined problem”1. PBL is therefore a student-centered approach -with open-ended

problems-, which “serve[s] as the initial stimulus and framework for learning”2. This paper will

therefore focus on the use of PBL in the teaching of French literature at university. Applying PBL

to the Mauritian context, especially at the university level, can be stimulating being given the

specific problem which relates to the use of French language at tertiary level for Mauritians’

students since French language in not their mother tongue3. To be able to get a better insight into

this problem and also to develop better forecasting trends relating to what could be described as

functional limitations, we shall analyse the given situation in its context that is in relation to the

History of Mauritius. This will allow us to understand the place French language has and the role

it plays in the Mauritian context. After understanding the interaction of the learner with his

‘language’environment, we shall then analyse how PBL is carried out the University level. Finally,

we will also examine the drawbacks of laying too much emphasis on the teaching of PBL in such a

context.

                                                                                                                         1  John R. Savery, “Overview of Problem-based Learning : Definitions and Distinctions”, Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning, volume 1, issue 1, 2006, p. 12. 2  Wilkerson, L., & Gijselaers, W. H. (1996). “Concluding comments.” In L. Wilkerson & W. H. Gijselaers (Eds.), Bringing problem-based learning to higher education: Theory and practice (pp. 101-104). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, pp101-102. 3 “There are certainly other lesser-spoken languages in Mauritius, including Bhojpuri, Hindi/Hindustani, Urdu, Gujerati, Marathi, Tamil, Telegu, Mandarin, and Cantonese, but by far, the most commonly-spoken language is Mauritian Kreol, the “mother-tongue” of nearly every Mauritian” in “Buying into Culture : An Exploration of the Effects of Cultural Conformity on the Island of Mauritius”, Kristin Marie Kostick, PhD Dissertation, University of Connecticut, 2008, p. 39.    

The implementation of Problem-based learning in the Mauritian context.

Mauritius is a multiracial and multilingual society, which was consecutively colonised by the

Dutch, the French and the British. When, in 1810, a strong British expedition was sent to capture

the island - then under French colony - and that it was overpowered by the British, the Treaty of

Paris in 1814 was signed; "Isle de France" was renamed Mauritius and was ceded to Great

Britain. In the act of capitulation, the British guaranteed that they would respect the languages, the

customs, the laws and the traditions of the inhabitants4. As Satish Mahadeo points out:

The island of Mauritius is one of the former colonies which were first in French possession but

were lost to Britain during the Seven Years’ War or during the Napoleonic Wars. Although

Mauritius had been a British colony for almost two hundred years (1810-1968), it is probably the

colonial territory where English influence on culture and language had the least effect. Even today,

French plays an important role, second only to the omnipresent French-based Creole5.

It is interesting to note that although English is the medium of communication at school, French

language is, by far, better understood by those who have not attended school because of its

connectedness with the creole language6. However, it is the Mauritian creole language which is

considered the mother tongue of the majority of Mauritians, thus relegating French language to the

status of a second language (L2). And as Towell and Hawkins observe :

Very few L2 learners appear to be fully successful in the way that native speakers are… People

can learn second languages throughout their lives, and can use those second languages for

effective communication, although it seems that beyond the age of around seven years learners

are not going to be successful as pre-seven-year-olds at acquiring all its grammatical properties7.

It would furthermore be interesting to read what Meade says in rather harsh but unreserved terms,

about the multiplicity of languages in Mauritius:                                                                                                                          4 Translated from « les habitants de l’île de France pourront conserver leurs lois, coutumes et religion” in Legislative Drafting in Mauritius: A Developing Discipline by Sir Victor Glover, « Loophole », August 2011, p. 21. 5 Satish Kumar Mahadeo, “History of English and French Languages in Mauritius : A study in language and power”, Thao Lê, Quynh Lê, International Journal : Language in Society and Culture, 2004. 6 The French linguist Chaudenson states that creole is “primarily «Afro-French» language dating back as far as 1734. Baker and Corne (1982 : 205-206) argue that Mauritian Kreol grew out of standard French «written if not actually spoken by administrators,» out of regional dialects of the 18th century (especially Breton), and various non-French languages brought from slaves’ homelands in West Africa, Madagascar, and parts of India. Many languages came and went on the island, including the nautical patois of sailors and soldiers (itself a creole), along with the many African langues de départ among the slave population”, Kristin Marie Kostick, Ibid., p. 40.  7 Richard Towell & Roger D. Hawkins, Approches to Second Language Anquisition, Multilingual Matters Ltd., UK, USA, Australia, 1994, pp.14- 15.

We do not believe that we exaggerate when we say that the greatest handicap to successful

education in Mauritius is that imposed by the multiplicity of languages in use. When, however,

[these arguments…] result in little children of seven and eight years of age attempting to learn

three languages at the hands of teachers who are themselves masters on none of the three, the

absurdity of the present system is clearly seen. Children leave the primary schools in large

numbers without having acquired anything worth calling literacy in any one language, though they

have spent an intolerable amount of time dabbling in all three8.

Secondary schools students sit for the Higher School certificate – equivalent to the A-level – and

examination papers are corrected in the United Kingdom, under the aegis of the University of

Cambridge Local Examination Syndicate (UCLES). However, many students feel the gap which

exists between the A-level French language and literature paper and the different literature papers

set at university. Beyond the fact that students have to adapt to the real world of university life and

leave the parrot-way of learning, there is a real problem of adaptability mainly due to the fact that

one of the main weaknesses of the Mauritian system of education is that over the years, there has

not been any profound structural change in the way to impart education. As Jürgen Jaspers clearly

states :

Teaching involves the organization of (power) relations between teacher and students, and these

relations can be styled in different ways. Classically, the standard view of teaching consists of

whole-class teacher-led instruction with, conventionally, the use of the IRE-sequence (Initiation,

Response, Evaluation) as a structuring device … however, there are other, more student-centred

styles that, for example, invite students to challenge their teachers’ statements and provide

convincing counter-arguments9.

But how many teachers really apply this mode of education when doing their classes? What could

be the benefits of changing the mindsets for once by inculcating a strong sense of independence in

learning in secondary school students? Would they not benefit from same once they would get

admission at university and be, from the outset, far from the ideological representations of

perceptions where rank and order should prevail?

Students can easily understand French in Mauritius but they will, with much more difficulty,

articulate a sentence without either syntactical errors or mistakes often due to phraseological                                                                                                                          8 Meade, J. (1961). The Economics and Social Structure of Mauritius. London : Cass, 1961, p. 208.  9 Jürgen Jaspers, “Style and Styling” in Sociolinguistics and Language Education, edited by Nancy H. Hornberger & Sandra Lee Mackay, 2010, p. 196.

borrowings or idiomatic calques. As many students suffer from a “linguistic insecurity”10, which is

“a speaker’s perception of the prestige of certain linguistic forms, compared to the ones the

speaker remembers (or) he or she usually uses”11, there seems definitely to be a mental block.

Along with this language problem, students are not exposed to “philosophy” at school and

therefore, lack critical reasoning skills, communication skills or sound methods of research and

analysis when it comes to writing a lengthy essay on literature. In the French educational system,

the teaching of philosophy was restored in 1863 to the lycées and became a compulsory

component for the end of secondary school education. It was soon to be considered having the

“highest intellectual status” 12 and “attracted a large number of the brightest students interested in

secondary teaching”13. Philosophy is today considered a highly coveted subject with many bright

candidates opting for the subject at doctoral levels. But being given the English-medium of

education most Mauritian students follow and which does not include the teaching of philosophy -

although the General Paper at AS-level is compulsory and multidisciplinary while it encourages

candidates to “[d]evelop thinking and reasoning skills, and maturity of thought”14 on a wide

variety of subjects ranging from economics, history, science, mathematics, literature, arts, politics

to philosophy – students tend to be slightly disadvantaged when they join university and are

expected to write interesting and thoughtful essays.

It is under such circumstances that PBL appears to be a solution to the existing problem. The use

of PBL in the teaching of French literature can be geared towards the History of the country which

underlies the set text. It sets the background and helps to bring effectiveness in learning. We can

also focus on the author to be studied. In the meanwhile, students would have read the prescribed

books and could start reading literature reviews to better understand what is being discussed and

what is to be discussed in class.

In general, students look for the way to carry out a literary analysis by themselves - whether for

an essay-type open-ended question analysis or a context question. It could give rise to further

                                                                                                                         10 Labov, W., The Social Stratification of English in New York City. Washington: Center for Applied Linguistics. 1966. 11 Escandell, Josep, “Relations between formal linguistic insecurity and the perception of linguistic insecurity. A quantitative study on linguistic insecurity in an educational environment at the Valencian Community (Spain)”, Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, Volume 32, Issue 4, 2011. 12 Gary Gutting, French Philosophy in the Twentieth Century, Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom, 2001 (First published and reprinted in)., p. 4. 13 Ibid., p. 5.    14 Cambridge International AS Level General Paper 8009. For Centres in Mauritius. Examination in November 2014, p. 3.

disinterestedness or worse to plagiarism as students will not read lengthy or highly complex

literary critics when they find it difficult to read even the prescribed text(s) (especially those with a

high philosophical approach). Since a literary discussion can include the analysis of the style of

the narrator, recurring motifs, metaphors and images as well as the historical background in which

the text was written, necessary information about the approach to answer a context question must

be given to the students. Then the Problem-based instruction strategy would imply that students,

by themselves, be able to process the limited information in such a manner that they can rapidly

understand the main theme underlying the extract, its relation to the whole text, the intention of the

author, and the comparison with another text of the same author or with another author. Since

creative thinking and goal setting are other major functions of the PBL, we should remember that

they are skills required of the 21st century. Therefore, it is highly recommended that students

develop these skills since an early stage of instruction.

In 2001, Duch has listed five characteristics of a good PBL problem which includes motivation,

probing, judgment, rationalization, cooperation from all members of the team, open-ended

question, challenging questions that will help develop skills like analysis, synthesis and

evaluation15. After having mastered the skill of analysing beautifully a context question from a

poem, for example, the same principle (although with a different technique) will apply for any

other literary genre (be it a novel, a play or a short story…). Hence PBL, in the context of teaching

French literature, not only bridges the gap between genres but also between likes and dislikes of

students. It is often seen that a student who likes novels does not necessarily have the same feeling

for poetry. But with the analytical technique acquired through PBL, not only can the students

analyse highly symbolical poems, but they can also swiftly shift to the analysis of a novel without

much difficulty. In other words, “once we acquire a deep understanding of a genre or an author or

a literary movement, however, we are able to analyse even the most opaque pieces to find exciting

meanings and connections in them”16. PBL, in the teaching of literature, favors

interconnectedness: comparative literature can be much more easily taught since students can,

without much difficulty, understand two cultures underlying two texts written by different authors

from different countries, for example, though the probing habit they would have developed.                                                                                                                          15  Muhammad Athar Hussai, Muhammad Nafees and Dr. Nabi Bux Jumani in “Second language learners’ achievement in literature through problem-based learning method”. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 9, No. 3, December 2009, pp. 87–94. 16 Tamara Yohannes, “Problem-Based Learning in the Study of Literature”, Academic Exchange Quarterly, Winter 2006, ISSN 1096-1453, volume 10, Issue 4 in http://rapidintellect.com/AEQweb/cho3579z6.htm

In PBL, the lecturer guides the students and they are the ones who put the questions. By putting

the right questions, the students will get the right answers. The lecturer does not have to feed

answers anymore. Through PBL, there are many issues or problems which will generate responses

among the students. PBL will motivate the students to exercise their thinking and speaking skills,

show mastery of the subject, develop organizational skills, while enhancing their critical thinking.

PBL triggers a positive attitude: what has long been considered a boring or inarticulate piece of

juxtaposed words becomes an interesting realm to decipher. Moreover, students become more

assertive as PBL develops their creativity. Since the atmosphere is definitely more relaxed and

conducive to the sharing of ideas and discussion, students will easily go for collaborative learning,

by forming small groups and by sharing their views and ideas. What may have been a barrier to

knowledge acquisition does not exist anymore: students have learned the subject and because they

have the material to explore a case-study, the traditional method of educating students has now

changed. As for the writing skills, they will subsequently improve. Students now have a

sufficiently consolidated background which can allow them to work more rapidly. They can spend

more time to improve the quality of their paper. Thus, PBL can be challenging in a multilingual

society like Mauritius.

Limits of Problem-based learning

Unfortunately, overemphasizing this theoretical approach can have drawbacks. For instance, PBL

can be very time-consuming for the lecturer who will have to go round the class, check the

progress of the work, question students, solve doubts (although the art of questioning is a vibrant

mental activity in itself17) before each group presents its solutions to the class. This approach can

definitely be useful when one is dealing with a small group of students. With the ever increasing

size of classes we have to deal with, PBL can become a constraint. The lecturer may find himself

spending more of his time doing unnecessary practical exercises instead of simply delivering his

lecture. When teaching large groups of students who have achieved results at A-level ranging from

average to excellent, and who come from varied disciplines, the lecturer has to deal with students

having varied skills and also different levels of language acquisition. In order to keep the interest

of the student in big cohorts, the lecturer could, for instance, make use of artefacts or other forms

                                                                                                                         17 Princess Orig, “Problem-Based Learning and the Socratic Elenchus in the Teaching of Literature”, p. 4. in http://www.tp.edu.sg/staticfiles/TP/files/centres/pbl/pbl_princessorig.pdf

of art to attract students’ attention. They could also ask students to participate in the lecture by

giving to the class their experience as a second language acquisition learner. As Ann Morton

shows, “a lecturer who is able to transmit [his] enthusiasm and interest through the lecture is

providing a powerful stimulus for student learning”18. The lecturer has then to structure his

lectures while doubling his efforts in maintaining interest of the student. Also, the increase in class

size does not encourage discussion and hence we cannot reap the desired results when

implementing PBL - that is encouraging critical thinking, verbal reasoning as well as a free-

flowing discussion.

Along with the increase in class size, another important aspect of PBL has to be taken into

consideration. A very important part of assessment in PBL is the feedback students receive from

their friends. Allen, Duch and Groh, in a 1996, asked students to rate their peers on :

… attendance, degree of preparation for class, listening and communication skills, ability to bring

new and relevant information to the group, and ability to support and improve the functioning of

the group as a whole19.

It is very unfortunate that this useful step cannot be adapted to the local context as the prevailing

fierce competition among students can lead competitors to downgrade marks of high-achieving

candidates. Many students might deliberately give very low marks to other candidates who would

not necessarily deserve such marks. Therefore, the responsibility of marking students or giving

appraisal should remain the lecturer’s task.

Moreover, since French language and literature are being taught to second language acquisition

learners - that is learners who are not considered to be native-speakers in the language but who are

learning French more like a foreign language -, much time is being spent in methodical training

and innovative strategies to bring students who have an English-medium background as education

to the same level of students from a French educational system.

Also, as Drinan clearly points out, “[n]ot all forms of Problem-based learning seem capable of

developing all of the qualities listed above, even through their inclusion of potentially powerful

                                                                                                                         18 Ann Morton, A handbook for Teaching and Learning in Higher Education: Enhancing Academic Practice. Eds : Heather Fry, Steve Ketteridge & Stephanie Marshall. 1st Edition : 199, 3rd Edition: 2009, Tayler & Francis, p. 61. 19 Allen, D. E., Duch, B. J., & Groh, S. E. (1996). “The power of problem-based learning in teaching introductory science courses.” In L. Wilkerson & W. H. Gijselaers (Eds.), Bringing problem-based learning to higher education: Theory and practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, pp. 43-52.

strategies”20. This statement reveals that PBL is so much geared towards finding a solution to a

given problem that the student gradually feels disinterested in their studies. The art of imparting

education slowly fades away while the student may feel that learning becomes more fastidious and

conventional.

Problem-based learning can be a very useful tool in the teaching of literature at university.

Although it was at first meant exclusively for medical students, it has proved to be very important

in the teaching of the humanities as well. Because PBL encourages learning through discussion

and questioning, students think on their own and develop skills which allow them to become very

critical; they develop inner skills which help them better understand the cryptic world of literature.

This inquiry method therefore not only helps the students to develop their thinking skills but also

strengthens their writing and communication skills as well, which can be an asset to second

language acquisition learners.

References

Allen, D. E., Duch, B. J., & Groh, S. E. “The power of Problem-based learning in teaching

introductory science courses” in L. Wilkerson & W. H. Gijselaers (Eds.), Bringing pProblem-

based learning to higher education: Theory and practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1996.

Cambridge International AS Level General Paper 8009. For Centres in Mauritius. Examination in

November 2014.

Escandell J. “Relations between formal linguistic insecurity and the perception of linguistic

insecurity. A quantitative study on linguistic insecurity in an educational environment at the

Valencian Community (Spain)”, Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, Volume

32, Issue 4, 2011.

Glover V. (Sir), Legislative Drafting in Mauritius: A Developing Discipline by Sir Victor Glover,

« Loophole », August 2011.

Gutting G.. French Philosophy in the Twentieth Century, Cambridge University Press, United

Kingdom, 2001 (First published & reprint).

                                                                                                                         20 John Drinan in David Boud & Graham Feletti, “The Challenge of Problem-Based Learning”, 1st Edition : 1991, 1997 p. 334.    

Athar H. M., N. M. and Bux J. N. in “Second language learners’ achievement in literature through

pProblem-based learning method”. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, Vol. 9,

No. 3, December 2009.

Jaspers, J.. “Style and Styling” in Sociolinguistics and Language Education, edited by Nancy H.

Hornberger & Sandra Lee Mackay, 2010.

Drinan J. in Boud D. & Feletti G., “The Challenge of PProblem-based Learning”,1st Edition : 1991,

1997 p. 334.

Kostick, K. M.. “Buying into Culture : An Exploration of the Effects of Cultural Conformity on the

Island of Mauritius”, PhD Dissertation, university of Connecticut, 2008.

Labov, W. 2006. The Social Stratification of English in New York City. 2nd Ed. Cambridge UK and

New York: Cambridge University Press, Orig. pub. Washington D.C.: Center for Applied

Linguistics, 1966.

Mahadeo, S. K.. “History of English and French Languages in Mauritius : A study in language and

power”, Thao Lê, Quynh Lê, International Journal : Language in Society and Culture, 2004.

Meade, J. (1961). The Economics and Social Structure of Mauritius. London : Cass, 1961.

Morton, A. in A handbook for Teaching and Learning in Higher Education: Enhancing

Academic Practice. Eds : Heather Fry, Steve Ketteridge & Stephanie Marshall; 1st Edition : 1999,

3rd Edition: Tayler & Francis, 2009.

Orig, P.. “PProblem-based Learning and the Socratic Elenchus in the Teaching of Literature”, p. 4.

in http://www.tp.edu.sg/staticfiles/TP/files/centres/pbl/pbl_princessorig.pdf

Savery, John R. “Overview of PProblem-based Learning : Definitions and Distinctions”,

Interdisciplinary Journal of PProblem-based Learning, volume 1, issue 1, 2006.

Towell R. & Hawkins R. D.. Approches to Second Language Anquisition, Multilingual Matters

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G. Chiranjeevi Reddy

National Institute of Fashion Technology, Hyderabad, INDIA

WORLD’S FASHION AND CREATIVE DESIGN EDUCATION AND ITS DISTINGUISHED

CHARACTERISTICS: AN OVERVIEW

Introduction

Fashion change in the western world is generally considered to have begun in the middle ages and

although it is evident in many different kinds of material goods, it is particularly pronounced and fast in

apparel. Rachel (2012) opined fashion is a vibrant and innovative economic and socio-cultural activity,

contributing value at individual, community, corporate and national levels. The development of fashion

education mirrors the economic development of a country and the stages of its industrial evolution –

textile design, followed by fashion design, then the blossoming of all disciplines that relate to advanced

industrialization or post-industrial society, from fashion photography to fashion retail management

(Gale, 2011). In a way Apparel and textile trends are interlinked as they are interdependent. In the

present scenario, in any product or even service once the functional (basic use) and ergonomic (comfort)

requirements are fulfilled then the end user looks for aesthetical (beauty) aspects and novelty (newness)

in the product or service and this requirement of a group of customer’s changes from time to time and

place to place could be termed as fashion.

Fashion Institute of Technology (FIT), State University of New York, opened its doors originally as a

fashion institute but the college expanded, as did the industry, into many branches of design, and today

FIT serves the “Creative Industries” broadly through its wide variety of design, fine and applied arts,

and business and technology programs (FIT Beyond 2020, 2013, p.3). Creativity is the quality of mind,

a kind of flexibility, by which creative people are more spontaneous, expressive and intuitive. With this

quality of mind, creative professional designers follow a series of systemic steps to solve problems.

According to P.K. Gera, Director General, National Institute of Fashion Technology (NIFT), India,

“The fashion navigates between the duality of tradition and modernity, art and technology,

craftsmanship and industrialization, fast-track economic growth and recession, a complete

professional emerges” (NIFT, Melange, Showcase, 2013, p.1)

The only thing which never changes in fashion is “the change” fashion professional should have the

competency and capability to face the extreme dualities of circumstances in the real life dynamic world.

According to Dr. Joyce F. Brown, the president, FIT, New York

“The change in the fashion industry over 68 years have been dramatic … From a post-secondary

institution that offered just two programs, both in fashion design, FIT is today an internationally

recognised that offers 48 degree programs, all of which reflect the rapidly evolving landscape in

the ephemeral world of fashion and design” (FIT, Annual Report, 2013, p.3)

Else Skjold, Ph.D. Scholar, Designskolen Kolding, has opined in his research study that

“Presently, fashion research is an interdisciplinary field that has developed in academic

disciplines such as art history, cultural studies, history, sociology, anthropology, consumer

studies, ethnology, etc. Fashion is relatively under theorized compared to other aesthetic fields,

such as architecture, industrial design or art.” (Skjold, E., 2008, p.13)

In view of the above initial findings and the research scope in this education field, the present study has

been conducted to overview the evolving World’s Fashion and Creative Design Education (WFCDE)

and to find its emerging important characteristics.

Research Methodology

Secondary data from Annual Reports, Records, Manuals and other publications of Fashion institutions

across the continents were considered and are critically analysed. Reviewed literature findings and

course curriculum details are triangulated with Vision, Mission and Strategy of the different fashion

education institutions. The four major components of the education system considered in the study are i)

Curriculum and instruction, ii) Category of education, iii) Occupational opportunities, iv) Domains for

career. Aspects of each above four components were separately represented in the form of a petal or

table after which all four petals are composed as a flower diagram to represent WFCDE. The

terminology used in this paper is amalgamation of educational vocabularies used in Australia, India,

U.K and U.S.

Fashion and Creative Design Education

Fashion originated in apparels with Haute Couture (high fashion with high quality, expensive fabrics,

attention to detail and customised to individuals) then Bespoke (High degree of customization,

involvement of end user in the production, pattern drafting from scratch and made for individual

customers) after Pret-a-porter or Ready-to-wear (great care in the choice and cut of the fabric, clothes

are made in small quantities, not made for individual customers) now Mass Market (clothes are made in

large quantities, moderate care in the choice and cut of fabric). According to the University of the Arts

London Strategy 2010 – 2015 report, the creative sector is now the second largest sector of the UK

economy and University of the Arts London is now recognised as one of the foundations on which

London has built its reputation as the creative capital of the world. (UAL, London, 2010). A compiled

comparison of fashion and creative design course offered at various major Fashion Institutions are given

in the table 1. Thus concluding, the Fashion Institute of Technology in New York, the National Institute

of Fashion Technology in Delhi and the Fashion Institute of Merchandising in Los Angles are offering

other creative design programmes containing about 57, 20 and 21 percent of their total programmes

offered respectively.

Table 1: Comparison of fashion and other creative design programmes offered at different Institutions

Institution Location Founding

Year

Major/

Category

Fashion related

courses

Other Creative

design courses

FIT New York,

US

1944 Associate,

Bachelors,

Masters

5

13

3

8

16

4

FIDM Los Angles,

US

1969 Majors 22 6

NIFT Delhi, India 1986 Bachelor

Masters

5

3

2

0

It is evident from the above that some fashion institutions have started with apparel design as their main

programme but with time exponentially and successfully cultivated other programmes, generating

professionals to suit fast evolving creative industry.

Whereas, London College of Fashion in London, has all 77 courses which are related to B.A, Masters

and Integrated Masters level and all are fashion related. Similarly Bunka Fashion Collage in Tokyo, has

all four fashion departments which are: i) Fashion Creation Department, ii) Fashion Technology

Department, iii) Fashion Marketing and Distribution Department, iv) Fashion Accessories and Textiles

Department. Likewise RMIT, Melbourne in Australia offers six fashion design programmes under Art

and Design Education.

It can be now construed that some fashion institutes are confined to the same domain but developing

multiple specializations in line with growing socio-industrial requirement.

Curriculum Strengths of WFCDE

Fashion and creative design students require possessing of subject knowledge, creativity, skills and

positive attitude to convert an idea into a product or service, starting by translating the selected problem

into an opportunity. Fashion is vocational education; it prepares learners for jobs that are based on

manual or practical activities, traditionally non-academic and totally related to a specific trade,

occupation or vocation. This education is an interdisciplinary subject in which students are exposed to

various related disciplines such as business, psychology, media and communication, history, fine arts,

architecture, engineering etc., which is not there in other popular conventional undergraduate

programmes like Engineering, Medical, Commerce, Arts etc.

Fashion educators are professionals having interdisciplinary subject experience which makes fashion

and creative design education a field of all varied disciplines. In interdisciplinary subjects, students

develop a meta-knowledge about different disciplines, methods and epistemologies, and learn how to

purposefully and reflectively integrate and synthesize different perspectives in order to advance

understanding and solve the problems. According to Geisler (2002) multi-disciplinary education

involves the coordination of two or more disciplines to consider multi-faceted problems. The integration

and synthesis of tools and knowledge of two or more disciplinary perspectives, into a comprehensive

understanding is interdisciplinary (Youngblood, 2007). Some of these educational institutes are

transnationally linked by way of offering semester exchange, dual degrees and research projects to

students. International Foundation of Fashion Technology Institutes (IFFTI) is apparently promoting

transnational activities with a vision to provide wider opportunities for educators, researchers, students

and graduates to study and work anywhere in the world, and to strengthen and foster relation with the

global fashion industries.

FIT’s mission is to prepare students for professional excellence in design and business through rigorous

and adaptable academic progress, experiential learning and innovative partnerships and it fosters

creativity, career focus, and a global perspective and educates its students to embrace inclusiveness,

sustainability and sense of community (FIT, New York, 2013). To achieve this, students need to develop

logical and critical thinking which are left brain attributes along with the mind-mapping, visualisation,

lateral thinking assignments, presentation of boards like mood, colour, story, material, client etc. which

are right brain attributes. Zhang and Probst opined (2009) that people can learn more effectively if both

hemispheres are engaged at the same time and traditionally engineering education is heavily left brain

dominant.

According to Nigel Carrington, Rector, UAL, London, University’s strategy depends on its success to

become fully engaged with the creative and cultural sectors, and producing graduates who have the skill

to play influential role in the creative and cultural sectors and the self-awareness and independence of

mind to become responsible global citizens (UAL, London 2010). Reddy (2014) stated in his study that

understanding of craft, its ground reality, craft documentation, craft diagnostic study, craft field visits

are part of regular course curriculum for Undergraduate Fashion Design Programme at NIFT,

Hyderabad, India. According to NIFT (2011), its vision is to emerge as a centre of excellence and

innovation proactively catalysing growth of fashion business through leadership in professional

education with concern for social and human values. By triangulation of all these findings the

characteristics of the first aspect of the study has been pictorially represented (alphabetical order) in

figure 1 as curriculum strengths.

Figure 1: Petal one

General Levels of the Education in WFCDE

Across the world there are many categories of programmes being offered in the fashion and creative

design education. The educational stages and their respective nomenclatures vary across the continents.

The following Table 2 has been compiled vide six columns specifying various features of main

programmes offered. This can facilitate readers to understand these programmes better in relation with

respect to the programmes being prevalent in their respective country. Three years Bachelor Degree and

two years Post Graduation Diploma offered in various countries are not included in the table 2 so as to

avoid the interruption and confusion in hierarchy of the list.

Table 2: Available categories in fashion and creative design education across the Continents.

S.No. Level of

Education

Age

Range

Pre-

requisite

Type of

Programme

Programme

Duration

Main Objective

1 Junior High

School

11-14 Nil Holiday

Programmes/

Summer Camps

One day to

eight weeks

Orienting students

towards creative

design courses

2 Senior High

School

15-18 Nil Summer

Programmes

Four to

eight weeks

To acquire credits/

tariff points to

pursue higher

education in

fashion or creative

design

3 Associate

Degree

18-20 Plus two

Certificate

Regular Two years Basic training for

employment as

middle

management or

vocational

occupation

4 Bachelors

Degree

18-20 Associate

Degree /

Plus two

Certificate

Regular Two

years/Four

years

Basic training for

employment as

senior management

or vocational

occupation

5 Honours

Degree

18-20 Plus two

Certificate

Regular Four years Basic training for

employment as

senior management

or vocational

occupation

6 Masters

Degree

21-35 Bachelor

Degree

Regular Two years Advanced training

for vision and

strategy

development

7 Integrated

Masters

18-20 Plus two

Certificate

Regular Four/Five

years

Basic to advanced

training for vision

and strategy

development

8 Ph.D. Vary Masters

Degree

Regular Four years Research and

development

9 Evening and Vary Work Further Three Improving

Holiday

Programmes

experience Education months to

one year

confidence and

competency in

respective work

field

10 Short term

courses and

Workshops

Vary Work

experience

Further

Education

One week to

one month

Improving

confidence and

competency in

respective work

field

11 Concept

Programmes

Vary Nil Further

Education/

Corporate

Workshops

One are two

days

Creative concepts,

recreation and

rejuvenation

12 Awareness

Programmes

Not

applicable

Nil Open houses in

selected days/

Regular

One day General awareness

and information to

aspirants and public

about education,

students work and

information about

financial aids etc.

13 Online

Programmes

Vary Vary Correspondence Vary Optional on need

based

Career Opportunities in WFCDE

In fashion and creative design education, students are required to exercise and develop their creative

imagination and deep learning with regard to the subjects of their study. Those who want to be

successful in the Fashion Industry or business need meticulous approach through fast-paced real life.

Things change quickly, excitingly and people are challenged with the responsibility to keep pace with

changes, from creating new ideas, designs and forecasting trends to tracking business plans and

generating marketing initiatives. This helps the Industries to move forward, thereby keeping it fresh and

alive. Because of the expansion of fashion and creative market and competences possessed by the

fashion professionals, versatile opportunities are available for the fashion educates within each domain

of industry. The important areas found in the study are: Academics, Consultancy, Freelance, Full-time

Jobs, Part-time jobs, Portfolio working, Entrepreneurship, Further learning and Research. These are

pictorially represented in Fig 2, as opportunities.

Figure 2: Petal three

Domains of Industry for WFCDE

Due to the dynamics involved in the field of fashion and creative design the students get trained in

different capacity with acquired strengths and capabilities from the curriculum. Fashion education has

been spreading to many domains of products and services. The students cater to the needs of different

industries like; Film & Media, Exhibition Design, Visual Presentation, Toy Design, Packaging Design,

Fine Arts, Styling, Animation, Communication Design, Merchandising, Direct and Indirect Marketing,

International Trade, Home Textiles, Fine (precious) Jewellery, Costume Jewellery, Branding, Graphic

Design, Home Interiors, Home Accessories, Lifestyle Products, User Interface, Set Design, Art

Direction, Fashion Journalism, Image consultancy, Beauty Products etc. The basic inputs required, the

research methodology and tools like mind mapping, brainstorming, design exploration are same in the

fashion education and creative design. Sterling Style Academy’s 3 Day & 5 Day course namely

‘Personal Styling and Personal Shopping Certification’ in Los Angeles, New York, Miami, London,

Dubai, Mumbai, Hong Kong, Shanghai, Mexico City and Sao Paulo and FIT’s ‘Direct and Interactive

Marketing’ programme are the typical examples of evolution of new education courses in the field of

fashion and creative design. All these fields require strong understanding of elements of design,

principals of design and design methodology. The application of terms vary but the basics are same in

accordance to which fashion education and fashion professionals are catering to other creative design

fields. The following Fig 3 represents the various domains in which most of the professionals are

employed. or occupied.

Figure 3: Petal four

Conclusions

In fashion and creative design education, it does not suffice to simply memorize the facts and formula

within a discipline, but it is also essential for students to exercise and develop their creative imagination

and deep learning with regard to the subjects they pursue. Further they must be lifelong learners with

self-directed and self-determined attitude which is very important aspect of heutagogical learning.

Kumar, et al., (2009) stated that education is not just about learning skills (how to) but also about

developing the ability to decide on what (what to do?) and why (why to do?). According to Sanae

Kosugi, School President, Bunka Fashion College, the main objective of Bunka Fashion College is to

reveal and nurture the individuality and aesthetic sense of each student. As a result students would move

on to build strong International relationships and become potential enough to resolve problems and play

an important role in the International fashion Industry as global citizens (BFC, 2003). According to

Professor Margaret Gardner AO, Vice-Chancellor and President, RMIT University, the university is an

institution that creates and communicates knowledge and ideas, giving its students and staff the

opportunity to build new and better future for themselves and others (RMIT University, Australia,

2014). With such holistic objectives from the world’s fashion education leaders, distinguished inbuilt

characteristics and widely expanding opportunities FCDE has been continuously flourishing.

Figure 4: Blossoming four petals of World’s Fashion and Creative Design Education

Figure 4 compiles all four petals of WFCDE into a flower blossoming with its features. WFCDE, is an

interdisciplinary vocational education system, that develops an open mind set and balanced personality

in the students for effective and all round development in order to face the challenges in the dynamic

real life, fashion and creative design environment. This study implies that fashion education is relating

only to high society people and a product of apparel, textile and few accessories is a fallacy. Fifteen

different courses or programmes offered by this education system signify the expansion in the whole

education hierarchy. Identified major fourteen different characteristics of WFCDE show its strength.

More than twenty industry or occupational domains calls for the need in development of world. Hope

this education would really bring about high social value in the coming days by producing balanced

creative professionals, promoting distinguished characteristics of WFCDE education and cater to the

students from diverse socio-economic and cultural back grounds.

References

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Konwea Patience

Ayodele Clement

Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, NIGERIA

ATTITUDE OF UNDERGRADUATES TOWARDS THE PRACTICE OF ADOPTION

IN NIGERIA

Introduction

In Nigeria, the pressure on women to bear children is usually very high it is expected that young girls

marry early and they are hastened to so in order to produce children early. Those who are already

married are also expected to produce children without delay since emphasis is place on procreation in

any family setting ( Omosun& Kofoworola, 2011). A woman’s place in marriage remains exposed to

constant risk and is not certain until confirmed through the birth of at least a child. This can be observed

from the reaction of people if after the first few months of marriage or settling in a man’s house, the

woman’s tummy does not protrude indicating pregnancy. Most times rather than look at the woman

during interactions people focus their attention or look on her stomach to see if it is already protruding

as a result of pregnancy.

It has however been reported that between 5 to 15 percent of couples worldwide are infertile (Mayo

&Mahwati, 2013; Abubarkar, Lawan & Yasir, 2013; Oladokun, Arulogun, Oladokun, Imran & Bello,

2009). There are many management options for infertile couples, however as observed by Abubarkar et

al (2013), the cost of these treatments and the low success rate despite the huge financial resources

constitute a major hindrance for most desiring couples. Adoption as a management option has gained

wider acceptance in developed countries, however, with the advent of assisted conception, adoption

rates in developed countries have reduced and it is only practiced by couples with intractable infertility.

Oladokun et al (2009) reported that a significant proportion of Nigerian couples have intractable

infertility that may need child adoption as an alternative for couples desiring to have children Infertility

remains a global health challenge due to it high prevalence and its serious social implications. Being

infertile has many negative consequences for a woman to the extent that they may go to any length to

secure a child for themselves including stealing children and patronizing peculiar “baby factory”, aimed

at producing and selling babies, a situation which filled the heart of those affected with fear in Nigeria

(Umahi, 2012; Agborh, 2005).

Ojochide ( 2012) noted that the practice of adoption in Nigeria is quite novel and that there is dearth of

information concerning adoption for general public. In atypical Nigeria family setting the idea and

practice of adoption is often frowned at ( Nwaoga, 2013, Oladokun et al., 2009) and not all cultures

have accepted the concept of treating an unrelated child as equivalent to biological child of adoptive

parents. Most men would prefer to remarry or marry a second wife instead of adopting a child usually

regarded as another man’s child (Dimka & Dein, 2013). Olubola and Adejuwon (2005) observed that

past research show evidence that most Nigerians especially the yorubas have negative attitudes towards

child adoption and adoptive parents.

There have been reports of women snatching babies from other women (Oyekan, 2002; Bolarinwa,2000)

and children been sold for money to couples desiring to have one ( Umahi, 2012; Agborh, 2005). There

are a number of parentless and helpless children scattered about in streets while others are in the

orphanages. The number of children who lose their parents to death is on the increase as there are those

who lose both parents due to diseases like HIV/AIDS, ( Onakwehor, Olagbuji, Ande, Ezeanchie, olokor

& Okonofua; Ojewumi & Ojewumi, 2012; Premium Times, 2013); accidents(Bun, 2012; Agbonkhese,

Yisa, Agbonkhese, Akanbi, Aka & Mondigba, 2013) and the recent rampant terrorist attacks and

bombing of public places (Ekweme & Obaji, 2012; Aro,2013). These children need to experience love,

affection and acceptance present in a family setting and they can be adopted by those desiring to have

children but due to the stigma attached to childlessness and the attitude of people rather than adopt

children, the fear of infertility has influenced women to engage in repulsive act in the name of saving

their marriage and gaining respect in the society.

Nevertheless, with the rising number of homeless and parentless children roaming the streets or kept in

orphanage homes and the threatening increase in the number of childless couples, there is need to

acquaint the populace with child adoption procedures as an alternative strategy in managing infertility.

This option would provide the childless person with a child for his/ her convenience and would also give

the needy child the opportunity of growing up in a normal family setting. But if undergraduates who are

expected to be future parents are not aware of what adoption means and or have negative attitude toward

the practice of adoption, the possibility of practicing adoption may be very unlikely. Besides, most

studies on acceptance of adoption focus on infertile women (Ojewole, Onore & Nwozichi 2014;

Abubakar et al, 2013; Ezegwu, Obi & Onah,2012;Nwobodo & Isah, Omosun & Kofoworola,

2011,Oladokun et al, 2010; Oladokun et al,2009 etc).This current study examined the attitude of

undergraduates in Ekiti State University, since people in Nigeria seem to frown at adoption as an option

for infertile people, undergraduates who are supposed to be future parents may have same attitude and

this may hinder the choice of adoption in future. There is, therefore, need to assess their attitude towards

adoption so as to provide education to enlighten them and influence their attitude positively if need be.

Methods

The research design used for the study was the descriptive survey design. Three hundred and seventy

five penultimate and final year undergraduates in Ekiti State University Nigeria, were randomly selected

for the study. The research instrument was a questionnaire designed by the researcher from the

responses of a focus group discussion class with 37 students in the Faculty of Education, Ekiti State

University, Nigeria. The students freely discussed their opinions and beliefs about adoption,

circumstance under which they will consider adoption and reasons why they may not consider adoption.

Findings from the class discussion were used to develop the questionnaire for this study. The

questionnaire was made up of statements to which the respondents indicated their agreement or

disagreement. The reliability of the research instrument was assessed using the test – retest method. The

instrument was found to be stable and consistent in its measurement of the respondents’ attitudinal

disposition to the structured statements with a reliability coefficient of 0.75. Out of the 375 copies of

questionnaire administered, 350 were appropriately filled and found usable for the study. Frequency

counts and percentages were used to present the findings.

Results and Discussions

There was fairly equal number of male and female respondents but with about 10.8% more females than

the male. Majority of the respondents were between the ages of 24-28 years (57.5%). A higher

percentage of the respondents were of Christian religious background (85.1%), a few were of the

traditional belief while the remaining were muslims. Majority of the respondents (73.7) are of Yoruba

ethnic group and were single (88.0%), few of them were married and only one was divorced ( table 1).

Table 1: Demographic characteristics of respondents

Demographic Variables Groupings

F (%)

(n=350)

Sex Male 156 (44.6)

Female 194 (55.4)

Age 19-23 123 (35.1)

24-28 201 (57.5)

29-33 26 (7.4)

Religion Christianity 298 (85.1)

Islam 42 (12.0)

Traditional 10 (2.9)

Tribe Hausa 15 (4.3)

Igbo 58 (16.6)

Yoruba 258 (73.7)

Others 19 (5.4)

Marital status Single 308 (88.0)

Married 41 (11.7)

Divorced 1 (0.3)

Table 2 shows that majority of the undergraduates were aware that adoption is a legal process of taking a

child as one’s own(86.6%); that in adoption, the child becomes as if he is born by the adoptive

parents(89.7%) and bears their name(82.6%). Ezugwu, Obi and Onah (2012) reported that there are

many studies in Nigeria which show high levels of awareness of adoption but only few of the

respondents in such studies knew the true meaning. However, most of the respondents in this study

knew the true meaning just like the findings of Abubakar et al (2013) but also included buying a child as

one of the meaning. This could be because of the amount desiring parents are made to pay to adoption

agencies in Nigeria . Nwobodo and Isah also reported high knowledge of child adoption.

Table 3 which is on attitude of undergraduate towards the practice of adoption shows that the

respondents believe that adoption does not remove the stigma of childlessness (86.0%), that it is better to

have ones biological children no matter what(84.4) This may explain why women go to any extent to get

a child including buying one secretly and stealing one (Agborh, 2005). Since in most cases where

children were stolen, the women pretend to be pregnant for some months and then appear with a baby

(Umahi).

The respondents in this study also claimed that the satisfaction of being a parent would not be there

when a child is adopted(88.6%). This is similar to that of Nwobodo and Isah where the women claimed

that adoption would not allow them fulfill their conception role but is contrary to the findings in Harris

Interactive Market Research (2002) where over 80% think that parents get as much satisfaction from

raising adoptive children as raising biological children. The respondents in this study believed that

adopting a child can bring fortune in future when and if the child becomes someone great and that it can

open the door for them to have their own child. This opinion is similar to that of the findings in Harris

Interactive Market Research (2002) where 94% think adoptive parents are lucky. Another believe is that

adoption is not part of our culture (74.9%) and that it is like collecting trouble for the future (66.3%).

However, majority of the respondent do not believe in adopting the child of a friend (70.9%) or a

relative (71.1%) this could be because most times people want the adoption process to be a secret and

because of the fear of the real parent requesting for the child in future. Also fear of confidentiality which

may be the reason why many prefer to patronize unauthorized adoption agents (Eke et al,2014).

For the female respondent, the most likely circumstance in which they may consider adoption (as shown

on table 4) is if there is a medical confirmation that they (62.9%) or their spouse(87.1%), cannot produce

children, if their spouse want them to adopt(73.70%), to help a child have a family (53.7%) or if they

need a female child (50.5%) but only very few will consider it if they needed a male child(10.8%).

As for the male respondents, the most likely circumstances that may make them consider adoption was

to help a child have a family (43.6%) or if there is a medical prove that they (36.9%) or their spouse

(26.9%) cannot have children and if their spouse wanted them to adopt (28.8%) . But (78.2%) of them

do not wish to adopt a child even if they do not have. This finding is similar to that of Abubakar et

al.(2013) which reported that less than half of the respondents were willing to adopt and and Nwobodo

and Isah where majority (71.6%) were not willing to adopt.

Thus for both male and female infertility may make them consider adoption as an option. This finding is

similar to that of Abubakar et al. (2013) and (Eke, 2014) where infertility was the main reason people

gave for seeking to adopt children they are not related to.

Most of the men (73.1%) would still not adopt even if they or their spouse have problem this is not

surprising since Dimka and Dein(2013) observed that not most men would rather marry another wife

than to adopt. Only very few men would adopt if they needed a male (17.3%) or female (19.9%) child.

Majority 286(81.7%) of the respondents (male and female) said they do not wish to adopt a child

despite their awareness. This is similar to the findings of Ezugwu et al (2012) where 86.4% of the

respondents were aware of child adoption but only 30.7% express willingness to adopt a baby. Similarly,

Nwobodo and Isah also reported that majority were not willing to adopt a child(71.6%). Both male and

female respondents (51.4%) may consider adoption just to help a child have a family thus confirming

the submission of Ibrahim (2013) that many people adopt simply to give a home and family to children

who might not otherwise and this was referred to as philanthropy in Eke, (2014)

Reasons stated that may not allow adoption to be consider is shown on table 5 include not being

comfortable with what people will say about them (84.9%); Society will not treat the child as their

biological child, fear of the real parents appearing in the future, many believe that their spouse would be

a productive partner (82.6%), the child unknown background , that there might be unbearable

competition between their biological and adopted child. And that the adopted child may start showing

desire to see their real parent (60.66) This is similar to reasons given for not wanting to adopt in Eke,

Obu, Chinawa, Adimora, and Obi(2014) is fear of disloyalty by the child. Some children when they

grow up to have knowledge of the fact that they are adopted may start asking question about their

biological parents. Also, future claims of biological parents was expressed as reason for not accepting

adoption as an option in Eke et al. (2014)

In a similar study, Ezugwu et al (2012 )reported that the reasons given by the respondents for not

considering adoption was that it was not a solution to their infertility, it was psychologically

unacceptable and the fear of unknown parental background and abnormal behavior in the child like in

cases of picking children born by mad women and put in orphanages. And the belief that a child born by

an insane person will most likely have traces of insanity or other abnormal behavior. Similarly in the

study by Nwobodo and Isah respondents claimed that adopting a child will not allow them fulfill their

conception role as women. Contrary to the findings that 75% of Americans believe that adoptive parents

are likely to love their adoptive children as much as children born to them (Harris Interactive Market

Research , 2002), 60.9% in this study claimed that they will find it difficult to connect with an adopted

child. Unlike the Americans (68%) who think it is a good thing for the adopted child to seek out birth

parents Harris Interactive Market Research ,2002), the respondents in this study see the desire of the

child to know birth parents as a barrier to seeking adoption (66.6%).

Most of the women in other studies cited already have problems of infertility but those in this study are

not yet sure of what the future holds for them in terms of procreation and may be very free to discuss

how they feel about adoption. it may also be easy to influence them positively towards the practice of

adoption through education /enlightement before it is actually needed so that even if they do not need to

adopt they would change the way the view those who would want to adopt and the general process of

adoption.

References

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Eke, C.B., Obu, H.A. Chinawa, J.M., Adimora, G.N.& Obi, I.E. (2014) Perception of child adoption

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Table 2: Awareness of undergraduates of the meaning of child adoption.

Items Yes No

Adoption is a legal process of taking a child

as one’s own

303 (86.6%) 47 (13.4%)

Adoption means buying a baby and bringing

up the Child as one’s own.

159 (45.4%)

191 (54.6%)

Adoption means taking care of a child, without

131 (37.4%)

219 (62.6%)

changing the child’s name to your own.

Adoption means that the child becomes as if

he is born to the parents that adopts him.

314 (89.7%)

36 (10.3%)

The child that is adopted bears the name of the

Parents who adopted him.

289 (82.6%)

61 (17.4%)

Table 3: Attitude of undergraduates towards the practice of child adoption in marriage.

Items Agreed

f (%)

Disagreed

f (%)

adoption does not remove the stigma of

childlessness

301(86.0) 49(14.0)

Adopting is not part of our culture

262 (74.9) 88 (25.1)

It is difficult to take care of a child you did not

give birth to

189 (54.0)

161(46.0)

It is better for one to have ones biological

children no matter what

294(84.0) 56(16.0)

The satisfaction of being a parent would not

310(88.6) 40(11.4)

be there if one adopted a child

Adopting a child can bring luck to the

adoptive parents because the child can become

great in future

281(80.3)

69(19.7)

Adopting a child may bring luck to the adoptive

parents as it opens the door for them to have their own child

311(88.9) 39(11.1)

if one cannot have children it is better not to adopt

205(58.6) 145(41.4)

Adopting a child is like collecting trouble for

the future

232(66.3)

118(33.7)

God’s time is the best in matters of child seeking

instead of considering adoption no matter the sex

one needs.

197(56.3)

153(43.7)

It is better to adopt the child of a friend rather than

one from an orphanage.

102(29.1) 248(70.9)

It is better to adopt the child of a relative rather than

one from an orphanage.

101(28.9) 249(71.1)

Table 4: Circumstance in which adoption might be considered (multiple responses

allowed)

Items Male

f (%) n=156

Female

f (%) n=194

If there is medical prove that I cannot have

Children

57(36.5) 122(62.9)

If there is medical confirmation that my

spouse cannot produce children

42(26.9) 169(87.1)

If I can no longer have children due to age 25(16.0) 101(52.1)

If I stop childbearing and i need a male

child

27(17.3) 21(10.8)

If I stop childbearing and i need a female

child

31(19.9) 98(50.5)

If my children grow up and leave home and I do not

want to stay alone

1(0.64) 31(16.0)

If my spouse wants me to adopt 45(28.8) 143(73.7)

Just to help a child have a family 68(43.6) 112(57.7)

If I cannot pass through the stress of

Pregnancy and childbirth again

4(2.6) 56(28.9)

Just to add to the number of children I will Have 17(10.9) 67(34.5)

Even if I cannot have my own child, i do not wish to

adopt any child.

122(78.2) 146(75.3)

Table 5: Reasons why adoption may not be considered

Items Agree

f (%)

Disagree

f(%)

I will not feel comfortable with what the public will say

about me if I adopted a child.

297(84.9) 53(15.1)

I cannot allow a child that is not my own to bear my family

Name

173(49.4) 177(50.6)

I may not be able to adopt a child because I will find it hard

` to connect with the adopted child.

213(60.9) 137(39.1)

The society will not threat or accept the child as my

biological child

311(88.9) 39(11.1)

There might be unbearable competition between

Biological and adopted children

242(69.1) 108(30.9)

adopted children can start showing desire to see

real parents when they grow up

233(66.6) 117(33.4)

I will refuse to adopt because I believe my spouse would

be a sound reproductive partner.

290(82.6) 60(17.1)

I will refuse to adopt because of fear of real parents

reappearing again in future.

286(81.7) 64(18.3)

I will not adopt because of the child’s unknown background. 293(83.7) 57(16.3)

I will not adopt because I fear rejection from in-laws. 101(28.9) 249(71.1)

I can take care of a needy child but not as my own child 301(71.1) 49(14.0)

Nasrullah

La Saundra Haynes

Geraldine A. Moore

Sofia Morote

Stephanie Tatum

Dowling College Oakdale, USA

WHAT MATTERS IN RECRUITMENT OF MALE NURSES?

Introduction

Job Satisfaction is a global concern within the health care community. Job satisfaction and

advancement opportunity are the two primary parameters, identified towards improving the current

crisis of nursing shortages. Job retention of experienced health care providers and replacing the

population of nurses leaving the profession both depends on job satisfaction.

The proportion of men who are employed as nurses in the United States has tripled since 1970, from

2.7 percent to 9.6 percent and the proportion of male licensed practical nurses and licensed vocational

nurses has more than doubled from 3.9 percent to 8.1 percent according to new data released by U.S.

Census Bureau. However, the United States is suffering from one of the most severe nursing shortages

ever experienced and recruitment and retention of nursing students has become a major national

healthcare focus. In 2007, the Department of Health and Human Services predicted that the nursing

shortage would be significantly worse by the year 2010, and it happened as they predicted. Currently

there is a shortage of 150,000 nurses and with the aging population the need for nurses will continue to

grow. The projected nursing shortage is expected to grow to 29 percent by 2020.

More men are entering nursing at higher paying jobs. The number of females has tripled since 1970.

Some of the bias towards male nurse are generated within the profession, because of the dominate

presence of females. The recruitment strategies to improve recruitment focused on enrolling men into

nursing programs included diversity, marketing strategies that would attract the perspective of male

nursing students or employees.

The university of Texas Health Science Center of Houston wanted to increase their male enrollment in

their nursing program and surveyed males to find out what drew them to the profession. Through

their survey they found that men needed to have more male representation in a profession that is

typically occupied by women. Minority nursing (2013) reports that there are 3,063,162 licensed

registered nurses in the United States, approximately 294,063 registered nurses (RN) are men, only

9.6% of the total nursing population. The average age of all RNs is under 30. The average age of RN

population in the United States is 46 years. The median age of male RNs licensed in 2000 or later is 35,

compared with 31 for female RN’s (2013).

Job Satisfaction

With the increasing shortage of nurses, there is a need to identify factors related to nursing

programs success. Spitzer (2000) identified predicators of college success, one which was the age of

a student. For instance, Buerhaus (2005) estimated that 40 percent of working registered nurses will be

older than age 50 by 2010. The development of effective recruitment and retention strategies are being

created to attract and keep students in nursing programs. The importance of altruism and caring in

choosing a nursing career is usually relevant prior to entering the profession and this may be a

motivating factor to enter nursing profession. Those individuals that find caring problematic often drop

out early in training.

A descriptive cross sectional epidemiological approach was implemented; self- completion survey was

distributed to physicians and nurses at primary health centers. Al-Madina et al. (year) used a multi-

dimensional job scale adopted by Traynor and Wade (1993). This study included 445 healthcare

providers 23.6% were physicians and 76.4% were nurses; job dissatisfaction was highly encountered

where 67.1% of nurse and 52.4% of physicians were dissatisfied. The findings indicated dissatisfaction

domains included professional opportunities, workload and appreciation reward. This study further

explored the relationship between demographic and job characterizes with job satisfaction revealed that

older male, non-Saudi, specialist physicians had insignificantly larger mean score job

satisfaction than their counterparts. Saudi senior female nurses had significantly higher mean score

than their counterpart. From this study it was evident the need to reduce workload for nurses and

provide better opportunities.

There are different dimensions of job satisfaction. The following dimensions of job satisfaction have

been used as variables.

Supervision

Supervision refers to supervisory style, which may be defined in terms of task- oriented behavior

and person-oriented behavior. Task-oriented behavior requires direction and coordination of

group activities to achieve.

Colleagues

Colleagues are the nurses in the hospital setting. Social and professional interactions between nurses

represent a factor of job satisfaction.

Pay

In this study pay is the annual income of nurses earn through this profession.

Advancement

Advancement refers to a change in status or position, increase in salary and/or powers.

Security

It represents hospital's policies regarding seniority, layoffs, pension, retirement, and firing. Opportunity

It represents better options of advancement in the same career in the same

organization/hospital.

Area of Work

A survey was sent to members of the California Institute for Nursing and Health Care, Coalition for

Nursing careers in California, American Assembly for Men in Nursing and was advertised in Nursing

Spectrum and Nurses Week with links to an one line survey. There were 498 respondents the

majority of the men 70% were ages 35 to 54 years. The nursing specialties of the participants

included critical care (27 percent), emergency room (23 percent), medical surgical unit (20 percent),

middle managers (19 percent), nursing educators (15 percent) director (10 percent) and nurse

practitioner (10 percent), the report identified that many of the men choose the field of nursing

because they had concerns about the stereotype barriers of nursing being a career for women. The lack

of male nurse role models was identified add a hindrance for young boys Hodes survey (2006). Area of

work was operationally defined in this study to mean working in one of three areas which include:

medical-surgical units, specialty units, or administration:

Administration

Administration was operationally defined in this study to include registered nurses working as an

educator, assistant nurse manager, nurse manager, supervisor, nurse anesthetist, nurse practitioner,

assistant director of nursing, director of nursing, chief operating officer (COO), and chief

executive officer (CEO) (Moore, 2008).

Medical/Surgical Unit

Medical/surgical unit was operationally defined in this study to include the medical unit or surgical

unit.

Specialty Unit

Specialty units were operationally defined in this study to include the Intensive Care unit (ICU),

Cardiac Care Unit (CCU), Emergency Department (ED), Recovery Room, Operating Room (OR),

Obstetrical Unit (OB), Pediatric Unit, Gynecology Unit (GYN), Nursery, Neonatal Intensive Care Unit

(NICU), or Psychiatric Unit (Moore, 2008).

Method of Entry

While the public image of nurses rank high on the Gallop poll in the past years today’s women view

nursing as a” less ambitious career option “(Duffin, 2005). Duffin explains that women of the 1950s saw

nursing as an unquestionable choice and now there are many career options for females. This brings the

opportunity for men to enter the profession that once was dominated by females. According to the

American Hospital Association ( 2004), enrollment in health education has declined as more

opportunities have become available to women , women have become less interested in nursing as a

career, and men continue without interest in nursing (Andrews, 2005). The survey asked respondents

the following three options about the method of entry to the nursing profession by them:

1. I entered a nursing program directly from high school by choice

2. I entered college with a major other than nursing and entered nursing dueto availability,

convenience, or lack of being able to find a job

3. Nursing is a second career for me _____

Male nurses who chose option 1 were recorded as seekers, 2 as finders, and 3 as settlers.

Methodology

Research Questions

1. Do the two age groups, 20 to 39 years and 40 years and above, of male nurses differ significantly on

six factors of job satisfaction (Supervision, Colleagues, Pay, Advancement, Security, and Opportunity)?

2. Can the individuals, of age group 20 to 39 years, in the three areas of work and six factors of job

satisfaction be correctly classified into these three categories (med/surg, specialty, and administration)?

3. Can the individuals, of age group 40 years and above, in the three areas of work and six factors of job

satisfaction be correctly classified into these three categories (med/surg, specialty, and administration)?

Data Collection and Analysis

This study is part of a larger study conducted by Moore (2008). Moore conducted a survey of 42

items developed by her. The survey was placed online at Male Nurse Magazine. The survey was

advertised on different websites, related to male nurses. The aim of the survey was to measure

perception of male nurses about six dimensions of job satisfaction: supervision, colleagues, security,

advancement, opportunity, and pay, complete survey can be seen in Moore (2008, p. ). The six point

Likert scale was used to give these choices to the respondents, (1) strongly disagree, (2) disagree, (3)

somewhat disagree, (4) somewhat agree, (5) agree, and (6) strongly agree. Table 1 shows details of

variables (dimensions of job satisfaction), corresponding items measuring the variables, raw score, and

coefficient of reliability.

The questionnaire also consisted of demographic information. The respondents were required to

give information about their age, area of work, and method of entry to the job. Data was divided into

two groups on the basis of 2 age groups, group 1 consisted of male nurses of age 20 to 39 years and

group 2 consisted of male nurses of age 40 years and above. Group 1 consisted of 31.3% of the

respondents while group 2 was 67.9%.

Table 1: Scale Reliabilities

Scale Items Number Raw score Alpha Coefficient

of items

Supervision 20r, 24, 26r, 29r, 30r, 8 8 - 48 .90 32r, 36r, 41r Colleagues 17, 19, 22, 34, 39 5 5 - 30 .77

Pay 14, 18, 28, 31, 43, 46 6 6 - 36 .68

Advancement 33, 38r, 40r, 44 4 4 - 24 .63

Security 13r, 21r, 25, 42r, 47r 5 5 - 30 .75

Opportunity 12, 15r, 23, 37 4 4 - 24 .64

Source: Moore, G. A. (2008), p. 50

To answer our first research question an independent sample t-test was conducted to evaluate the

differences between the two age groups of male nurses on six factors of job satisfaction,

Supervision, Colleagues, Security, Advancement, Opportunity, and Pay. Table 2 shows that there is

no significant difference in the mean score of two age groups, 20 to 39 years, and 40 years and above

on Supervision t (225) = -.107, p = .915, Colleagues, t (230) = 1.480, p =.140 , Security, t (235) =

1.117, p = .265, and Pay t (225) =.372 , p = .710. While, the test was significant for the two

factors, advancement t (236) = -5.178, p = .000, and opportunity t (238) = 3.409, p = .001.

Descriptive analysis shows that second age group (40 years and above) of male nurses (M = 13.18,

SD = 4.21) preferred advancement in career more than the first age group (20 to 39 years) of nurses

(M = 10.23, SD = 3.95). However, in the case of opportunity on average first group (M = 18.11,

SD = 3.45) considered it more important than the second group (M = 16.36, SD = 3.79), see Table 2.

Table 2: Age Group Differences of Male Nurses on Six Factors of Job Satisfaction (Supervision,

Colleagues, Security, Advancement, Opportunity, and Pay)

Age-recode N M SD SEM t Df P

Supervision 1 72 35.35 8.05 0.95 -.107 225 .915 2 155 35.48 9.37 0.75 Colleagues 1 74 21.64 4.93 0.57 1.480 230 .140 2 158 20.66 4.53 0.36 Security 1 76 25.36 4.45 0.51 1.117 235 .265 2 161 24.63 4.79 0.38 Advancement 1 78 10.23 3.95 0.45 -5.178 236 .000 2 160 13.18 4.21 0.33 Opportunity 1 75 18.11 3.45 0.40 3.409 238 .001 2 165 16.36 3.79 0.29 Pay 1 76 21.92 6.38 0.73 .372 225 .710

2 151 21.62 5.54 0.45

1 represents age group 20 – 39 years.

2 represents age group 40 years and above.

To answer the second research question a discriminant analysis was conducted to classify male

nurses of age 20 to 39 years into three categories of area of work on the basis of job satisfactions

(supervision, colleagues, security, advancement, opportunity, and pay), and method of entry to job.

The overall Wilks’s lambda was not significant, A = .67, χ2 (14, N = 62) = 22.38, p = .071, (Table 5).

This test indicated that the predictors, method of entry (seeker, finder, and settler) to the job, and

job satisfaction dimensions (supervision, colleagues, security, advancement, opportunity, and

pay) did not differentiate significantly among the three areas (Medical/surgical, specialty, and

administration) of male nurses. However the p value was very close to the significant level

.05(p=0.07). This approaching significant shows that we are more likely to differentiate Med/surgical

nurses (M=19.15) from specialty (M=16.74), and administration (M=19.71) on opportunity (Table

6), with a canonical correlation r=.506, with a variability of 25%, p=0.07, (Table 4).

Table 3: Group statistics-group1- 20 to 39 years (N=62)

area of work M SD

1. Med/surg method of entry 2.31 .85 Supervision 36.23 6.13 Colleagues 21.92 4.17 Security 25.00 5.54 Advancement 10.00 3.76 Opportunity 19.15 2.44 Pay 23.92 6.02 2. Specialty method of entry 2.37 .81 Supervision 35.23 8.96 Colleagues 21.71 5.36 Security 25.83 4.16 Advancement 9.97 4.09 Opportunity 16.74 3.96

3. Administr

Pay 19.97 7.01

ation method of entry 2.07 .83 Supervision 34.93 8.72 Colleagues 20.71 6.06 Security 25.14 4.82 Advancement 10.36 3.37 Opportunity 19.71 2.64 Pay 21.00 3.88

Total method of entry 2.29 .82 Supervision 35.37 8.28 Colleagues 21.53 5.24 Security 25.50 4.56 Advancement 10.06 3.81 Opportunity 17.92 3.64 Pay 21.03 6.34

Table 4: Eigenvalues

Function Eigenvalue % of Variance Cumulative % Canonical

Correlation (r) r2

1 vs. 2 and 3 .343a 75.7 75.7 .506 .256

2 vs. 3 .110a 24.3 100.0 .315 .099

a. First 2 canonical discriminant functions were used in the analysis.

Table 5: Wilks' Lambda

Test of Function(s) Wilks' Lambda Chi-square Df P

1 vs. 2 and 3 .671 22.381 14 .071

2 vs. 3 .901 5.853 6 .440

Table 6: Structure Matrix

Function

1 vs. 2 and 3 2 vs. 3

Opportunity -.686* .114 method of entry .229* .205 Security .134* -.088 Pay -.267 .600* Colleagues .097 .198*

Supervision -.012 .167*

Advancement -.059 -.072*

Pooled within-groups correlations between discriminating variables and standardized canonical

discriminant functions

Variables ordered by absolute size of correlation within function.

*. Largest absolute correlation between each

variable and any discriminant function

To answer third research question again discriminant analysis was conducted to classify male nurses

of age 40 years and above into three categories of area of work on the basis of two variables job

satisfactions (supervision, colleagues, security, advancement, opportunity, and pay), and method

of entry to job. The overall Wilks’s lambda was significant, A =. 697, χ2 (14, N

= 129) = 44.413, p < .01 see Table 9, indicating that overall predictors differentiated among

areas of work. This test indicated that the predictors, method of entry to the job, and

advancement differentiate significantly the three areas of work of male nurses. It shows

predictors differentiate Med/surgical nurses (M=12.29) from specialty (M=12.43), and administration

(M=13.49), Table 7, on advancement, and method of entry, see table 3, with a canonical correlation

r=.532, with a variability of 28.3%, p=0.000, see Table 8.

There are three methods of entry to the job namely seeker, finder, and settler. Cross tabs and Chi

squire test was used to analyze further the differentiation among the areas of work by three methods

of entry. Table 11 shows that most of the male nurses working in administration were seekers

(76.67%), while those working in med/surg and specialty were settlers (7.37%,64.21%). The

difference was statistically significant, χ2 (4, N = 169) = 25.55, p=.000, see table

12.

Table 7: Group Statistics-group2, 40 years and above (N=129)

area of work M SD

1. Med/Surg method of entry 2.71 .76 Supervision 37.14 7.60 Colleagues 19.43 2.51

Security 23.43 2.99 Advancement 12.29 4.61 Opportunity 15.86 2.27 Pay 24.43 4.89

2. Specialty method of entry 2.67 .61 Supervision 35.65 8.98 Colleagues 20.54 4.24 Security 24.87 4.73 Advancement 12.43 4.27 Opportunity 15.83 3.85 Pay 22.14 5.95 3. Administration method of entry 2.00 .88 Supervision 34.06 9.47 Colleagues 20.04 5.28 Security 23.43 5.60 Advancement 13.49 4.30 Opportunity 16.58 4.21 Pay 20.38 5.25 Total method of entry 2.40 .80 Supervision 35.08 9.10

Colleagues 20.27 4.61 Security 24.20 5.05 Advancement 12.86 4.30 Opportunity 16.14 3.93 Pay 21.54 5.69

Table 8: Eigenvalues

Function Eigenvalue % of Variance Cumulative % Canonical

Correlation (r) r2

1 .395a 93.2 93.2 .532 .283

2 .029a 6.8 100.0 .167 .028

a. First 2 canonical discriminant functions were used in the analysis.

Table 9: Wilks' Lambda

Test of Function(s) Wilks' Lambda Chi-square Df P

1 vs. 2 and 3 .697 44.413 14 .000

2 vs. 3 .972 3.481 6 .746

Table 10: Structure Matrix

Function

1vs. 2 and 3 2 vs. 3

method of entry .719* .123 Advancement -.197* -.011 Opportunity -.151* -.054 Pay .289 -.456* Security .196 .437* Colleagues .061 .335*

Supervision .155 -.172*

Pooled within-groups correlations between discriminating variables and standardized canonical

discriminant functions

Variables ordered by absolute size of correlation within function.

*. Largest absolute correlation between each variable and any discriminant function

Table 11: Method of entry * area of work Cross tabulation

method of Seeker

area of work

Med/surg

specialty

Administration 3.33% 20.00% 76.67% entry Finder 2.78% 38.89% 58.33% Settler 7.37% 64.21% 28.42%

Table 12: Chi-Square Tests, N=169

Value df P Pearson Chi-Square 25.545 4 .000

Findings

There is no difference between the two age groups on supervision, colleagues, security, and pay.

However, the 40+ group of male nurses prefers advancement in their career while, the younger group

prefers opportunity in their present working institution. Younger male nurses working in

medical/surgical area were different from those working in specialty and

administration on the basis of opportunity in career. Male nurses of 40+ group, working in

medical/area were different from those working in specialty and administration on the basis of

advancement in their career. Most of the 40+ nurses working in administration were seekers

while getting their jobs and those working in medical/surgical, and specialty were settlers.

Discussion

The shortage of male nurses may be overcome by improving recruitment process as well as by

improving satisfaction level of present registered male nurses. According to Brazzaville’s (2003)

survey results, job dissatisfaction was highly encountered in 67.1% of nurses. The findings

indicated dissatisfaction domains included professional opportunities, workload and appreciation

reward. This research found that the 40+ group of male nurses prefers advancement in their career

while, the younger group prefers opportunity in their present working institution. So age sensitive

strategies may be adopted by institutions for satisfaction of male nurses of different age groups.

Spitzer (2000) identified predicators of college success, such as the age of a student. For instance,

Buerhaus (2005) estimated that 40 percent of working registered nurses will be older than age 50 by

2010. This study found difference between younger and 40+ nurses working in different areas. For

instance Younger male nurses working in medical/surgical area were different from those

working in specialty and administration on the basis of opportunity in career. Male nurses of

40+ group, working in medical/area were different from those working in specialty and

administration on the basis of advancement in their career. Most of the 40+ nurses working in

administration were seekers while getting their jobs and those working in medical/surgical, and

specialty were settlers. These difference sensitive recruitment policy for nurses working in

different areas, to attract as many as possible male nurses.

References

Adams, -Hicks. (2000, December). Pay and no-pay incentive, performance and motivation.

Global WHO'S December Global Health Workforce Strategy, Group, Geneva.

Brazzaville. (2003). Migration of Health Professionals in Six countries: A synthesis Report.

World Health Organization. 81(3), 4th ser. (2006).

Hemsley -Brown Foskett. (1999). Young People Perception Of Nursing As A Career. Journal of

Advanced Nursing, 29(6), 134th ser., 411-416. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2648.1976.tb00925.x

Hilton, L. (2006, May 14). NurseWeek: A few good men - Male nurses defy stereotypes and

discrimination to find satisfaction in a female-dominated profession. Nurse.com - Nursing News,

Nursing Careers, Nurse Continuing Education, Nursing Forums and More! Retrieved November

6, 2013, from http://www.nurseweek.com/news/features/01-05/men.html

Hilton. (n.d.). A few good men: Male nurses defy stereotype and discrimination. Retrieved from

www.newsweek.com/news/features

History of men in nursing. (2007, April 12). Male Nurse Magazine ,DOI. Hodes, B. (n.d.). Hodes

research. Men in Nursing.

Takase,Maude-Manainas. (2006). Impact of The Perceived Public Image of Nurses On Nurse

Work Behavior. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 53(3), 333-343. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-

2648.2001.00440.x

U.S Department of Health and Human Services, health resources and Service administration (HRSA),

(2008). The Registered Nurse Population: Findings from 2008 national sample survey of Registered

Nurses

Potana Venkateswara Rao

University of Mysore, INDIA

STREETS AS THE ARENA OF SOCIAL INCLUSION AND EXCLUSION OF CHILDREN:

THE CASE OF STREET CHILDREN IN INDIA

They don't wake up under the covers.

They don't taste breakfast in the morning.

They don't trace their uncertain designs of their first letters.

They don't play in the park with other boys and girls.

They don't have blankets, the dawn wind cuts across the closed mouth in the truck of the day workers.

There was no bread, just some bitter tea, a bitter life, burning the tongue and the dreams.

There was no paper, There was no school,

There was no future..In their hands, an infinite sadness . . .

The hands of these little ones are more adult than their eyes .... (Soares and Zena, 1996: 429)

Introduction

The phenomenon of ‘Street children’ is a global and urban issue that needs serious attention because

studies on street-children in general were a neglected subject within the social sciences.

The distressing thing is that street children soon get involved with the middle men/women who exploit

them by forcing them into begging, bonded labor and sex trade. This is an alarming and serious social

problem in India that needs to be studied from a sociological perspective to help this community so that

they will also feel included. The paper presents the condition and the context of the street children that

tries to explain why and how street children are excluded and it progresses to address the issue of how

they can be included into the family and the society. There are several NGOs and a few religious

organizations that are working to rehabilitate these street children but still the issue needs serious

attention in the context of research and innovative methods to reach them.

Street Children

The Context

Why are street children important? Are they important in our global context? Do we have a mission for

them? What is society’s response to them? These are some of the questions that we need to ask

ourselves to understand them. The number of street children is growing day by day because of the

tremendous growth of urbanization, worldwide economic down fall, unemployment, and breakdown of

family system etc., There are about 100 million street children in the world today who are excluded from

the privileges and rights of a Child. There are different opinions and doubts about the number of street

children in India but certainly they comprise a huge number. The Department of Women and Child

Development of Indian government’s research document (1997) informs us of the fact that there are 11

million children living on the streets of India (Thukral and Ali, 2005: 97). Since it is an old document,

the present statistics might have increased in a significant way. In fact, “India has the greatest number of

street children” in the world (UNDP, 1993:24). As per R. Agarwal’s estimation, the number of street

children in India is 20 million i.e. approximately 7% of the total child population of the world (Agrawal,

1999: 28). The total street children in India are more than half of the population of Canada and four

times bigger than the entire population of New Zealand’s.

India is one of the younger countries in the globe which is making a tremendous impact in the field of

Economy, Science and Technology. The increase of street children day by day in our Urban context and

their struggle for existence raises the question, “how do street children survive and how can we build a

nation when they are exploited in different ways” (Yanthan and Zinyu, 2009: 267). In order to bring

about improvisation in India, we need to protect children from the dangers and ploys and we need to

allow them to climb the ladder of success. In this context A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, the former President of

India, states “there is likely to be a large population of young people with aspirations of better lifestyle”

by the year 2020 (Kalam and Rajan: 2002, 17). In fact, if we observe the Indian population, “More than

50% of the population is less than 25 years of age and a strong growth is expected to continue in this age

bracket” (Mehrotra, 2007: vii). These young people’s potential should be tapped from their childhood

otherwise we may not see the right people who can honestly serve the country.

The street children are an emotionally scarred and disturbed community because these children are

abandoned and excluded by society. These children are often “exposed more to dogs than to kindness”

(Boswell, 1988: 172). Since the street children face rejection, they are not open to speak and express

their feelings. These children are usually not productive because of their disturbed condition due to

various reasons, therefore they feel lonely, rejected and they live with low self esteem that leads them to

destructive habits (Hunt, 1960: 24) . In fact, Indian’s asset, ‘Our Children’, is under threat. Therefore

concentrating on children community especially street Children is the need of the hour in Indian context.

Definitions and Classifications

The term ‘street child’ is basically understood as children who live on the streets of a city. In fact, “They

are street children not merely because they inhabit the physical space called the street, but because they

have betrayed motherdom, the moral and economic logic of the matrifocal home” (Hecht, 1998: 74).

These children live on the streets without proper family care and protection. UNESCO document on

Street Children defines, “Street children are those for whom the street (in the widest sense of the word,

i.e. unoccupied dwellings, wastelands, etc.) more than their family has become their real home, a

situation in which there is no protection, supervision or direction from responsible adults” (UNESCO,

2001: 17). These street children live on footpaths, parks or on the street itself. Some of them may spend

their full time on the streets and others may spend part of their time to generate their income (Sukla,

2005: 1). They are classified into three categories.

Children on the street are those engaged in begging, selling items and engaging in menial jobs to support

the family. They are in touch with their families and some of them even go home by evening to

contribute their earnings. Some of “these children have nothing to do in their homes so they frequently

roam the streets, returning home only at night or at meal time” (Kilbourn, 1997: 10). In the course of

time these children get addicted to habits that exclude them from their homes.

Children of the street actually live on the street or outside of a normal family environment. Family ties

may exist but they are discarded from the families due to various reasons. Even though they have

families back at home they live a lonely life on the streets and they struggle for survival on the streets.

They may have occasional family contact.

Children in the streets are with no family contact at all and they consider the streets as their full time

home. They actually live in the streets without family ties. They depend on streets for food, shelter and

survival. This kind of group easily gets attracted towards drugs and all other underground activities that

lead them to a life of crime. Nandna Reddy identifies these children as “roofless and rootless” who live

and work on the streets (Reddy, 1992: 25). Even though there are different definitions and classifications

of street children, this study considers the third classification, ‘Children in the streets’. Since there are

several categories of street children, the focus of this paper is restricted to the street children who run

away from homes.

The city of Vijayawada has been selected as the case study because of my experience and the familiarity

of the streets and street children. Since World Vision has been effectively working in rehabilitating the

street children in Vijayawada, I relied on it for the data.

The Case of Street Children in Vijayawada

Census of India report 2011 informs that the total child population in Vijayawada city is 92, 848 (47,582

boys and 45,266 girls) which is almost equal to total population of Jersey (UK) (Census Bulletin, 2011:

1). It is estimated that about 33 run away children arrive at Vijayawada railway station every day and a

majority of these children come from different villages of Andhra Pradesh state. World Vision’s Project

Design Document informs us that there are about 5000 run away children who arrive in Vijayawada

railway station every year (World Vision, 2008: 12). These children are often excluded from their homes

and families. In order to understand the phenomenon of street children in Vijayawada, available data has

been collected from the World Vision office. This data has been gathered only for a period of two

months, Jan & Feb 2011 during the time of my voluntary work with the office. In fact, 52 run away

street children are identified by World Vision office staff from various points such as Railway Station,

Bus station, Signal points, Cinema theaters etc., I personally did a few case studies and analyzed the data

in the light of office records and field observations.

The Gender factor

Boys are first in running away from home compared to girls.

In this context one of the world vision staff informed me that “the female cases are very less compared

to male” (Divakar 2011)

One possible explanation for the low turn-out among girls is that, girls are more vulnerable in streets

than in homes. Hence, girls seem to be silently suffering abuse and exploitation heaped upon them in

their home environment instead of running away from home from light frustration. The Indian

patriarchal system seems to play the role of a deterrent in the case of girls, because once they run away

from their family, it would be difficult for them to be re-integrated in to the family. Therefore they will

be excluded from their homes. The prejudice and suspicion created by their behaviour would

permanently create an indelible pockmark on her and on the family. Normalization and repatriation

would be difficult. That’s why run away girls never dream to go back to their homes. If not rescued and

rehabilitated, many of them enter in to commercial sex work to secure a livelihood for themselves. One

of the significant observations is that all the identified run away street children are properly taken care of

by World Vision and are counseled by professional counselors with skilled counseling techniques. After

the initial counseling, the interested children are sent back to their homes which is called “repatriation,”

one of the best methods in rehabilitation. Those who are not interested in going back to their homes and

those who do not have a home at all are sent to the existing child care centers and homes in the city.

The Age Factor

The following chart helps us understand that the age between 4 to 14 yrs is the most vulnerable age due

to peer pressure and other factors such as media & influence of friends. One of the significant

observations from the data is that out of 52 children, who run away from home, twenty nine of them are

in between 10-14 age groups and eighteen of them are in between 15-19 age groups. This gives us an

indication that parents need to be educated and be very careful with kids once they cross the age of 4.

The child’s rationality and the craving for love and acceptance may tempt him to get away from home.

In order to help the child, parents should understand the child’s psychological need for love, acceptance

and respect.

Push and Pull factors

The reasons for childrens’ exclusion from their homes fall under push and pull factors. In a 1993 report,

World Health Organization noted some of the significant causes such as armed conflict, poverty, natural

and man-made disasters, famine, physical and sexual abuse, exploitation by adults, dislocation through

migration, urbanization and overcrowding, acculturation, disinheritance or being disowned (WHO,

1993: 1). All these causes come under push factors. In fact these push factors are the cause for the

exclusion of children from the homes. Among several other factors; family & peer influence are the

main reasons that exclude them from homes and include them on to the streets (Lamberte, 2002: 167).

As per the above data chart, the first reason for the children running away from their homes is because

they are orphans/semi orphaned, the second one is parents’ irresponsibility and the third one is lack of

knowledge. These three reasons are from internal factors of parents but the external reason is wanting

freedom out there in the streets, on the part of children. Therefore the internal factors from the family

can be considered as push factors that lead to exclusion and external reasons like desire for freedom can

be considered as pull factor that leads to inclusion of the child into the streets. The significant

observation is that family disorder pushes children out of their homes. I confirmed from World Vision

staff who stated “When the children are mentally tortured due to family disorders, children run away

from their home”(Lakshmi, 2011). Mostly, children from broken families are excluded because of ill-

treatment. The ill-treatment and the physical violence from the step parents is a common push factor that

excludes the children from their homes. In some cases, sexual abuse from the members of the family

pushes them to the streets of a nearby city. Kilbourn observes that “family disintegration is a major

cause of children being on the street” (Kilbourn, 1997: 21). Family is a unit in which the children enjoy

the love from parents and from other members but in these days family system has been damaged due to

societal changes. As a result the children in the families are not able to enjoy the love and acceptance.

Poverty, abuse and family disorder are means that hassle children to run away from their homes in

search of a destiny in urban areas. Constant beatings, rejection, and sexual abuse by the family members

fuel the fire; that forces the children to run away.

Urban factor

The runaway children who were traced in the city of Vijayawada belong to different districts of the state

and a good number of them are from other states. To my surprise, there wasn’t a single child at the head

quarters, Hyderabad, from the state of Andhra Pradesh who had run away to the streets of Vijayawada.

This gives me an impression that children always move from village to city and from city to mega city

or from smaller towns to bigger cities. Since Hyderabad is a mega city, children may not move out from

that mega city to smaller cities. Therefore, a city has such a power that attracts all segments of people

including children. This may be the reason why most of our Indian cities have huge numbers of street

children which is a symptom of social disease that needs serious attention.

Sociological Dimension: How can we include these children into the families and society?

Religious charitable organizations, NGO’s and Indian Government have given attention to this problem

and some of the NGO’s have been actively involved in rehabilitation of street children.

Indian Government and NGOs’ response

Street children are exploited in every area. The Indian government has several developmental projects

for these children but they are not really helped by these projects because of the corruption. The projects

and the funds that are allocated to these street children actually do not reach them because most of the

sanctioned money goes to the middle mens’ pockets. The Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment

has prepared an integrated programme for the street children that aim to provide shelter, nutrition, health

care, sanitation, hygiene, safe drinking water, education, recreational facilities and protection against

abuse. Government provides 90% financial assistance to the NGOs to initiate the following programs

(Government of India). Ø Contact programme offering counseling, guidance and referral services to destitute and neglected

children;

Ø Establishment of 24-hourdrop-in-shelters for street children with facilities for night stay, safe drinking

water, bathing, latrines, first aid and recreation;

Ø Education for street and working children in India, non-formal education programmes imparting

literacy, numeracy and life education;

Ø Programmes for reintegration of children with their families;

Ø Programmes for enrolment of these children in schools including full support for subsistence, education,

nutrition, recreation, etc;

Ø Programmes providing facilities for training in meaningful vocations; Programmes for occupational

placement;

Ø Programmes aimed at mobilizing preventive health service and providing access to treatment facilities;

Ø Programmes aimed at reducing the incidence of drug and substance abuse, HIV/AIDS and STDs and

other chronic health disorders amongst street children;

Ø Programme aimed at providing recreational facilities;

Ø Programmes for capacity building of NGOs, local bodies and state governments to undertake related

responsibilities;

Ø Programmes for advocacy and awareness-building on child rights.

As per the government records, 69.504 million rupees were grunted to 103 NGOs to support 32, 451

children in 37 cities throughout the country (UNESCO, 2013: 48).

Apart from the Indian government and NGOs, international organizations such as UNESCO, UNICEF,

UNIFEM, UNFPA, UNDP, World Bank, USAID, DFID, the Norwegian and German governments are

concerned about these street children. These NGOs are working in various ways to rehabilitate the street

children but “rarely churches have opened their doors for street children to come and stay for the nights

or during rainy season and fed them with food” (Yanthan and Zinyu, 2009: 272). The individuals and

society has obligation and mandates from moral stand point of view to take care of the needy street

children but we hardly hear the cry from the streets. We are busy with noisy entertainment and affluent

life style that prevents us to hear the cry of ‘the children from the streets.’ Therefore we need to be still

in silence to pay attention to the cry from the streets.

What can the society do? A Case Study.

Nageswara Rao (12yrs) run away from school and landed in the Vijayawada bus stand in the early hours

on 29th March 2011. Our intentional visit to the bus stand at 9am helped us to bring him to the ‘short-

stay home’ counseling center. I spent four hours with him and used all types of counseling techniques to

get information but he did not reveal anything till the evening. After resting for a while and having eaten

some food, he gave me his brother, Chittibabu’s mobile number. That helped me understand that he is in

8th standard at ZPH School, Mallavaram near Podili, Prakasam District, 197km from Vijayawada. I

understood from my interaction with the child that the lack of love and care which is associated with

poverty is the main reason for this case. Since he is not having father he has been longing for love and

acceptance from the family members but his mother always neglects him. In fact, his two brothers who

dropped out from the school and settled as agricultural laborers ill-treat him. He is forced to work in

agricultural land while he desire to enjoy with his friends in the school. The significant observation I

made from this case study is that this boy was good in studies because he was able to speak and write

English very well. In fact his brother informed me over the phone that he was the second rank student in

his class. After proper care and counseling the boy was repatriated. If we would not have traced him

immediately after his arrival to the city, he would have lost his bright future. Now he is in pre-degree

course and the World Vision office at Vijayawada is still in touch with him (Potana’s counseling,

2011)

The above case study is an illustration to understand the preventive method that focuses on repatriation.

Prevention, Provision and Protection of street children are the three basic principles that can help street

children feel included in the family and society. The preventive measures require mass awareness of

society, parents and the children, whereas the protective measures include provision of survival

strategies, security, psychological support, educational and vocational skills. The following are some of

the recommendations that are derived from the mission praxis of World Vision and other NGO’s in

Vijayawada which can help us to extend our mission to this excluded community.

Prevention Methods

Contact visits to the targeted locations such as railway stations, bus stands and public parks will help us

trace run away street children. It needs commitment and patience to interact with the children. The

children, if rescued immediately after they land in the city can be rehabilitated with much ease. But,

once they enter into the streets, they learn the tricks of the trade. If they merge into the city streets for a

week, they will be under tremendous peer pressure that will force them to learn many harmful habits

which are hard to give-up. Further, street gangs involved in many illegal activities like drug-peddling

wait at the wings to catch the new ones in order to increase the size of their group. Anti-social elements,

who misuse these run away children for begging, keep an eye on new arrivals. These organized mafia

rent out children for begging for an attractive amount on a daily basis. Therefore, rescuing them

immediately is the best strategy to help the children.

Contact Centres are the places where run away street children can be entertained and counseled. Run

away street children scatter across the city and it’s very difficult to entertain them for long time. Since

they are the people of mobility, they don’t like to stay in one place. In an urban context, children move

from one direction of the city to another direction and they refuse even to come to drop-in centre. For

these children, a contact centre at street children prone areas will be of much help. Non-formal

education, recreational facilities and medicare type of tools can attract the children and these centres will

also serve as a strategic outpost to build relationship with local communities and street children.

Repatriation is one of the best ways for the inclusion of runaway street children into families and

society. Therefore “creative ways must be sought to reconcile these children with their communities and

families. Even though street life is a culture ingrained in these children, it will never be a healthy way of

existing” (Scharen and Vigen, 2011: 159). Since all run away children cannot be repatriated; long-term

interventions are needed for such children.

Family & Individual Counseling/Medicare: Counseling is expected to play a vital role in engineering

behavioural changes among the children and their families. Many children suffer post-traumatic

syndrome as a result of the abuse, violence & exploitation. Above all, a breach of trust is the most that

they suffer at the hands of their immediate family members. To overcome their trauma, counseling is

essential. Simultaneously, counseling needs to be provided to parents before the child is repatriated in

these centers.

Observance of Important days: Preventive methods can be passed on to the public by organizing

campaigns on special days such as Child Rights Day, Children’s Day, Child Labour Day, Anti-Child

Labour Day, International AIDS Day, etc.

Networking: Networking is one of the essential tools to work along with other like minded societies and

people. We should actively participate in the society with other agencies to rescue and rehabilitate street

children. A visit to an NGO that is working for street kids and networking with them will enhance the

vision and mission.

Provision Methods

Short-Stay Home is a place where rescued children can be immediately admitted in which the immediate

needs of the children like shelter, food, clothing, hygiene, recreation, medicare and counseling can be

met. This shelter is also a non-formal education centre and family counseling centre. After assessing the

viability of reunion with the family, the children will be repatriated. In case run away child is an orphan

and the circumstances do not favour repatriation, the children will be referred to full-time rehabilitation

centers run by other NGOs

Drop-In Centres (Night Shelter Home): Usually street children end up in traditional rehabilitation

centers in which children do not get the warmth, love and care. Therefore the street children who enter

into such rehabilitation centers face the oppressive structure all over again and they run away from one

institution to another in search of freedom. Consequently, many children continue to prefer a life on the

street. But, street life is very unsafe and children are vulnerable at the hands of adults which is why a

Drop-In centre at a vantage location that provides night shelter to children can serve them better.

Referral Services: Obviously, with a limited resource (both time and finance) we cannot indulge in all

sorts of activities. Hence, focusing more on the areas where we are equipped and gifted is always good.

Therefore if there is any critical case that cannot be tackled, it needs to be referred to other likeminded

institutes that can take care of the child.

Formal/Non-Formal Education: Education is one of the liberating forces that empowers the individual

and opens ample opportunities for rehabilitation. S.N. Mishra’s edited book, ‘Socio- Economic and

Political Vision of B.R. Ambedkar’, is one of the recent books that address Ambedkar’s educational

approach in liberating the Dalits and marginalized people of India. Education is a great socializing and

empowering agent. The sad thing is that “some still view allowing street children to study as a favour

rather than a right to education (formal or non-formal). Street children are usually provided with low

quality education because it is free” (Sukla, 2005: 85). Every child has a right to education therefore we

need to realize the need to act on the issues. In fact, there isn’t a more powerful tool to protect and

promote the rights of the child than education. It is the most effective opportunity available to street

children for upliftment. Therefore informal education can be designed in all the above mentioned

centers. This education can be both, spiritual and academic that can liberate their status. If the children

are interested in pursuing their formal education, they can be admitted in Bridge courses and then in

formal schools. The field survey revealed that many children are running away from home at certain

levels of schooling. Therefore Transit schools/Bridge courses at selected target slums in an effort to

liberate the street children. Suitable child-friendly pedagogical methods need to be developed according

to the context and the culture.

Vocational Skills Training: Street children are often dropouts from schools and by the time they realize

the importance of education for their settlement, most of them exceed their age to get into the school.

The only option for them to survive is vocational skills. Vladimir Gasskov is right in saying, “vocational

skills is a principal factor in improving productivity” (2006: 16). Therefore suitable market relevant,

remunerative vocational skills can help the street children.

Establishing commune type of living: The runaway street children, who cannot be repatriated due to

various reasons, should be taken care of. Street children are far away from love, security, acceptance and

dignity. A commune type of living centers that provide loving environment brings transformation in

their lives. In fact, this helps them to protect themselves from abuses of police and employers.

Furthermore, it will also foster a sense of belonging and mutual-care.

Protection Methods

Career Counseling and Job Placement Cell: The street children who run away from home often fall in to

the hands of exploitative groups who make business out of them. Some of the rural children run

away/migrate to cities hoping to get better jobs, and in most cases they end up on the street by menial

jobs.

Street-Children Savings Bank: The Children's Development Khazana (treasury), street children savings

bank, has been a great blessing in cities such as Jaipur, Muzaffaurpur, Kolkata, Chennai, Puri, Leh,

Gaziabad and Delhi. “The bches are run almost entirely by and for the children, with account holders

electing two volunteer managers from the group every six months”(“India’s Street Kids Bank on

Hope”). This bank is exclusively meant for street children. Therefore helping street kids to save their

money in this bank disciplines their life. Street children do not think about tomorrow because they live

day by day. They work from dawn to dusk to earn a meager amount and spend it immediately on

cinema, alcohol, drugs, cigarettes and food, emerging empty-handed at the end of the day. They do not

have a saving and they may not have any a vision or aspirations for their future. Therefore a savings

account in Child Development Khajana for street children is an innovative approach to help these

children from the middle business men who exploit them.

Legal action and support can be extended to the exploited street children. Street children are vulnerable

to the exploitation by the public. Since they are homeless, voiceless, powerless and protection less often

police misuse them and harass them without a reason. The children who are forced into bonded labor,

sex trade and exploitation need judiciary action.

Conclusion

‘Street children’ are a global phenomenon and it is a social disease that needs serious attention by the

Society. It is an urban issue and a social sickness in our cities. Street children are excluded from their

homes, education, and career. Therefore the society should also engage in Liberative aspect of the street

children who are oppressed, harassed, helpless and marginalized by the oppressive structures.

We also should ask ourselves:

Am I biased in excluding myself from the street children? Am I making a sound by dropping a coin in

street kid’s bowl or am I looking at him as an image of God who needs to be liberated from his/her

oppressive struggles and structures? Are they not important in the society? Do we have a mission for

them? How we can include these children into the families and society? What is my role in preventing,

providing and protecting these street children that we often see on the streets?

Referenes

Agrawal, R. Streetchildren: A Socio-Psychological Study. Shipra Publications, 1999. Print.

Barna, George. Transforming Children Into Spiritual Champions: Why Children Should Be Your

Church’s #1 Priority. Gospel Light Publications, 2003. Print.

Boswell, John. The Kindness of Strangers: The Abandonment of Children in Western Europe from Late

Antiquity to the Renaissance. University of Chicago Press, 1988. Print.

Brewster, Daniel R. “The 4/14 Window  : Child Ministries and Mission Strategy.” Transformation 14

(1997): 18–21. Print.

“Census Bulletin.” Jersey Census 2011 Bulletin 1: Total population. N. p., 27 Mar. 2011. Web. 4 Nov.

2013.

Divakar. Interview given to P. V. Rao at World Vision office, Vijayawada. 2 Mar. 2011.

Fox, Frampton F. “‘Eating the Flesh of Our Sons and Daughters’: Mission to Children-at-Risk through

Parents Who Risk.” Missiology 37.4 (2009): 499–510. Print.

Gasskov, Vladimir. Vocational Education and Training Institutions: A Management Handbook and CD-

ROM. International Labour Organization, 2006. Print.

Government of India. “INTEGRATED PROGRAMME FOR STREET CHILDREN AND JUVENILE

JUSTICE.” Focus. N. p., n.d. Web. 11 Apr. 2013.

Hecht, Tobias. At Home in the Street: Street Children of Northeast Brazil. Cambridge University Press,

1998. Print.

Hunt, Lionel A. Handbook on Children’s Evangelism ... Moody Press, 1960. Print.

“India’s Street Kids Bank on Hope.” news.com.au. N. p., 8 July 2012. Web. 25 June 2013.

Kalam, A. P. J. Abdul, and Y. S. Rajan. India 2020: A Vision for the New Millennium. Penguin Books,

2002. Print.

Kilbourn, P, ed. Street Children: A Guide to Effective Ministry. MARC, 1997. Print.

Lakshmi. Interview given to P. V. Rao at World Vision ‘short-Stay Home’ Counseling Center,

Vijayawada. 23 Mar. 2011. Telugu.

Lamberte, Exaltacion E. Ours to Protect and Nurture: The Case of Children Needing Special

Protection. DLSU-Social Development Research Center, De La Salle University, 2002. Print.

Mehrotra, Nitin. Indian Retail Sector - A Primer. ICFAI Books, 2007. Print.

Myers, Bryant. “State of the World’s Children  : Critical Challenge to Christian Mission.” International

Bulletin of Missionary Research 18.3 (1994): 98–102. Print.

Potana’s Counseling. “Counseling the runaway child, Nageswara Rao at World Vision ‘short-stay

home’ counseling center, Vijayawada.” 29 Mar. 2011. Telugu.

Reddy, Nandana. Street Children of Bangalore: A Situational Analysis. National Labour Institute, Child

Labour Cell, 1992. Print.

Scharen, Christian, and Aana Marie Vigen. Ethnography as Christian Theology and Ethics. Continuum,

2011. Print.

Soares, Lima, and Zena de. “Children  : A Permanent Challenge for the Churches.” International

Review of Mission 85.338 (1996): 427–438. Print.

Sukla, P. C, ed. Street Children and the Asphalt Life: Street Children and the Future Direction. Delhi:

Gyan Publishing House, 2005. Print.

Thukral, Enakshi Ganguly, and Bharti Ali. Status of Children in India Inc. HAQ Centre for Child

Rights, 2005. Print.

UNESCO. “Education for Street and Working Children in India.” N. p., Published in 2001. Web. 11

Apr. 2013.

“United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).” 1993. Web. 11 Apr. 2013.

WHO. “WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION Programme on Substance Abuse July 1993

(WHO/PSA/93.7).” N. p., n.d. Web. 3 Nov. 2013.

World Vision. “PROJECT DESIGN DOCUMENT: Vijayawada Street Children Project.” Nov. 2008 : n.

pag. Print.

Yanthan, Shanchobeni, and Pelekhono Zinyu. “Street Children and Christian Response.” Children At

Risk: Issues and Challenges. Bangalore: ISPCK, 2009. Print.

Opoola Tajudeen

Adeyera Christianah

Federal College of Education (Special) Oyo, NIGERIA

INDIGENOUS LANGUAGES AS CATALYST FOR MORAL DEVELOPMENT AMONG

NIGERIAN YOUTHS

Introduction

Language is man’s identification; he is known and lives by it. Human existence depends on language as

its bedrock of knowledge. With the current trend of globalization and technological advancement, the

cultural values entrenched in the indigenous language is drastically declining. The knowledge of

indigenous language helps an individual to be a good representation of the cultural values. According to

Barley (2004) he says it would be difficult to identify any sphere of social or institutional life in which

language does not play a pivotal role-from education to religion, work to leisure, buying to selling. The

moral laxity in the Nigeria Youths is a cankerworm that needs to be dealt with. In a country like Nigeria

with its heterogeneous nature, development is a necessity in all human endeavours. Moral values are

usually communal and shared by the public in general, thus if there is no agreement among community

members no moral value will be established. It defines the principles and standards which determine the

extent to which human action or conduct is right or wrong. They encompass a wide range of universal

accepted character such as compassion, love, humility and kindness.

Moral stands for character, attitude, ethics and conduct. Development implies growth and improvement

and positive change in our well being and experience of life. Moral development then means improved

attitudinal character/behaviour capable of fostering peace in the society. The growth of any nation is

closely related to the societal values. Positive/good moral value will definitely result to rapid national

development. Nigerians believe in moral uprightness and truthfulness in all human endeavour and

avoiding all evils. (Oyinloye, 2008). It has been discovered in the recent times that many of our youths

in Nigeria finds it very difficult to speak their indigenous language especially Yoruba and many don’t

even bother to learn or find out what are the cultural and moral values embedded in the language.

There are series of proverbs, wise sayings, poetry, folklore and tales that teaches and talks about moral

values which is good enough to sensitize and cultivate positive attitudes in the children and youths as

regards the societal values. These series, when introduced to the children early enough will help them as

they grow into adulthood. They would have known the essence of peaceful co-existence with neighbours

showing kindness to others, decent dressing good name, hard work, faithfulness and upright living.

Parents are not helping the situation but they are making if worse by not encouraging their children to

speak their mother tongue and not communicating with them in the language. Some parents even feel it

is not necessary to buy books recommended in school once they are written in mother tongue. They also

discourage their children from making friends with other children that communicates mostly in Yoruba

language.

Worst still parents now want English language to be their children’s first language at the detriment of

the mother tongue and so they speak English language to their children from birth. If neighbours speak

Yoruba which is the mother tongue to the child it is the parent that would interpret to English language

believing that the child didn’t understand.

The Nigerian government is not helping the situation as well. Though it was stated in the Nigeria policy

of Education that before students would be admitted into any higher institution of learning he/she must

have five credit passes including English and Mathematics plus one Nigerian language (Hausa, Igbo or

Yoruba) (NPE 2004). This was not considered on many occasions. Nigerian government has failed to

make Nigerian languages serve their rightful role in national development because they look for quick

returns and investments. Languages do not yield immediate result and when the results come they are

not quantifiable in terms of hard statistics. Many governments worldwide have invested in language not

only because of the benefits its proper use can bring but because of the social turmoil which can arise

from ignoring it Oyinloye 2008).

Held (2005) in Oyinloye 2008 stated that Lebanese value individualism which contributes to their

creativity and inventiveness. They value close family relations, loyalty to family and friends and honor

are considered as important.

The neglect of the cultural values and morals that is embedded in the Yoruba culture is the result of all

the vices, such as wanton killing, insecurity in the country, armed robbery and violence that we are

experiencing in the country presently. All the vices mentioned above and many more are strongly

condemned in the Nigerian culture as anti societal value.

Yoruba proverb, folklore, and tales as a catalyst for Moral Development

Folklore according to Collins dictionary is the traditional stories and beliefs of a community. A proverb

is a short sentence which gives advice or makes a comment about life while tale is a story. From the

definitions above, it can be deduced that among traditional Yoruba’s folklore, proverbs and tales are

used to teach morals, interpret the universe, maintain, cultural values and pass on methods of survival

from one generation to the other (Fasoro, 2012).

Elders gather the young ones under the moonlight to tell them stories that teaches morals and proverbs

that establishes the Yoruba belief on certain issues of life. When a Yoruba elderly person called his

children and grandchildren together every evening (these children were sometimes joined by others from

the neighborhood) to tell them some stories about certain events which were believed to have taken

place long ago, he was not merely trying to amuse the children. An example of such story is the one

captioned as igbeyin awon Olosa (Apa kinni ati Ikeji) (The end of armed robbers part I & II) (Odunjo

2008).

The story tellers always drew some moral lessons from their stories saying “Eyin omode, ki ni itan yii

ko wa” (Children, what (Moral) lesson does this story teach us?) “E ma se gbo itan yi lasan e gbodo tabi

e ko gbodo se bi…… (Ijapa, Ode, agbe, Bukola, abbl) inu itan naa (Do not just hear/ listen to the story,

you must or must not) act like the ----- (tortoise, hunter, farmer, Bukola e.t.c) in the story. (Fasoro.2012)

Proverbs are also used to import moral values to the young ones among the Yorubas. Example of this

are: (i) Omode le ni aso bi agba sugbon ko le ni akisa bi agba (A young child may have much cloth as

elder, but cannot have rags like elders) This proverb explains that a young person cannot be as rich in

experience as an elder.)

There were proverbs that encouraged mutual respect and co-operation between the young and old

(i) “Owo Omode ko to pepe, tagbalagba ko wo keregbe” (A child’s arm cannot reach the high

shelf; an adult’s hand cannot enter the mouth of a gourd).

Proverbs that warns against selfishness

(ii) “Agba to je aje-iweyin, yo o ru igba re dele” (An adult that eat without

caution will carry his load or basket back home).

There were some that encouraged decent dressing and good appearance.

(iii) “Agba to rinrin ise wolu, igbakigba ni won fii bomi fun un”

“Irinisi ni iso – ni lojo”

(An adult that walk wretchedly into a town will be given water in a dirty calabash)

(As you dress, so shall you be addressed).

Proverb that encouraged communal work among the members of a community

“Agbajo owo ni a fi soya”

“Enikan kii je awade”

(We join hands to beat the chest)

(A person does not answer we)

Folk songs are also used to teach moral values in the Yoruba context:

“Kin ni n o fole se laye ti mo wa?/2x

laye ti mo wa, kaka ki n jale/2x

ma kuku deru

Kin ni n o fole se laye ti mo wa?”

Why will I steal in my life? /2x

for me to steal in life /2x

I will rather be a servant

why will I steal in my life?

This song teaches one not to steal

‘Ole alapa ma sise

Ole daso iya bora sun

Eni bimo ole ko romo bi

E wa waye ole o

O se

A lazy man who refuses to work,

He goes about in rags and cover himself with rags the parent of a lazy child has no child.

See the life of a lazy man

what a pity.

The above song condemns laziness which shows the spirit of hardwork in praised.

Conclusion

Languages are the pillars of cultures and vehicles of oral traditions. They are an essential part of people

identities and an heritage to preserve (wikimedia). Yoruba language is very rich in cultural and moral

values. From the fore going, this paper is not trying to demean other languages in the nation but based

on the knowledge and conversancy with the Yoruba tradition.

To make headway in eradicating moral decadence in our society we need to revisit our traditional values

because good name is better than silver and gold (“Oruko rere san ju wura ati fadaka lo”). It is often said

that (eyin lo n di akuko”) Youth are the leaders of tomorrow, they are to be grounded in moral education

and development so as not to produce morally bankrupt leaders.

Recommendations

The following are recommended based on the submissions in this paper.

i Parents should show good example to their children by exhibiting good morals in character, dressing,

speech etc.

ii Parents who are Yorubas should not see their mother tongue as inferior to English language.

iii Parents should encourage their children to speak their mother tongue and buy books written in

Yoruba language for them to read.

iv The children should not allow the wind of technological advancement to blow them away from their

fathers cherished cultural values.

v Government should give priority to Nigerian languages in the school curriculum.

vi Proprietors and proprietresses of private schools should not see our indigenous languages as subjects

that must not be taught in their schools.

References

Collins English Dictionary (2007) HapperCollins Publishers Glasgow Great Britain.

Dinatu J.O.A(2012). The Role of Language Education in the Attainment of Nigeria Political Goals. In

Journal of Women in Colleges of Education (JOWICE) vol.16 no1.

Fasoro, J.O.(2012). Myth and Proverb As a Vehicle of Moral Education Among Traditional Yoruba. In

International Journal of Arts and Commerce. Vol.1 No 5 retrieved on 5/11/13

from http://www.ijac.org.uk/images/frontImages vol._1_no_5

Federal Government of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education 4th Edition, NERDC Press

Lagos.

Odunjo J.F. and Opadotun Tunji(2008). Alawiye Iwe Karun-un Atunse Keta. pp21-24 Longman

Nig. Plc.

Oyinloye G.O.(2008). The Read Campaign, Societal Values and National Development. Retrieved

on 3/11/13 from http://www.krepublishers.com/02_journals

Wikimedia Indigenous Langages. Retrived on 3/11/13 from http:// www.Wikilang.org

Ruba AbdelMatloub Moawad

King Saud University, Riyadh, SAUDI ARABIA

EFFECTS OF WORD PHONOLOGICAL TYPE ON SHORT TERM MEMORY

OF MONOLINGUAL AND BILINGUAL UNIVERSITY STUDENTS.

Bilingualism is an important topic for behavior scientists (Lambert, 2003), where studies showed that

children acquiring one language develop their vocabulary at a faster pace than children acquiring two

languages, recant research showed that bilingual children especially balanced bilinguals have cognitive

benefits over monolinguals (Bialystoke & Peets, 2010). Bilinguals demonstrate superior cognitive

abilities in thinking, problem solving, communicative sensitivity, concept formation, classification,

visual-spatial skills, and meta-linguistic awareness (Diaz & Klingler, 2000) & (Baker, 2006). Yet, in

earlier research findings showed no differences between monolinguals and bilinguals in different

cognitive tasks (Ransdell & Fischler, 1987), and it also showed no differences between proficient and

non-proficient bilinguals in nonverbal intelligence (Jarvis, 1995). On the other hand, other studies

pointed out that monolinguals outperform bilinguals on concept formation, mental reorganization,

abstract & divergent thinking, and mental flexibility (Lemmon & Goggin, 1989). These contradictory

findings can be attributed to conceptual and methodological issues (Grosjean, 1998).

Short Term Memory (STM) is an important asset for learning in general, and research indicates a strong

link between vocabulary and phonological STM (Kaushanskaya, Blumenfeld, & Marian, 2011).

Different studies showed that children with low phonological STM achieve lower scores on some

learning skills (Gathercole, Briscoe, Thorn, & Tiffany, 2008) other research highlighted the importance

of STM and working memory in learning a second language, where results showed that bilingual brains

usually activates complex processing when using their second language (Ardila, 2003), findings have

also suggested that “language and cognitive abilities are organized and developed differently in children

with multiple language experiences” (Bialystoke & Peets, 2010, 148). Studies also indicated that both

bilinguals and monolinguals usually perform better on their native language than on other languages

(Kaushanskaya, et al, 2011).

A number of studies suggested that phonological STM capacity is an important component for learning

new words. Thorn and Gathercole (1999 & 2001) reported that English – French bilinguals perform

equally on both non-word lists (sounding English and sounding French), while English and French

monolinguals perform poorly on nonwords that sound like the language they did not learn. In another

study Spanish – English bilinguals (Spanish as a first language) were instructed to recall lists of sound

like Spanish and English nonwords, the results overall showed that the children recall Spanish like

nonwords more accurately than English like nonwords (Summers, Bohman, Gillam, Pena & Bedore

2010).

The effect of bilingualism on phonological STM is reported in an early age, in two year olds, 41 two

year old Spanish – English Bilinguals participated in Parra, Hoff & Core (2011) research, which aimed

to explore the relation of phonological memory to language experience, the results indicated that

language exposure is positively related to their nonword recall accuracy (Parra, Hoff & Core. 2011).

Overall, nonwords and novel words that have some phonological representation in the memory is

usually recalled more accurately than words with no phonological representation (Majerus, Poncelet,

Linden & Weeks. 2008), which indicate the role of language exposure on phonological memory (Parra,

Hoff & Core. 2011).

The aim of the present study is to examine the effect of word phonological type on Short Term Memory,

among monolingual (Arabic) and bilingual (Arabic – English) University students. And answer the

question, does learning or acquiring a second language affect STM? And if it does, what are the main

reasons behind the effect? Could it be the phonological type of what is encoded and retained in the

STM, or could it be bilingualism?

The importance of such a research is derived from the effect that STM has on different cognitive tasks

and learning outcomes (Sanchez, et. al.2010). Other research pointed out that bilingualism have a

positive effect on different cognitive abilities (Hakuta & Diaz, 1985) and (Bialystok & Majumder,

2008), so what are the differences if any regarding monolinguals vs. bilinguals STM. Little research has

been conducted regarding bilingual’s (Arabic-English) cognitive abilities in Saudi Arabia. For those

reasons we hypothesized that bilinguals will perform better than monolinguals on STM tasks.

Participants

Ninety six undergraduate students from King Saud University in Riyadh Saudi Arabia participated in

this research. Forty eight monolingual Arabic speakers were recruited from the College of Education.

Another forty eight Arabic – English bilingual speakers were recruited from the final year of the College

of Linguistics and Translation, all bilinguals are majoring in English language translation from Arabic to

English and vice- versa. Ages ranged from 19 – 23 with an age mean of 21.7 years old.

Materials

- Two lists of nonwords sounding Arabic, each list include twelve words. One list have nonwords in

the singular form, the other in the plural form, for example the word jifl is a non-word that sound similar

to the real Arabic word tifl which is child in Arabic in the singular form, and ajfal sounds like atfal in

the plural form.

- For the English tasks two lists of nonwords sounding English, each list includes twelve words.

One list have nonwords in the singular form, such as jat which is a non-word for the English word hat in

the singular form, and jats is the plural form for the same word.

Procedures

All participants were recruited from King Saud University the female section, from the collage of

education and the collage of translation studies. Participants were divided into eight groups, four of them

were monolinguals and the other four were the bilingual groups. In each group there were 12

participants. Each group was given one of the non-word lists, and each list was presented on a

PowerPoint presentation, all nonwords sounding Arabic and sounding English were presented visually

in Arabic letters and auditory, duration for each word was one second.

Participants were instructed to count backwards from 50 to 1 as a distraction, and then they were asked

to recall and write the words they saw and heard.

Results

A Three-Way-ANOVA assessed response accuracy as a function of group (monolingual & bilingual),

language (Arabic & English), and number (Singular & plural) on the STM conditions. Results indicated

that the language effect on STM was significant (p = .001), where participants (monolinguals &

bilinguals) recalled the nonwords sounding Arabic with greater accuracy than those sounding English as

seen in Figure 1.

Our results indicate that Arabic – English bilinguals recall nonwords sounding Arabic more accurately

than nonwords sounding English. These results agree with Summers et al. (2010) as their findings

demonstrated that Spanish – English bilinguals showed superior recall accuracy for words that sound

like their first language (see Figure 1).

Further analysis established a significant interaction between group and language (p = .004), where the

examination of the means suggests that the interaction reflects larger language effect for the bilingual

group than the monolingual group,

Moreover, the analysis show a significant interaction between group, language and number (p = .001).

Examination of the means suggests that bilinguals recall the nonwords sounding Arabic in the singular

form with higher accuracy than the nonword sounding English singular form. Yet the monolingual

group recall the nonwords sounding English with higher accuracy than bilinguals do (see Figure 2).

Results also point out that nonwords sounding Arabic in the plural form is recalled with higher accuracy

than the nonwords sounding English in the plural form, and the bilinguals recalled it with higher

accuracy than monolinguals (see Figure 3).

Discussion

Overall, our results showed that the language has some effect on the STM, where nonwords sounding

Arabic were recalled with higher accuracy than nonwords sounding English. We hypothesized that

bilinguals will perform equally on both languages, because bilinguals usually rely on phonological

memory more than monolinguals. However, our findings did not agree with this hypothesis, one

plausible explanation for such a result could be the proficiency of the bilinguals. Though they are

bilinguals and use English on daily bases mainly for academic purposes, while Arabic is their first

language and they use it for communicative and academic purposes, it is used in their everyday life, and

that indicates higher proficiency in Arabic than in English. Previous research pointed out that language

proficiency affect some cognitive abilities (Segalowitz, & Frenkiel-Fishman, 2005), & (Majerus et al.

2008), and in this case it could have affected the phonological STM.

The results also indicated that singular and plural forms were both recalled more accurately in the

nonwords sounding Arabic, this result follow our earlier finding where Arabic sounding forms were

recalled more accurately than English sounding forms, this result agrees with (Kaushanskaya,

Blumenfeld, & Marian, 2011). Such results could be related to the fact that the phonological STM is

stronger in all forms that sound similar to their first language, due to language input, where language

input play an important role in language acquisition and in STM (Call, 1985), because words and forms

with high frequency in the language input are usually learned and recalled faster than words and forms

with lower input frequency.

On the whole, bilinguals demonstrate higher phonological short term memory in comparison to

monolinguals, on forms that sound similar to their first language, and that might indicate an effect of

bilingualism over sort term memory, and other cognitive abilities.

References

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communication disorders, 36, 233-240.

Baker, C. (2006). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. UK. Multilingual Matters

LTD.

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language. In M, Shatz & L, Wilkinson (Eds). The Education of English Language Learners, Research to

Practice. (pp 133-150). New York. The Guilford Press.

Call, M. (1985). Auditory Shot – Term Memory, Listening comprehension, and the Input Hypothesis.

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Diaz, R & Klingler, C. (2000). Towards an explanatory model of the interaction between bilingualism

and cognitive development. In E, Bialystoke (Ed). Language processing in bilingual children. UK.

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learning in children with poor phonological short-term memory skills. The Quarterly Journal of

Experimental Psychology, 61 (3), 474 - 490

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and Cognition, 1 (2), 131-149

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Hypothesis. Applied Psycholinguistics, 16 (3), 293-308.

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Short-Term Memory Measures in Monolingual and Bilingual Speakers. International Journal of

Bilingualism, 15 (4), 408-425.

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Sociolinguistics. (pp 305-321). Malden, MA, USA. Blackwell Publishing.

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ability. Applied Psycholinguistics, 10 (2), 133-155.

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relative importance of short term memory for serial order and phonological knowledge. Cognition, 107,

395-419.

Parra, M. Hoff, E & Core, C. (2011). Relation among language exposure, phonological memory, and

language development in Spanish – English bilingual developing 2-year-olds. Journal of Experimental

Child Psychology, 108, 113-125.

Ransdell, S & Fischler, I. (1987). Memory in Monolingual mode: When are bilinguals at a

disadvantage?. Journal of Memory and Language, 26 (4), 392-405.

Segalowitz, N. & Frenkiel-Fishman, S. (2005). Attention control and ability level in a complex

cognitive skill: Attention shifting and second-language proficiency. Memory & Cognition, 33, (4), 644-

653

Summers, C. Bohman, T. Gillam, R. Pena, E & Bedore, L. (2010). Bilingual performance on nonword

repetition in Spanish and English. International Journal of Language & communication Disorders, 45,

(4), 480-493.

Thorn, A & Gathercole, E. (1999). Language-specific knowledge and short-term memory in bilingual

and non-bilingual children. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 52A, 303-324.

Thorn, A & Gathercole, E. (2001). Language differences in verbal short – term memory do not

exclusively originate in the process of subvocal rehearsal. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 8, (2), 357-

364.

Figures:

Figure 1:

factor 1Bilmono

Estim

ated

Mar

gina

l Mea

ns

5

4.5

4

3.5

3

2.5

2

Englisharabic

factor 2

Estimated Marginal Means of correct words

Figure 1: It shows the overall bilinguals and monolinguals performance on the phonlogical short term

memory tasks.

Figure 2

factor 1Bilmono

Estim

ated

Mar

gina

l Mea

ns

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

Englisharabic

factor 2

Estimated Marginal Means of correct words

at factor 3 = single

Figure 2: It shows the overall bilinguals and monolinguals performance on the singular phonlogical

short term memory tasks.

Figure 3

factor 1Bilmono

Estim

ated

Mar

gina

l Mea

ns

4.5

4

3.5

3

2.5

2

1.5

Englisharabic

factor 2

Estimated Marginal Means of correct words

at factor 3 = plural

Figure 3: It shows the overall bilinguals and monolinguals performance on the plural phonlogical short

term memory tasks.