Privatisasi dan Efisiensi: Teori dan Kenyataan Empiri^

Ekonomi dan Keuangan Indonesia Volume 41 Nomor 2, 1993

Privatisasi dan Efisiensi: Teori dan Kenyataan Empiri^

M a h m u d T h o h a

ABSTRACT

The 1980s have been characterized by widespread attempts of policy makers in developed and developing countries alike to roll back the state from too much intervention in the economy, and to rely on market forces The divestiture or privatization of State Owned Enterprises (SOEs) has

featured prominently in these attempts, just as an earlier generation oj policy makers had emphasized direct state intervention to redress market failure.

However, both theoretical frameworks and empirical evidence indicate that organization and competition are more important in determining the overall efficiency and performance of SOEs than ownership. The policy implication is that internal reforms of SOEs as well as liberalization and deregulation are better options than privatization.

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I . P E N D A H U L U A N

T a h u n 1 9 8 0 - a n d a p a t d i k a t a k a n s e b a g a i t i t i k b a l i k b a g i k e b i j a k s a n a a n e k o n o m i d a r i k e c e n d e r u n g a n p e m e r i n t a h u n t u k t e r l i b a t l a n g s u n g d a l a m p e r e k o n o m i a n k e p a d a k e c e n d e r u n g a n b a r u y a n g l e b i h m e m p e r c a y a k a n p e n g e l o l a a n p e r e k o n o m i a n k e p a d a k e k u a t a n p a s a r . K a l a u d a l a m p e r i o d e s e b e l u m n y a p a r a p e n g a m b i l k e p u t u s a n t e l a h m e n e k a n k a n c a m p u r t a n g a n p e m e r i n t a h u n t u k m e n g a t a s i k e g a g a l a n p a s a r , m a k a p r i v a t i s a s i b a d a n - b a d a n u s a h a m i l i k n e g a r a m e r u p a k a n c i r i y a n g m e n o n j o l d a l a m k e b i j a k s a n a a n e k o n o m i p a d a s e b a g i a n b e s a r n e g a r a - n e g a r a d i d u n i a d e w a s a i n i .

M u n c u l n y a p r i v a t i s a s i s e b a g a i i n s t r u m e n b a r u d a l a m k e b i j a k s a n a a n e k o n o m i p a d a a w a l t a h u n 1 9 8 0 - a n b e r a w a l d a r i m a n i f e s t o p e m i l i h a n u m u m P a r t a i K o n s e r v a t i f d i I n g g r i s p a d a t a h u n 1 9 7 9 . K e t i d a k p u a s a n P a r t a i t e r s e b u t t e r h a d a p k i n e r j a e k o n o m i b a d a n - b a d a n u s a h a m i l i k n e g a r a t e l a h m e n d o r o n g P a r t a i u n t u k m e n g u r a n g i k e t e r l i b a t a n n y a s e c a r a l a n g s u n g d a l a m p e n g e l o l a a n p e r e k o n o m i a n m a s y a r a k a t , k a r e n a k e p e r c a y a a n n y a y a n g s u n g g u h - s u n g g u h p a d a k e u n g g u l a n k e k u a t a n p a s a r u n t u k m e n c a p a i t u j u a n - t u j u a n e k o n o m i . K a r e n a i t u s u b s i d i t e r h a d a p b a d a n - b a d a n u s a h a m i l i k n e g a r a y a n g t i d a k e f i s i e n j u g a d i p a n d a n g s e b a g a i k e n d a l a t e r h a d a p p r o s e s r e s t r u k t u r i s a s i i n d u s t r i . P a d a w a k t u y a n g b e r s a m a a n P a r t a i R e p u b l i k y a n g s e d a n g m e m e r i n t a h d i A m e r i k a S e r i k a t m e m a n d a n g d e r e g u l a s i d a n k o m p i t i s i p a s a r s e b a g a i s a r a n a y a n g t e p a t u n t u k m e m p e r c e p a t p r o s e s structural adjustment p e r e k o n o m i a n n y a . J a d i , p r i v a t i s a s i d a l a m b e r b a g a i b e n t u k n y a d a p a t d i l i h a t s e b a g a i j a l a n k e l u a r t e r h a d a p m a s a l a h - m a s a l a h s t r u k t u r a l d a n s e b a g a i s a r a n a u n t u k m e n c a p a i p e n y e s u a i a n - p e n y e s u a i a n d a l a m b i d a n g e k o n o m i . O l e h k a r e n a i t u p e n e k a n a n t e r h a d a p p r i v a t i s a s i s e b a g a i s u a t u i n s t r u m e n k e b i j a k s a n a a n e k o n o m i t i d a k m u n c u l d a l a m k e h a m p a a n i n t e l e k t u a l . G e j a l a i n i d a p a t d i p a n d a n g s e b a g a i b a g i a n d a r i k e r a n g k a y a n g l e b i h l u a s u n t u k m e n g g u n a k a n h a r g a d a n k e k u a t a n p a s a r s e b a g a i m e k a n i s m e u n t u k a l o k a s i s u m b e r d a y a , d a n s e k a l i g u s s e b a g a i p e n o l a k a n t e r h a d a p r e s e p - r e s e p e k o n o m i K e y n e s y a n g m e n g h e n d a k i c a m p u r t a n g a n p e m e r i n t a h y a n g c u k u p k u a t d a l a m p e r e k o n o m i a n .

M e n g e n a i p r i v a t i s a s i d i I n g g r i s , i a t e l a h d i k l a i m o l e h p e m e r i n t a h a n P a r t a i K o n s e r v a t i f s e b a g a i s u a t u s u k s e s b e s a r d a l a m a r t i a n t e l a h m e n i n g k a t k a n e f i s i e n s i , m e m p e r l u a s p e m i l i k a n s a h a m d a n m e m p e r b e s a r p e n e r i m a a n k a s n e g a r a . K a r e n a i t u l a h 'success story' d a r i p e n g a l a m a n p r i v a t i s a s i d i I n g g r i s t e l a h m e n a r i k p e r h a t i a n p a r a p e n g a m b i l k e p u t u s a n d i s e l u r u h p e n j u r u d u n i a . K o n s e p i n i t e l a h d i t e r a p k a n o l e h b e r b a g a i n e g a r a d a r i b e r b a g a i i d e o l o g i b a i k d i n e g a r a - n e g a r a m a j u m a u p u n d i n e g a r a s e d a n g b e r k e m b a n g . P r i v a t i s a s i t i d a k h a n y a t e l a h d i r a n g k u l o l e h b e b e r a p a p e m e r i n t a h a n K o n s e r v a t i f d i E r o p a B a r a t m e l a i n k a n j u g a d i t e r a p k a n d e n g a n a n t u s i a s n y a o l e h p e m e r i n t a h a n P a r t a i B u r u h d i A u s t r a l i a d a n S e l a n d i a B a r u . P r o s e s p r i v a t i s a s i j u g a t e l a h m e n y e b a r d e n g a n c e p a t k e n e g a r a - n e g a r a s e d a n g b e r k e m b a n g , b a h k a n s e r i n g k a l i

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P r i v a t i s a s i d a n E f i s i e n s i

d e n g a n d o r o n g a n k u a t d a r i o r g a n i s a s i - o r g a n i s a s i d o n o r i n t e r n a s i o n a l . M e n u r u t V a n d e W a l l e ( 1 9 8 9 ) , d i p e r k i r a k a n s e b a n y a k 1 . 4 0 0 u s a h a - u s a h a p r i v a t i s a s i t e l a h b e r l a n g s u n g p a d a a k h i r t a h u n 1 9 8 7 . L e b i h d a r i 8 0 n e g a r a s e d a n g b e r k e m b a n g t e l a h t e r l i b a t d a l a m u s a h a - u s a h a i n i , t e r m a s u k C i n a T a n z a n i a d a n A l j a z a i r y a n g n o t a b e n e n y a a d a l a h t e r m a s u k n e g a r a - n e g a r a s o s i a i i s .

B e g i t u k u a t n y a a r u s i d e p r i v a t i s a s i d i k a l a n g a n i n t e l e k t u a l d a n s e m a n g a t p r i v a t i s a s i d i k a l a n g a n p a r a p e n g a m b i l k e p u t u s a n p a d a s e b a g i a n b e s a r n e g a r a - n e g a r a d i d u n i a d e w a s a i n i , a d a l a h m e n a r i k u n t u k m e n g k a j i l e b i h d a l a m t e n t a n g p e r t a r u n g a n g a g a s a n a n t a r a p a r a p e n d u k u n g p r i v a t i s a s i d i s a t u p i h a k d a n p a r a p e n d u k u n g n a s i o n a l i s a s i d i l a i n p i h a k O l e h k a r e n a i t u s a l a h s a t u t u j u a n u t a m a d a r i t u l i s a n i n i a d a l a h i n g i i m e n g k a j i l e b i h d a l a m k e r a n g k a t e o r i t i s - a n a l i s i s y a n g d i j a d i k a n l a n d a s a r p i j a k p a r a p e n d u k u n g p r i v a t i s a s i d e w a s a i n i , d a n a r g u m e n t a s i -a r g u m e n t a s i y a n g d i k e m u k a k a n o l e h p a r a p e n d u k u n g n a s i o n a l i s a s i y a n j m e w a r n a i k e b i j a k s a n a a n e k o n o m i s e l a m a b e b e r a p a d a s a w a r s i s e b e l u m n y a . S e b e r a p a j a u h a r g u m e n t a s i - a r g u m e n t a s i t e o r i t i s b a i k y a n j p r o m a u p u n y a n g k o n t r a t e r h a d a p p r i v a t i s a s i d a n n a s i o n a l i s a s b e r s e s u a i a n d e n g a n r e a l i t a , a d a l a h m e r u p a k a n s a s a r a n u t a m a l a i n n y a y a n j h e n d a k d i u n g k a p d a l a m t u l i s a n i n i .

A k h i r n y a , i k h t i s a r d a n k e s i m p u l a n a k a n m e r u p a k a n b a g i a n p e n u t u f d a r i m a k a l a h s i n g k a t i n i .

I I . A R G U M E N T A S I P R O D A N K O N T R A T E R H A D A P N A S I O N A L I S A S I D A N P R I V A T I S A S I

B e r i k u t i n i a k a n k i t a p e r j e l a s m a k n a d a r i n a s i o n a l i s a s i d a n p r i v a t i s a s i k e m u d i a n k i t a d i s k u s i k a n a r g u m e n t a s i p r o / s e t u j u d a n k o n t r a / m e n e n t a n j t e r h a d a p i d e i d e t e n t a n g n a s i o n a l i s a s i d a n p r i v a t i s a s i s e c a r a b e r u r u t a n .

A . M a k n a Nasionalisasi M e n u r u t B u l t o n ( 1 9 8 2 , h a l . 2 ) nasionalisasi s e b a g a i s u a t u k o n s e p r e s m i p e r t a m a k a l i m u n c u l d a l a m k o n s t i t u s i M e k s i k o d a n d a l a m k o n s t i t u s l U n i - S o v i e t s e t e l a h r e v o l u s i m e r a h p a d a t a h u n 1 9 1 7 . C a m p u r t a n g a n p e m e r i n t a h d a l a m k e h i d u p a n e k o n o m i t e l a h d i k e n a l b e r a b a d - a b a i s e b e l u m n y a , t e t a p i p e n g a k u a n r e s m i a t a s f u n g s i s o s i a l d a r i h a k m i l i l : b e l u m a d a s a m p a i d e n g a n t a h u n t e r s e b u t . T u j u a n u t a m a d a r i n a s i o n a l i s a s i t e r s e b u t a d a l a h u n t u k m e m a n f a a t k a n a t a u m e n d a y a g u n a k a n s e l u r u h a t a u s e b a g i a n d a r i a l a t - a l a t p r o d u k s i u n t u k k e p e n t i n g a n m a s y a r a k a t s e c a r i k e s e l u r u h a n , b u k a n u n t u k k e p e n t i n g a n i n d i v i d u . D e n g a n d e m i k i a i n a s i o n a l i s a s i d a p a t d i d e f i n i s i k a n s e b a g a i s u a t u p e n g a l i h a n (transfer) a l a t - a l a t p r o d u k s i d a r i h a k m i l i k p r i b a d i k e p e m i l i k a n b e r s a m a (communal property).

A d a d u a m a c a m n a s i o n a l i s a s i . P e r t a m a , n a s i o n a l i s a s i s e b a g a i s u a t i b a g i a n i n t e g r a l d a r i s t r a t e g i s o s i a i i s . Kedua, n a s i o n a l i s a s i s e b a g a i s u a t i s t r a t e g i u n t u k m e m p e r b a i k i a t a u m e n g k o n s o l i d a s i e k o n o m i j c a p i t a l i s .

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U n t u k t i p e y a n g k e d u a i n i , n e g a r a m a s i h m e n a r u h respect d a n commitment-nya p a d a s e k t o r s w a s t a . K i t a h a n y a m e r u j u k p a d a t i p e n a s i o n a l i s a s i y a n g k e d u a i n i d a l a m s e l u r u h d i s k u s i b e r i k u t i n i .

B . Alasan-alasan Nasionalisasi A l a s a n u t a m a n a s i o n a l i s a s i p a d a u m u m n y a b u k a n l a h a l a s a n e k o n o m i s , m e s k i p u n a l a s a n e k o n o m i s k a d a n g k a l a d i j a d i k a n d a l i h u n t u k m e n a s i o n a l i s a s i r i n d u s t r i - i n d u s t r i t e r t e n t u . S e c a r a k o n s e p t u a l a d a t i g a a l a s a n d a s a r a t a s k e b e r a d a a n p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a ( n a s i o n a l i s a s i ) . ( L i h a t m i s a l n y a , R e e s , 1 9 8 4 , h a l . 2 - 5 ) .

P e r t a m a , kegagalan pasar. K e g a g a l a n p a s a r d a p a t d i d e f i n i s i k a n s e b a g a i s u a t u k e t i d a k m a m p u a n p a s a r u n t u k m e n y e d i a k a n b a r a n g - b a r a n g a t a u j a s a - j a s a t e r t e n t u s e c a r a k e s e l u r u h a n p a d a t i n g k a t y a n g d i i n g i n k a n a t a u p a d a t i n g k a t y a n g o p t i m a l . K e g a g a l a n p a s a r c e n d e r u n g t e r j a d i a p a b i l a a d a m o n o p o l i , o l i g o p o l i , externalities d a n a common-property resource. K a r e n a i t u p e n d i r i a n s u a t u p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a d i h a r a p k a n d a p a t m e m a s o k b a r a n g - b a r a n g d a n j a s a - j a s a t e r t e n t u p a d a t i n g k a t y a n g d i i n g i n k a n . I n i b e r a r t i b a h w a p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a d a p a t b e r f u n g s i s e b a g a i s a r a n a u n t u k m e n g o r e k s i k e g a g a l a n p a s a r .

K e b e r a d a a n m o n o p o l i a l a m i a h (natural monopolyY aAalah c o n t o h p a l i n g r e l e v a n d a r i k e g a g a l a n p a s a r . M o n o p o l i a l a m i a h t e r j a d i a p a b i l a s u a t u i n d u s t r i m e m p u n y a i k o n d i s i b i a y a s e d e m i k i a n r u p a s e h i n g g a s a t u p e r u s a h a a n d a p a t m e m p r o d u k s i s a t u a t a u b e b e r a p a p r o d u k d e n g a n b i a y a l e b i h m u r a h d a r i p a d a s e a n d a i n y a p r o d u k t e r s e b u t d i p r o d u k s i o l e h l e b i h d a r i s a t u p e r u s a h a a n . B e b e r a p a c o n t o h d a r i m o n o p o l i a l a m i a h i n i a d a l a h a p a y a n g d i s e b u t public utilities s e p e r t i a i r m i n u m , g a s , l i s t r i k , k e r e t a a p i d a n t e i e p o n . A p a b i l a m o n o p o l i - m o n o p o l i a l a m i a h i n i j a t u h k e p i h a k s w a s t a , s e c a r a t e o r i t i s k i t a d a p a t m e n d u g a b a h w a h a r g a a k a n d i n a i k k a n d i a t a s b i a y a m a r j i n a l n y a d a n p r o d u k s i a k a n d i b a t a s i s a m p a i d i b a w a h t i t i k o p t i m a l n y a . U n t u k m e n j a g a k e m u n g k i n a n p e n y a l a h g u n a a n t e r s e b u t , a d a l a h m a s u k a k a l u n t u k b e r a r g u m e n t a s i b a h w a m o n o p o l i - m o n o p o l i a l a m i a h s e b a i k n y a d i n a s i o n a l i s a s i a t a u d i m i l i k i o l e h n e g a r a .

Kedua, Perencanaan T e r p u s a t . U n t u k m e m b a n t u s u k s e s n y a p e r e n c a n a a n e k o n o m i j a n g k a p a n j a n g m a k a d i a n g g a p p e r l u b a g i p e m e r i n t a h u n t u k m e n g o n t r o l i n d u s t r i s t r a t e g i s t e r t e n t u . S e b a g a i m a n a p e n d a p a t B o s ( 1 9 8 6 , h a l . 2 9 ) y a n g m e n y a t a k a n b a h w a p e r e n c a n a a n h a n y a a k a n s u k s e s a p a b i l a n e g a r a m e n g o n t r o l p a l i n g t i d a k 5 0 % d a r i i n v e s t a s i . O l e h k a r e n a i t u , p e n g o n t r o l a n a t a s i n d u s t r i - i n d u s t r i e n e r g i , b a j a , t r a n s p o r t d a n k o m u n i k a s i , d i m a n a s e k t o r - s e k t o r e k o n o m i l a i n n y a s a n g a t t e r g a n t u n g p a d a k e b e r a d a a n n y a , d a p a t d i l i h a t s e b a g a i s a r a n a u n t u k m e m b a n t u s u k s e s n y a p e r e n c a n a a n e k o n o m i . A l a s a n n y a a d a l a h a p a b i l a s e k t o r - s e k t o r i n d u s t r i d a s a r t e r s e b u t d i k u a s a i o l e h n e g a r a m a k a m e r e k a a k a n d a p a t d i k e m b a n g k a n s e s u a i d e n g a n p e r e n c a n a a n e k o n o m i n a s i o n a l .

Ketiga, s o s i a l i s a s i p r o d u k s i . M e n u r u t p a n d a n g a n s o s i a i i s , p e m i l i k a n p r i b a d i a t a s a s e t - a s e t i n d u s t r i a t a u k a p i t a l a d a l a h m e r u p a k a n

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s a r a n a d e n g a n m a n a s u a t u k e l a s d a l a m m a s y a r a k a t m e n g e k s p l o i t a s i k e l a s e k o n o m i l a i n n y a . O l e h k a r e n a i t u p e n g h a p u s a n h a k m i l i k p r i b a d i a t a s k a p i t a l d i p a n d a n g s e b a g a i s u a t u l a n g k a h u n t u k m e n g a k h i r i e k s p l o i t a s i t e r s e b u t d a n s u a t u b e n t u k m a s y a r a k a t y a n g l e b i h b a i k d a p a t d i b a n g u n .

C. Model-model Alternatif terhadap Nasionalisasi K i t a t e l a h m e n d i s k u s i k a n t i g a a l a s a n u t a m a t e r h a d a p n a s i o n a l i s a s i , y a i t u u n t u k m e n g a t a s i k e g a g a l a n p a s a r , m e m b a n t u p e r e n c a n a a n p e m b a n g u n a n , d a n m e n g a t a s i k e p i n c a n g a n e k o n o m i d a n s o s i a l d a l a m m a s y a r a k a t . M e s k i p u n d e m i k i a n , n a s i o n a l i s a s i b u k a n l a h s a t u - s a t u n y a j a w a b a n u n t u k m e n g a t a s i m a s a l a h - m a s a l a h t e r s e b u t , b a h k a n m u n g k i n b u k a n a l t e r n a t i f t e r b a i k . A d a t i g a a l t e r n a t i f t e r h a d a p n a s i o n a l i s a s i a t a u p e n d i r i a n b a d a n - b a d a n u s a h a m i l i k n e g a r a ( L i h a t m i s a l n y a : F o r e s t , h a l . 1 0 8 - 1 0 ) .

Pertama, p a j a k d a n s u b s i d i . I n s t r u m e n i n i d a p a t d i g u n a k a n u n t u k m e n g a t a s i k e g a g a l a n p a s a r d a n m a s a l a h d i s t r i b u s i p e n d a p a t a n t a n p a h a r u s m e n g a m b i l b e n t u k p e m i l i k a n n e g a r a . S e b a g a i c o n t o h , s u b s i d i y a n g t e p a t p a d a p e r u s a h a a n m o n o p o l i d i h a r a p k a n d a p a t m e r a n g s a n g p r o d u k s i s a m p a i m e n c a p a i t i n g k a t y a n g o p t i m a l . S e b a l i k n y a p a j a k y a n g t e p a t d i h a r a p k a n a k a n d a p a t m e n g a t a s i m a s a l a h m o n o p o l i rents. D a l a m k a i t a n n y a d e n g a n m a s a l a h d i s t r i b u s i p e n d a p a t a n , t e o r i m e n g a t a k a n b a h w a s e r a n g a n l a n g s u n g t e r h a d a p s u m b e r p e r m a s a l a h a n a d a l a h c a r a y a n g t e r b a i k u n t u k m e n g a t a s i p r o b l e m t e r s e b u t . O l e h k a r e n a i t u s u b s i d i p a d a y a n g m i s k i n d a n p a j a k d a r i y a n g k a y a d i a n g g a p s e b a g a i s u a t u i n s t r u m e n y a n g l e b i h h a n d a l u n t u k m e n g a t a s i p r o b l e m k e t i d a k m e r a t a a n , d a r i p a d a s o s i a l i s a s i a l a t - a l a t p r o d u k s i .

Kedua, k e b i j a k s a n a a n anti-trust a t a u a n t i m o n o p o l i . N e g a r a d a p a t m e n d i r i k a n b a d a n - b a d a n anti-trust a t a u a n t i - m o n o p o l i y a n g b e r t a n g g u n g j a w a b u n t u k m e m o n i t o r t i n g k a h l a k u b i s n i s d a l a m i n d u s t r i - i n d u s t r i m o n o p o l i d a n o l i g o p o l i , m e n g i d e n t i f i k a s i p e n y a l a h g u n a a n k e k u a t a n p a s a r d a n m e r e k o m e n d a s i l a n g k a h - l a n g k a h y a n g p e r l u u n t u k m e n g a t a s i m a s a l a h t e r s e b u t . O l e h k a r e n a i t u b a d a n - b a d a i i t e r s e b u t a d a l a h m e r u p a k a n s u a t u a l t e r n a t i f t e r h a d a p k e b e r a d a a n b a d a n - b a d a n u s a h a m i l i k n e g a r a ( B U M N ) .

Ketiga, p e r a t u r a n . P e r a t u r a n a d a l a h s u a t u a l t e r n a t i f l a i n t e r h a d a p B U M N . D i A m e r i k a S e r i k a t m i s a l n y a , m o n o p o l i - m o n o p o l i a l a m i a h p a d a u m u m n y a t e t a p d i p e g a n g o l e h s e k t o r s w a s t a , a k a n t e t a p i o p e r a s i n y a d i b a t a s i o l e h s e p e r a n g k a t p e r a t u r a n y a n g d i k e l u a r k a n o l e h b a d a n - b a d a n y a n g b e r w e w e n a n g . S i n g k a t n y a m o n o p o l i s w a s t a y a n g d i k o n t r o l o l e h n e g a r a m e l a l u i s e p e r a n g k a t p e r a t u r a n a d a l a h d i p a n d a n g l e b i h b a i k d a r i p a d a B U M N .

Keempat, franchising a t a u contracting-out. M e s k i p u n t a n p a k e s u l i t a n d i d a l a m p e n e r a p a n n y a franchising a t a u contracting-out d i p a n d a n g s e b a g a i s u a t u a l t e r n a t i f b a r u u n t u k m e n g a t a s i m a s a l a h m o n o p o l i a l a m i a h . I d e franchising, a d a l a h b a h w a p e m e r i n t a h m e n a w a r k a n h a k u n t u k m e m a s o k b a r a n g - b a r a n g a t a u j a s a - j a s a t e r t e n t u k e p a d a p i h a k

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s w a s t a u n t u k s u a t u p e r i o d e t e r t e n t u m e l a l u i s u a t u k o m p e t i s i a n t a r a p a r a c a l o n - c a l o n p e m a s o k y a n g b e r p o t e n s i a t a u m e m e n u h i s y a r a t . Y a n g a k a n m e m e n a n g k a n t e n d e r i n i t e n t u n y a a d a l a h p e r u s a h a a n y a n g t e r b a i k . S a l a h s a t u b e n t u k t e n d e r i n i a d a l a h b a h w a t i a p - t i a p p e s e r t a t e n d e r m e n g a j u k a n s e w a y a n g s a n g g u p m e r e k a b a y a r k e p a d a p e m e r i n t a h u n t u k m e m b e l i h a k u n t u k m e m a s o k b a r a n g - b a r a n g a t a u j a s a - j a s a y a n g d i t a w a r k a n p e m e r i n t a h , k e m u d i a n p e m e r i n t a h a k a n m e m i l i h p e r u s a h a a n p e s e r t a t e n d e r y a n g s a n g g u p m e n a w a r k a n s e w a p a l i n g t i n g g i . S u a t u k e m u n g k i n a n l a i n d a r i franchising a d a l a h a p a y a n g d i s e b u t Chadwick-Demsetz auction d i m a n a t i a p - t i a p p e r u s a h a a n p e s e r t a t e n d e r a k a n m e n g a j u k a n h a r g a m i n i m u m y a n g m e r e k a s a n g g u p i u n t u k m e m a s o k p a s a r . P e m e n a n g n y a a d a l a h p e r u s a h a a n y a n g s a n g g u p / b e r a n i m e m a s o k b a r a n g a t a u j a s a d e n g a n b i a y a p a l i n g m u r a h . A p a b i l a p e m e r i n t a h b i s a m e n j a m i n a d a n y a k o m p e t i s i y a n g s e h a t d i a n t a r a p e s e r t a t e n d e r d a n a p a b i l a p e m e r i n t a h m a m p u m e n c i p t a k a n m e k a n i s m e y a n g t e p a t u n t u k m e n j a m i n k w a l i t a s b a r a n g a t a u j a s a y a n g d i a m b i l a l i h p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a t e r s e b u t m a k a k e m u n g k i n a n p e n y a l a h g u n a a n k e k u a t a n m o n o p o l i a k a n d i k e n d a l i k a n t a n p a p e r l u n y a p e m i l i k a n o l e h m a s y a r a k a t / n e g a r a d a l a m b e n t u k B U M N .

D . M a k n a Privatisasi.

P r i v a t i s a s i a d a l a h s u a t u i s t i l a h y a n g r e l a t i f b a r u . P a d a t a h u n 1 9 7 0 - a n , i s t i l a h i n i h a m p i r t i d a k d i k e n a l . K a t a y a n g p a l i n g u m u m d a n m e m p u n y a i p e n g e r t i a n y a n g s a m a d e n g a n p r i v a t i s a s i p a d a w a k t u i t u a d a l a h d e n a s i o n a l i s a s i . J a d i p r i v a t i s a s i a d a l a h s u a t u i s t i l a h y a n g r e l a t i f b a r u d a l a m p e r b e n d a h a r a a n p o l i t i k y a i t u s u a t u t r a n s f e r d a r i s e k t o r n e g a r a / p e m e r i n t a h k e s e k t o r s w a s t a . I n i a d a l a h s u a t u p e n g e r t i a n y a n g u m u m d a r i p r i v a t i s a s i . D e w a s a i n i k a t a p r i v a t i s a s i m e n c a k u p b e r b a g a i m a c a m k e b i j a k s a n a a n y a n g b e r b e d a - b e d a d a l a m k a i t a n n y a d e n g a n B U M N . K a r e n a i t u i s t i l a h p r i v a t i s a s i , l i b e r a l i s a s i d a n d e r e g u l a s i s e r i n g d i k a c a u k a n d a n t i d a k t e r d e f i n i s i k a n d e n g a n j e l a s . W a t e r s o n ( 1 9 8 8 , h a l . 7 - 8 ) , m e n d e f i n i s i k a n i s t i l a h - i s t i l a h t e r s e b u t m e n j a d i l e b i h j e l a s s e b a g a i m a n a d i k e m u k a k a n n y a b e r i k u t i n i .

P r i v a t i s a s i a d a l a h " s u a t u p e r u b a h a n d i d a l a m p e m i l i k a n d a r i n e g a r a k e s w a s t a " . S e d a n g k a n l i b e r a l i s a s i b e r a r t i " p e l o n g g a r a n a t a u p e n g h a p u s a n k e n d a l a - k e n d a l a u n t u k m e m a s u k i s u a t u b i d a n g u s a h a y a n g s e b e l u m n y a t e r t u t u p u n t u k s e k t o r s w a s t a b a i k k a r e n a p e r a t u r a n p e m e r i n t a h m a u p u n m o n o p o l i a l a m i a h " . A d a p u n y a n g d i m a k s u d d e n g a n d e r e g u l a s i a d a l a h " s u a t u p e n y e d e r h a n a a n p e r a t u r a n y a n g b e r k a i t a n d e n g a n b i s n i s " . A k h i r n y a p r i v a t i s a s i j u g a m e n c a k u p a p a y a n g d i s e b u t franchising a t a u contracting-out. I s t i l a h i n i m e n g a n d u n g a r t i b a h w a p e k e r j a a n - p e k e r j a a n y a n g s e b e l u m n y a d i k e r j a k a n s e n d i r i o l e h p e m e r i n t a h d a e r a h a t a u p e m e r i n t a h p u s a t , s e k a r a n g d i k o n t r a k k a n k e p a d a s e k t o r s w a s t a .

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P r i v a t i s a s i d a n E f i s i e n s i

S e b a g a i c o n t o h , k e b e r s i h a n k o t a y a n g s e m u l a m e n j a d i t a n g g u n g j a w a b D i n a s K e b e r s i h a n P e m e r i n t a h D a e r a h , s e k a r a n g d a p a t d i k o n t r a k k a n k e p a d a s e k t o r s w a s t a .

E . K e u n t u n g a n - k e u n t u n g a n Potensial d a r i Privatisasi. F a k t o r p a l i n g p e n t i n g y a n g m e m o t i v a s i p r i v a t i s a s i t a m p a k n y a a d a l a h p e n a m p i l a n e k o n o m i y a n g m e n g e c e w a k a n d a r i b a d a n - b a d a n u s a h a m i l i k n e g a r a . H a l i n i m u n g k i n d i s e b a b k a n o l e h b e b e r a p a f a k t o r . P e r t a m a , d a l a m b e b e r a p a k a s u s , B U M N m e m p u n y a i s t a t u s m o n o p o l i y a n g b e r a k i b a t p a d a k e t i d a k e f i s i e n a n , k u r a n g i n o v a t i f d a n m e m b a t a s i p i l i h a n k o n s u m e n . Kedua, c a m p u r t a n g a n p o l i t i k t e l a h m e n g h a l a n g i u s a h a y a n g k o n s i s t e n u n t u k m e n g e j a r t a r g e t - t a r g e t k e u n t u n g a n d a n t u j u a n - t u j u a n l a i n y a n g t e l a h d i t e t a p k a n . Ketiga, p r o b l e m - p r o b l e m y a n g b e r k a i t a n d e n g a n s e r i k a t p e k e r j a . B e r d a s a r k a n k e l e m a h a n - k e l e m a h a n B U M N t e r s e b u t p a r a p e n g a n j u r d a n p e n y o k o n g i d e - i d e p r i v a t i s a s i s e c a r a h i p o t e t i s m e n g e m u k a k a n b e b e r a p a k e u n t u n g a n d a r i p r i v a t i s a s i . P e r t a m a , p r i v a t i s a s i a k a n m e r a n g s a n g k o m p e t i s i d a n m e m p e r l e m a h k e k u a s a a n s e r i k a t p e k e r j a . Kedua, p r i v a t i s a s i m e m u n g k i n k a n m a n a j e m e n m e n g k o n s e n t r a s i k a n d i r i p a d a b i s n i s d a r i p a d a h a r u s m e l a y a n i b e r b a g a i k e p e n t i n g a n p o l i t i k y a n g s a l i n g b e r t e n t a n g a n . Ketiga, p r i v a t i s a s i m e n j a n j i k a n e f i s i e n s i y a n g l e b i h b e s a r , p e l a y a n a n y a n g l e b i h b a i k , h a r g a y a n g l e b i h r e n d a h s e r t a p i l i h a n y a n g l e b i h b a n y a k . K e u n t u n g a n keempat a d a l a h d e n g a n m e n j u a l B U M N , k a s n e g a r a a k a n b e r t a m b a h d a n s e k a l i g u s m e n g u r a n g i b e b a n a n g g a r a n b e l a n j a n e g a r a k a r e n a p e m e r i n t a h t e r b e b a s d a r i k e w a j i b a n u n t u k m e n s u b s i d i B U M N - B U M N y a n g r u g i . K e i i m a , p r i v a t i s a s i m e m u n g k i n k a n p e r l u a s a n p e m i l i k a n s a h a m o l e h m a s y a r a k a t d a n m e n d o r o n g p a r a p e k e r j a u n t u k m e m b e l i s a h a m d a r i p e r u s a h a a n d i m a n a m e r e k a b e k e r j a . Keenam, p r i v a t i s a s i a k a n m e m b u a t p e r u s a h a a n l e b i h t a n g g a p t e r h a d a p p e r m i n t a a n k o n s u m e n . K e t u j u h , p r i v a t i s a s i m e m u n g k i n k a n p e r u s a h a a n u n t u k m e n i n g k a t k a n d a n a d a r i p a s a r m o d a l . A k h i r n y a , p r i v a t i s a s i d i h a r a p k a n a k a n d a p a t m e m e c a h k a n m a s a l a h a k u t d a l a m b i d a n g m a n a j e m e n d a n p e n g a w a s a n a n t a r a p e m e r i n t a h d a n p e r u s a h a a n - p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a .

I I I . P E R U S A H A A N N E G A R A D A N P E R U S A H A A N S W A S T A : T E O R I D A N K E N Y A T A A N E M P I R I S

D a l a m s e k s i i n i a k a n k i t a d i s k u s i k a n f a k t o r - f a k t o r y a n g s e c a r a t e o r i t i s m e m p e n g a r u h i e f i s i e n s i p e r u s a h a a n . D i a n t a r a s e k i a n b a n y a k f a k t o r y a n j m u n g k i n m e m p e n g a r u h i k i n e r j a e k o n o m i s u a t u b a d a n u s a h a , k i t a h a n y s m e n d i s k u s i k a n e m p a t f a k t o r y a n g k i t a a n g g a p p a l i n g p e n t i n g y a i t i p e m i l i k a n (ownership), o r g a n i s a s i , k o m p e t i s i d a n p e r a t u r a n .

A . P e m i l i k a n , Organisasi dan Efisiensi P e r u s a h a a n . S u a t u p a n d a n g a n u m u m m e n g e n a i p e n a m p i l a n e k o n o m i B U M N b i U d i b a n d i n g k a n d e n g a n p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a a d a l a h b a h w a , d a l a m b a n y a k h a l

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y a n g p e r t a m a m e m p u n y a i k i n e r j a e k o n o m i y a n g r e l a t i f k u r a n g e f i s i e n d a r i p a d a y a n g k e d u a . I n i b e r a r t i b a h w a j e n i s a t a u m a c a m p e m i l i k a n a d a l a h m e m p u n y a i p e n g a r u h p e n t i n g t e r h a d a p e f i s i e n s i p e r u s a h a a n . P e r t a n y a a n n y a a d a l a h m e n g a p a b a d a n u s a h a s w a s t a m e m p u n y a i p e i u a n g y a n g l e b i h b e s a r u n t u k t a m p i l s e b a g a i p e r u s a h a a n y a n g l e b i h e f i s i e n s i k e t i m b a n g B U M N . D a l a m h a l i n i theory of property rights m e n e r a n g k a n s e b a g a i b e r i k u t . A d a d u a j e n i s p r o p e r t y r i g h t s : common property rights, d a n private property rights. V e l j e n o v s k i ( 1 9 8 6 , h a l , 7 8 ) m e n d e f i n i s i k a n common property rights s e b a g a i :

"rights which are shared equally by a subset of individuals and for which there is an absence of exclusive use. either because of legal restriction or because of policing and protecting exclusiveness".

S e m e n t a r a i t u , private property rights d i k a t a k a n s e b a g a i m e m p u n y a i c i r i s e b a g a i b e r i k u t :

"exclusiveness in the right of use, its transferability and the ability of buyer and seller to negotiate the terms of trade ".

K a r e n a c i r i - c i r i n y a t e r s e b u t , common ownership d a p a t m e n g a k i b a t k a n k e t i d a k e f i s i e n a n . A l a s a n n y a a d a l a h b a h w a s e c a r a h u k u m , p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a i t u y a n g m e m i l i k i a d a l a h m a s y a r a k a t a t a u p e m b a y a r p a j a k . A k a n t e t a p i s e c a r a p e r s e o r a n g a n , m a s y a r a k a t t i d a k b e r h a k d a n t i d a k d a p a t m e n j u a l p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a y a n g b e r p e n a m p i l a n j e l e k a t a u t i d a k e f i s i e n . B e r b e d a h a l n y a d e n g a n p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a , p a r a p e m i l i k a t a u p e m e g a n g s a h a m d a p a t m e n j u a l s a h a m m e r e k a u n t u k m e n y a t a k a n k e t i d a k p u a s a n n y a a t a s p e n a m p i l a n e k o n o m i p e r u s a h a a n y a n g m e r e k a m i l i k i . J e l a s n y a , y a n g m e n y e b a b k a n k e t i d a k e f i s i e n a n p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a b u k a n l a h k a r e n a i a d i m i l i k i o l e h b a n y a k o r a n g / m a s y a r a k a t , m e l a i n k a n k a r e n a p a r a p e m i l i k t e r s e b u t t i d a k d a p a t m e n j u a l h a k m i l i k n y a . D e n g a n k a t a l a i n , t i d a k a d a n y a k e m u n g k i n a n u n t u k m e n g a l i h k a n h a k m i l i k d i a n t a r a i n d i v i d u d a l a m p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a d i b a n d i n g k a n d e n g a n r e l a t i f m u d a h n y a t r a n s a k s i d e m i k i a n d a l a m p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a a d a l a h f a k t o r y a n g t e l a h b e r t a n g g u n g j a w a b t e r h a d a p t e r j a d i n y a k e t i d a k e f i s i e n a n p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a .

A l a s a n k e d u a m e n g a p a p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a m e m p u n y a i p e i u a n g y a n g l e b i h k e c i l u n t u k t a m p i l l e b i h e f i s i e n d a r i p a d a p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a a d a l a h k a r e n a s t r u k t u r k e l e m b a g a a n p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a d i k a t a k a n s e b a g a i s e c a r a i n h e r e n a d a l a h t i d a k e f i s i e n . T h o r n h i l l ( 1 9 6 8 , h a l . 1 2 - 3 ) m i s a l n y a , m e n y a t a k a n b a h w a k a r e n a p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a m e m p u n y a i j a l u r p e r t a n g g u n g j a w a b a n m e l a l u i s e o r a n g m e n t e r i , m a k a a k a n a d a k e c e n d e r u n g a n u n t u k m e n g a r a h p a d a s e n t r a l i s a s i . A k i b a t n y a a d a l a h b a h w a o r g a n i s a s i a k a n d i k e n d a l i k a n s e c a r a k a k u d a n k e h i l a n g a n d a y a t a n g g a p n y a a t a s p e r m i n t a a n k o n s u m e n . L e b i h l a n j u t b e l i a u m e n y a t a k a n b a h w a a d m i n i s t r a s i b i s n i s m e m e r l u k a n s u a t u c a r a p a n d a n g d a n t e h n i k

2 3 4

P r i v a t i s a s i d a n E f i s i e n s i

y a n g b e r b e d a d i b a n d i n g k a n d e n g a n a d m i n i s t r a s i p e m e r i n t a h a n . O l e h k a r e n a i t u m e n e m p a t k a n s u a t u b i s n i s d a l a m l i n g k u n g a n k o n t r o l p e m e r i n t a h h a n y a a k a n m e n g h a m b a t t e r c a p a i n y a a d m i n i s t r a s i b i s n i s y a n g e f i s i e n . K a r e n a t i d a k a d a n y a f l e k s i b i l i t a s a d m i n i s t r a s i b i s n i s d a l a m p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a d a n t i d a k a d a n y a r a n g s a n g a n y a n g c u k u p u n t u k m e n c a p a i e f i s i e n s i s e p e r t i m o t i v a s i u n t u k m e n c a p a i k e u n t u n g a n m i s a l n y a , m a k a a k i b a t n y a a d a l a h t e r j a d i n y a b i r o k r a s i y a n g b e r b e l i t - b e l i t d a n c a r a k e r j a y a n g t i d a k e f i s i e n , y a n g a k h i r n y a b e r u j u n g p a d a k e t i d a k - e f i s i e n a n p e r u s a h a a n .

A d a b e b e r a p a k e l e m a h a n I a i n d a r i p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a , a n t a r a l a i n t i d a k a t a u k u r a n g a d a n y a a n c a m a n k e b a n g k r u t a n k a r e n a p e m e r i n t a h s e l a l u m e n u t u p k e r u g i a n y a n g d i d e r i t a p e r u s a h a a n - p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a . D i d a l a m p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a j u g a s a n g a t s e d i k i t a d a n y a a n c a m a n r e o r g a n i s a s i a t a u r a s i o n a l i s a s i k a r e n a a l a s a n - a l a s a n p o l i t i s m i s a l n y a j u m l a h k a r y a w a n s u d a h t e r l a n j u r m e m b e n g k a k . R a s i o n a l i s a s i b e r a r t i d a p a t m e n g a k i b a t k a n p e n g a n g g u r a n y a i t u s u a t u h a l y a n g t i d a k d i i n g i n k a n o l e h p e m e r i n t a h .

S e l a i n i t u , a d a s e m a c a m p e r s e p s i b a h w a p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a t i d a k b e r u s a h a s u n g g u h - s u n g g u h u n t u k m e m i n i m a l i s a s i b i a y a d i d a l a m m e n g e l o l a p e r u s a h a a n . A l a s a n n y a a d a l a h b a h w a t i d a k a d a n y a s u a t u t u j u a n p e r u s a h a a n y a n g s e c a r a j e l a s d a n t e g a s m e n y a t a k a n u n t u k m e n c a p a i k e u n t u n g a n y a n g s e t i n g g i - t i n g g i n y a s e b a g a i m a n a p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a . T a r g e t u n t u k m e n c a p a i k e u n t u n g a n s e t i n g g i m u n g k i n m e n s y a r a t k a n p e r u s a h a a n u n t u k m e m i n i m a l i s a s i o n g k o s . T i d a k a d a n y a t a r g e t t e r s e b u t b e r a r t i r a n g s a n g a n u n t u k m e n e k a n o n g k o s j u g a k u r a n g , y a n g a k h i r n y a a k a n b e r u j u n g p a d a productive inefficiency. A l a s a n k e d u a a d a l a h b a h w a p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a s e r i n g k a l i m e m p u n y a i t u j u a n g a n d a a n t a r a l a i n t e r m a s u k t u j u a n - t u j u a n n o n k o m e r s i a l d i m a n a p e n e k a n a n o n g k o s t i d a k m e m p e r o l e h p r i o r i t a s y a n g m e m a d a i . A l a s a n k e t i g a a d a l a h b a h w a i n s e n t i f d a l a m m a n a j e m e n p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a k u r a n g m e n d u k u n g t e r c a p a i n y a e f i s i e n s i p r o d u k s i k a r e n a g a j i p a r a m a n a j e r d a n k a r y a w a n t i d a k d i k a i t k a n d e n g a n p r e s t a s i p e r u s a h a a n , m i s a l n y a t i n g k a t k e u n t u n g a n .

S i s i l a i n d a r i d i s k u s i i n i a k a n m e n j e l a s k a n a l a s a n - a l a s a n m e n g a p a p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a m e m p u n y a i p e i u a n g y a n g l e b i h b e s a r u n t u k m e n c a p a i t i n g k a t e f i s i e n s i y a n g l e b i h t i n g g i d a r i p a d a p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a . Pertama a d a l a h b a h w a p e m i l i k a n i n d i v i d u a t a s p e r u s a h a a n a k a n m e n d o r o n g p e m i l i k n y a u n t u k m e n c a p a i k e u n t u n g a n s e t i n g g i m u n g k i n . A p a b i l a p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a t e l a h go-public, i a a k a n d i k o n t r o l o l e h p a s a r m o d a l . P e r u s a h a a n y a n g m e m p u n y a i e f i s i e n s i y a n g r e n d a h a k a n d i t i n g g a l k a n o l e h p a r a p e m e g a n g s a h a m . D e n g a n d e m i k i a n d a l a m p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a a k a n a d a r a n g s a n g a n y a n g t e r u s m e n e r u s u n t u k m e n c a p a i e f i s i e n s i s e t i n g g i m u n g k i n . Kedua a d a l a h b a h w a s t r u k t u r k e l e m b a g a a n p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a a d a l a h l e b i h c o c o k u n t u k k e b u t u h a n b i s n i s k a r e n a p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a m e m p u n y a i r u a n g l i n g k u p y a n g l e b i h s e m p i t d a r i c a m p u r t a n g a n p o l i t i k d a l a m p e n g e l o l a a n p e r u s a h a a n . d i s a m p i n g i t u t u j u a n p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a j u g a l e b i h s e d e r h a n a d a n l e b i h j e l a s d a r i p a d a p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a , d a n

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b i r o k r a s i y a n g b e r b e l i t - b e i i t d a p a t d i h i n d a r k a n . S e m u a f a k t o r i n i d a p a t d i h a r a p k a n u n t u k m e n i n g k a t k a n e f i s i e n s i p r o d u k t i f p e r u s a h a a n .

K e l e m a h a n u t a m a d a r i Theory of Property Rights a d a l a h s u a t u k e n y a t a a n b a h w a d i d a l a m s u a t u p e r u s a h a a n m o d e r n , p e m i l i k a n (ownership) d a n k o n t f o l / p e n g a w a s a n a d a l a h t e r p i s a h . O l e h k a r e n a i t u s u a t u p e r u s a h a a n a t a u k o r p o r a s i m o d e m d i k e l o l a o l e h p a r a m a n a j e r u n t u k k e p e n t i n g a n m e r e k a s e n d i r i . D i s i n i t i m b u l k o n f l i k k e p e n t i n g a n a n t a r a p e m i l i k y a n g m e n g h e n d a k i k e u n t u n g a n s e t i n g g i m u n g k i n d a n k e p e n t i n g a n p a r a m a n a j e r y a n g m e n g i n g i n k a n g a j i s e b a n y a k - b a n y a k n y a d a n e k s p a n s i p e r u s a h a a n d a l a m r a n g k a m e m p e r k o k o h k e d u d u k a n n y a . D e n g a n d e m i k i a n a d a s e m a c a m k e k u a t a n y a n g m e n g h a m b a t t e r c a p a i n y a e f i s i e n s i y a n g s e c a r a i n h e r e n t e r d a p a t b a i k d i d a l a m p e m s a h a a n s w a s t a m a u p u n p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a , k a r e n a d a l a m k e d u a n y a a d a k e s e n j a n g a n y a n g l e b a r a n t a r a p e m i l i k a n d a n p e n g e l o l a a n p e r u s a h a a n . N a m u n d e m i k i a n p a r a p e n y o k o n g t e o r i t e r s e b u t m e n y a t a k a n b a h w a m e s k i p u n p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a d a n p e m s a h a a n n e g a r a m e n g h a d a p i m a s a l a h y a n g s a m a d a l a m h a l k o n f l i k k e p e n t i n g a n a n t a r a p e m i l i k d a n m a n a j e r , d a n p e r l u n y a s u a t u s i s t e m p e n g a w a s a n y a n g m e m a d a i , a k a n t e t a p i s i s t e m p e n g a w a s a n a n t a r a k e d u a n y a a d a l a h b e r b e d a . P e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a d i k o n t r o l o l e h p a s a r m o d a l , s e d a n g k a n p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a d i k o n t r o l s e o r a n g a t a u b e b e r a p a o r a n g m e n t e r i d a l a m s u a t u l i n g k u n g a n b i r o k r a s i y a n g s e r i n g k a l i s a n g a t r u m i t . P e r b e d a a n y a n g l e b i h p e n t i n g a n t a r a k e d u a j e n i s p e m s a h a a n t e r s e b u t a d a l a h b a h w a d i d a l a m p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a h a k - h a k m i l i k p r i b a d i (private property rights) d a p a t d i p e r j u a l b e l i k a n a t a u d i t r a n s f e r k e p a d a o r a n g l a i n , s e d a n g k a n d a l a m p e m s a h a a n n e g a r a k e m u n g k i n a n d e m i k i a n t i d a k a d a . M e k a n i s m e p e m i l i k a n d a n p e n g a l i h a n s a h a m m u n g k i n s a j a t i d a k s e m p u r n a a k a n t e t a p i m e k a n i s m e p o l i t i k k e m u n g k i n a n b e s a r l e b i h t i d a k s e m p u r n a l a g i . D e n g a n d e m i k i a n , s e b a g a i m a n a d i k a t a k a n s e b e l u m n y a , a d a l a h k e m a m p u a n u n t u k m e m p e r j u a l b e l i k a n h a k - h a k m i l i k p r i b a d i l a h y a n g t e l a h m e m u n g k i n k a n p e m s a h a a n s w a s t a u n t u k s e c a r a t e r u s m e n e m s m e m b e r i k a n t e k a n a n u n t u k m e n c a p a i e f i s i e n s i p r o d u k t i f .

P e r l u d i k a t a k a n d i s i n i b a h w a theory of property rights t a m p a k n y a t i d a k m e n y a t a k a n b a h w a private ownership a k a n m e n g h a s i l k a n b a i k e f i s i e n s i p r o d u k t i f m a u p u n e f i s i e n s i a l o k a t i f s e k a l i g u s ' . T e o r i i n i h a n y a m e n e k a n k a n p e n g a m h d a r i p e m i l i k a n a t a s e f i s i e n s i p r o d u k t i f t e t a p i t a m p a k n y a t i d a k m e n y i n g g u n g m e n g e n a i p e n g a r u h p e m i l i k a n a t a s e f i s i e n s i a l o k a t i f . Private property a d a l a h p e r l u d a n m u n g k i n m e m p a k a n s y a r a t y a n g m e m a d a i u n t u k m e n c a p a i e f i s i e n s i p r o d u k t i f , t e t a p i s a m a

1 Efisiensi alokatif berkenaan dengan distribusi sumber-sumber daya yang terbatas untuk berbagai penggunaan yang berbeda sehingga sumber-sumber daya tersebut menghasilkan tingkat konsumsi setinggi mungkin. Sedangkan efisiensi manajerial atau efisiensi produktif adalah berkenaan dengan produksi dari suatu output pada suatu tingkat kuantitas tertentu dengan menggunakan biaya semurah mungkin yakni menggunakan masukan sesedikit mungkin. Dengan kata lain efisiensi alokatif memberikan implikasi bahwa apa yang diproduksi memenuhi selera konsumen, sedangkan efisiensi produktif mensyaratkan bahwa apapun yang diproduksi seharusnya dapat dicapai dengan biaya semurah-murahnya.

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s e k a l i b u k a n u n t u k m e n c a p a i e f i s i e n s i a l o k a t i f . P r i v a t i s a s i i n d u s t r i m o n o p o l i s m i s a l n y a d a p a t d i h a r a p k a n u n t u k m e m p e r t e g a s t u j u a n p e r u s a h a a n p a d a p e n c a p a i a n k e u n t u n g a n . P a d a s a t u s i s i , p e r g e s e r a n o r i e n t a s i p e r u s a h a a n i n i d i h a r a p k a n a k a n d a p a t m e n i n g k a t k a n e f i s i e n s i i n t e r n p e r u s a h a a n a t a u e f i s i e n s i p r o d u k t i f . P a d a s i s i y a n g I a i n , t i n g k a h l a k u u n t u k m e n g e j a r k e u n t u n g a n s e t i n g g i m u n g k i n d a r i s u a t u i n d u s t r i m o n o p o l i s j u g a b i s a m e n g a r a h p a d a p e n y a l a h g u n a a n k e k u a t a n m o n o p o l i s m i s a l n y a p e n e t a p a n h a r g a y a n g l e b i h t i n g g i p a d a k o n s u m e n , d a n o l e h k a r e n a n y a a k a n m e r u s a k e f i s i e n s i a l o k a t i f . S e c a r a s i n g k a t k i t a d a p a t m e n g a t a k a n b a h w a j e n i s p e m i l i k a n a d a l a h f a k t o r y a n g c u k u p m e n e n t u k a n , d a l a m a r t i a n b a h w a i a m e m p e n g a r u h i s t r u k t u r i n s e n t i f d a n t i n g k a h l a k u p e r u s a h a a n d a l a m r a n g k a m e n c a p a i e f i s i e n s i p r o d u k t i f . M e s k i p u n d e m i k i a n h a r u s d i a k u i b a h w a e f i s i e n s i p r o d u k t i f t e r s e b u t m u n g k i n t i d a k a k a n m e n c a p a i t i n g k a t m a k s i m u m t a n p a a d a n y a p a s a r y a n g k o m p e t i t i f .

S u a t u a r g u m e n t a s i b a n t a h a n d a t a n g d a r i B a n k D u n i a ( 1 9 8 3 , h a l , 5 0 ) y a n g m e n y a t a k a n b a h w a :

"The key factor determining the efficiency of an enterprise is not weather it is publicly or privately owned, but how it is managed. In theory, it is possible to create the kinds of incentives that will maximize efficiency under any type of ownership".

A r g u m e n t a s i s e r u p a d i k e m u k a k a n o l e h W o r t z e l d a n W o r t z e l ( 1 9 8 9 ) y a n g b e r p e n d a p a t b a h w a m a s a l a h y a n g d i h a d a p i p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a b u k a n l a h t e n t a n g p e m i l i k a n a t a u ownership m e l a i n k a n k a r e n a k u r a n g j e l a s t e g a s n y a t u j u a n d a n s a s a r a n y a n g h e n d a k d i c a p a i d a n t i d a k a d a n y a s u a t u b u d a y a d a n s i s t e m o r g a n i s a s i y a n g m e m b a n t u d a n m e n d o r o n g k e a r a h t e r c a p a i n y a t u j u a n d a n s a s a r a n t e r s e b u t .

M e m a n g a d a b e b e r a p a m a c a m c o n t o h d a r i p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a y a n g b e r p e n a m p i l a n a g a k b a g u s , s e p e r t i i n d u s t r i b a j a d i K o r e a S e l a t a n d a n b e b e r a p a p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a d i S i n g a p u r a . H a r u s d i a k u i j u g a b a h w a p e m i l i k a n S e c a r a i n d i v i d u s e b a g a i m a n a p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a b u k a n l a h j a m i n a n a k a n t e r c a p a i n y a p e n a m p i l a n e k o n o m i y a n g l e b i h b a i k . B a n g k r u t n y a p e r u s a h a a n - p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a a d a l a h c o n t o h n y a t a d a r i a r g u m e n t a s i i n i .

D e n g a n d e m i k i a n b a g i W o r t z e l d a n W o r t z e l , y a n g m e n e n t u k a n b e r h a s i l d a n t i d a k n y a s u a t u b i s n i s a d a l a h :

"to what extent, and in what direction, its owner exercise the authority that comes with ownership and its manager carry out their jobs".

I m p l i k a s i n y a a d a l a h b a h w a r e f o r m a s i i n t e r n p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a d a p a t d i h a r a p k a n u n t u k m e m p e r b a i k i e f i s i e n s i p r o d u k t i f .

D a p a t d i s i m p u l k a n b a h w a t i d a k a d a k e s e p a k a t a n d i a n t a r a p a r a e k o n o m t e n t a n g a p a k a h j e n i s p e m i l i k a n m e m a n g m e r u p a k a n f a k t o r

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p e n e n t u t e r h a d a p k i n e r j a e k o n o m i s u a t u p e r u s a h a a n . D i s a t u p i h a k p r i v a t i s a s i d a p a t d i h a r a p k a n u n t u k m e m p e r b a i k i e f i s i e n s i p r o d u k t i f . H a l y a n g s a m a p e n t i n g n y a a d a l a h b a h w a r e f o r m a s i i n t e r n p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a a d a l a h m e r u p a k a n a l t e r n a t i f l a i n u n t u k m e r e a l i s a s i t u j u a n y a n g s a m a .

B . Kompetisi dan Efisiensi T e l a h d i n y a t a k a n b a h w a p r i v a t i s a s i d a p a t d i h a r a p k a n u n t u k m e r a n g s a n g e f i s i e n s i p r o d u k t i f . A l a s a n n y a a d a l a h b a h w a p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a m e m p u n y a i s u a t u k o m i t m e n y a n g j e l a s t e r h a d a p k e u n t u n g a n d a n k a r e n a n y a j u g a t e r h a d a p m i n i m a l i s a s i o n g k o s . A d a n y a s u a t u a n c a m a n p e n g a m b i l a l i h a n p e r u s a h a a n o l e h p e r u s a h a a n l a i n y a n g l e b i h e f i s i e n m e l a l u i p a s a r m o d a l a d a l a h j u g a m e r u p a k a n f a k t o r p e n t i n g u n t u k m e r a n g s a n g e f i s i e n s i p r o d u k t i f . A k a n t e t a p i t i d a k d e n g a n s e n d i r i n y a b a h w a m e l a l u i p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a , e f i s i e n s i p r o d u k t i f s e c a r a m a k s i m u m p a s t i a k a n t e r c a p a i , m e n g i n g a t b a h w a d a l a m k o r p o r a s i m o d e r n a d a p e m i s a h a n y a n g t e g a s a n t a r a p e m i l i k a n d a n p e n g e n d a l i a n / p e n g a w a s a n , a p a l a g i b i l a k o m p e t i s i d a l a m p a s a r p r o d u k d i r a s a k a n t i d a k c u k u p k o m p e t i t i f .

U n t u k m e n c a p a i e f i s i e n s i p r o d u k t i f d a n a l o k a t i f s e k a l i g u s p a d a t i n g k a t y a n g l e b i h t i n g g i d i p e r l u k a n a d a n y a k o m p e t i s i y a n g c u k u p d a l a m p a s a r p r o d u k d a n p a s a r m o d a l . K o m p e t i s i d a l a m p a s a r m o d a l b e r a r t i b a h w a a p a b i l a m a n a j e m e n t i d a k m a m p u u n t u k m e m u t a r b a l i k trend p e r u s a h a a n y a n g s e d a n g a n j i o k m a k a p e r u s a h a a n b e r a d a d a l a m a n c a m a n u n t u k d i a m b i l a l i h o l e h p e r u s a h a a n l a i n y a n g l e b i h e f i s i e n . H a l i n i a k a n m e n d o r o n g p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a u n t u k s e c a r a t e r u s m e n e r u s m e n i n g k a t k a n e f i s i e n s i p r o d u k t i f n y a . S e m e n t a r a i t u k o m p e t i s i d a l a m p a s a r p r o d u k b e r a r t i b a h w a k o n s u m e n y a n g m e n g a l a m i k e k e c e w a a n a k a n m e n g a l i h k a n k e b i a s a a n m e r e k a m e m b e l i b a r a n g / j a s a p a d a p e r u s a h a a n l a i n . I n i b e r a r t i b a h w a k o m p e t i s i d a l a m p a s a r b a r a n g / p r o d u k c e n d e r u n g a k a n m e n d o r o n g t e r c a p a i n y a e f i s i e n s i a l o k a t i f . S i n g k a t k a t a , k o m p e t i s i d a l a m p a s a r m o d a l a k a n m e n d o r o n g t e r c a p a i n y a e f i s i e n s i p r o d u k t i f , s e d a n g k a n k o m p e t i s i d a l a m p a s a r p r o d u k / b a r a n g a k a n m e r a n g s a n g t e r c i p t a n y a e f i s i e n s i a l o k a t i f . S e c a r a k e s e l u r u h a n k i t a d a p a t m e n y a t a k a n b a h w a p r i v a t i s a s i a k a n m e n g h a s i l k a n e f i s i e n s i p r o d u k t i f s e d a n g k a n k o m p e t i s i a k a n m e n g h a s i l k a n e f i s i e n s i a l o k a t i f . I m p l i k a s i n y a a d a l a h b a h w a u n t u k m e n c a p a i n y a e f i s i e n s i p r o d u k t i f d a n a l o k a t i f s e k a l i g u s s e c a r a m a k s i m u m , p r i v a t i s a s i h a r u s d i b a r e n g i d e n g a n d e r e g u l a s i a t a u l i b e r a l i s a s i ( l i h a t m i s a l n y a K a y d a n T h o m s o n , 1 9 8 6 ; D o m b e r g e r d a n P i g g o t , 1 9 8 6 ; Y a r r o w , 1 9 8 9 ; d a n C a v e s , 1 9 9 0 ) .

D a r i d i s k u s i t e r s e b u t t a m p a k b a h w a p e m i l i k a n / p r i v a t i s a s i d a n k o m p e t i s i / l i b e r a l i s a s i b u k a n l a h d u a h a l y a n g s a l i n g b e r t e n t a n g a n s e b a g a i m a n a d i k a t a k a n o l e h b a n y a k e k o n o m , m e l a i n k a n l e b i h b e r s i f a t k o m p l e m e n t e r a t a u s a l i n g m e n d u k u n g . M e s k i p u n d e m i k i a n p e r l u d i t e g a s k a n b a h w a p r i v a t i s a s i b u k a n l a h s a t u - s a t u n y a j a w a b a n t e r h a d a p

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m a s a l a h k e t i d a k e f i s i e n a n p r o d u k t i f , b a h k a n m u n g k i n b u k a n j a l a p k e l u a r y a n g t e r b a i k .

C . Peraturan dan Efisiensi S e d e m i k i a n j a u h k i t a t e l a h m e n d i s k u s i k a n t i g a f a k t o r y a n g m e m p e n g a r u h i e f i s i e n s i p e r u s a h a a n , a n t a r a l a i n p e m i l i k a n , o r g a n i s a s i d a n k o m p e t i s i . M a s a l a h a k a n t i m b u l a p a b i l a k i t a d i h a d a p k a n p a d a « k a s u s m o n o p o l i a l a m i a h , d i m a n a k o m p e t i s i a d a l a h t i d a k p r a k t i s d a n a t a u t i d a k d i i n g i n k a n . M e s k i p u n k o m p e t i s i d i m u n g k i n k a n , i n d u s t r i y a n g l a m a b a r a n g k a l i m a s i h a k a n t e t a p m e m e g a n g k e k u a s a a n m o n o p o l i y a n g c u k u p k u a t . S e b a g a i m a n a t e l a h d i k e m u k a k a n s e b e l u m n y a b a h w a p r i v a t i s a s i t e r h a d a p i n d u s t r i - i n d u s t r i m o n o p o l i a l a m i a h a k a n m e n d o r o n g e f i s i e n s i p r o d u k t i f , a k a n t e t a p i g a g a l u n t u k m e r a n g s a n g e f i s i e n s i a l o k a t i f , s e d a n g k a n k o m p e t i s i a d a l a h t i d a k p r a k t i s d a n a t a u t i d a k d i i n g i n k a n . B e r i k u t i n i a k a n k i t a d i s k u s i k a n m e t o d e u n t u k m e n i n g k a t k a n e f i s i e n s i s e c a r a k e s e l u r u h a n d a l a m k a s u s i n d u s t r i m o n o p o l i s .

M e n u r u t B e e s l e y d a n L i t t l e c h i l d ( 1 9 8 3 , h a l . 6 8 ) , a d a t i g a c a r a u n t u k m e n g a t a s i m a s a l a h t e r s e b u t . Pertama, d e n g a n m e m p e n g a r u h i h a r g a - h a r g a y a n g d i t e t a p k a n o l e h i n d u s t r i - i n d u s t r i m o n o p o l i s / d u o p o l i s d e n g a n c a r a m e m b a t a s i k e u n t u n g a n s e b a g a i m a n a t e r c e r m i n p a d a t i n g k a t p e n g e m b a l i a n m o d a l a t a u rate of return on capital. Kedua, d e n g a n m e m b a t a s i h a r g a - h a r g a s e c a r a l a n g s u n g d e n g a n t a r i f - t a r i f a t a u p a j a k - p a j a k t e r t e n t u . S e b a g a i c o n t o h d a l a m u s a h a n y a u n t u k m e n j a m i n b a h w a British Telecom b e n a r - b e n a r m e m p u n y a i k e m a u a n u n t u k m e n e k a n o n g k o s s e r e n d a h m u n g k i n d a n t i d a k m e n y a l a h g u n a k a n k e k u a t a n p a s a r , h a r g a d a r i j a s a - j a s a t e l e k o m u n i k a s i s u d a h d i a t u r t i d a k n a i k m e l e b i h i d a r i X p e r s e n d i b a w a h i n d e k s h a r g a e c e r a n , a t a u s e r i n g d i k e n a l d e n g a n s e b u t a n " R P l - X " d i m a n a R P l a d a l a h Retail Price index d a n X a d a l a h s u a t u b i l a n g a n y a n g m e n u n j u k k a n p e r s e n t a s e t e r t e n t u y a n g b e s a r n y a d i t e n t u k a n b e r d a s a r k a n k e s e p a k a t a n a n t a r a b a d a n i n d e p e n d e n y a n g d i b e r i w e w e n a n g u n t u k i t u d e n g a n p i h a k T e l e k o m . Ketiga, a d a l a h k e b i j a k s a n a a n k o m p e t i s i (Competition Policy) d e n g a n t u j u a n u n t u k m e n c e g a h m o n o p o l i d a n u n t u k m e m u n g k i n k a n m u n c u l n y a p e m e g a n g - p e m e g a n g s a h a m b a r u s e t e l a h p r i v a t i s a s i .

M a s a l a h - m a s a l a h y a n g a k a n t i m b u l a p a b i l a a l t e r n a t i f p e r t a m a y a n g a k a n d i p i l i h a d a l a h a d a n y a k e m u n g k i n a n b a h w a p a r a p e j a b a t p e m b u a t p e r a t u r a n a k a n d e n g a n m u d a h d i p e n g a r u h i a t a u d i t u n g g a n g i o l e h k e l o m p o k t e r t e n t u . K e d u a , i n f o r m a s i s a n g a t b e s a r k e m u n g k i n a n n y a t i d a k s e m p u r n a . H a n y a d e n g a n s a t u p r o d u s e n d i p a s a r , p e r u s a h a a n a k a n m e m p u n y a i k e d u d u k a n m o n o p o l i d a l a m k a i t a n n y a d e n g a n i n f o r m a s i y a n g r e l e v a n u n t u k p e m b u a t p e r a t u r a n . A k i b a t n y a a d a l a h b a h w a p e r u s a h a a n a k a n d a p a t m e m a n i p u l a s i i n f o r m a s i s e h i n g g a d a p a t m e m p e n g a r u h i k e p u t u s a n - k e p u t u s a n y a n g d i t e t a p k a n o l e h b a d a n y a n g b e r w e w e n a n g u n t u k i t u .

239

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D. Bukti-bukti Empiris

M u n g k i n t i d a k a d a e k o n o m y a n g m e n e n t a n g s u a t u p e n d a p a t b a h w a p r i v a t i s a s i a k a n m e n g h a s i l k a n e f i s i e n s i p r o d u k t i f , s e d a n g k a n k o m p e t i s i a k a n m e n g h a s i l k a n e f i s i e n s i a l o k a t i f . S u a t u k o n t r o v e r s i m u n c u l k a r e n a a d a n y a s u a t u p e m i k i r a n y a n g m e n y a t a k a n b a h w a p r i v a t i s a s i b u k a n l a h s a t u s a t u n y a j a w a b a n t e r h a d a p m a s a l a h k e t i d a k e f i s i e n a n p r o d u k t i f . A l t e r n a t i f l a i n u n t u k m e m p e r o l e h h a s i l y a n g s a m a a d a l a h d e n g a n j a l a n r e f o r m a s i i n t e r n p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a . D e n g a n d e m i k i a n p e m i l i k a n a d a l a h m a s i h m e r u p a k a n i s u y a n g kontroversial. O l e h k a r e n a i t u k i t a a n g g a p p e r l u u n t u k m e l i h a t b u k t i e m p i r i s a p a k a h p e m i l i k a n m e m a n g m e r u p a k a n m a s a l a h .

The Theory of property rights m e m p e r k i r a k a n b a h w a p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a a k a n m e m p u n y a i k i n e r j a y a n g l e b i h j e l e k d a r i p a d a p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a . K e b a n y a k a n d a r i s t u d i k o m p a r a t i f a n t a r a k e d u a n y a c e n d e r u n g u n t u k m e n d u k u n g t e o r i t e r s e b u t . A k a n t e t a p i a d a b e b e r a p a h a l y a n g p e r l u d i c a t a t d a l a m s t u d i p e r b a n d i n g a n t e r s e b u t . Pertama, p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a m u n g k i n m e m p u n y a i t u j u a n a t a u m i s i y a n g b e r b e d a d e n g a n p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a . S e m e n t a r a p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a m e m p u n y a i t u j u a n - t u j u a n n o n k o m e r s i a l , t u j u a n u t a m a p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a m u n g k i n a d a l a h u n t u k m e m a k s i m a l i s a s i k e u n t u n g a n . K a r e n a m i s i n o n k o m e r s i a l y a n g d i e m b a n n y a i t u l a h p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a s e r i n g k a l i m e m p u n y a i e f i s i e n s i y a n g r e n d a h . O l e h k a r e n a i t u a d a l a h s u a t u h a l y a n g s u l i t u n t u k m e m p e r l a k u k a n k e d u a j e n i s p e r u s a h a a n t e r s e b u t a t a s d a s a r t o l o k u k u r y a n g s a m a .

Kedua, s e j u m l a h s t u d i p e r b a n d i n g a n a n t a r a k e d u a j e n i s p e r u s a h a a n t e r s e b u t p a d a u m u m n y a m e n c a k u p i n d u s t r i - i n d u s t r i j a s a y a n g s a r a t d e n g a n p e r a t u r a n . D a l a m b e b e r a p a k a s u s t e r j a d i b a h w a k e d u a j e n i s p e r u s a h a a n t e r s e b u t t i d a k c u k u p s a l i n g b e r k o m p e t i s i b a i k s e c a r a l a n g s u n g m a u p u n t a k l a n g s u n g . O l e h k a r e n a i t u , t e m u a n - t e m u a n d a r i s t u d i t e r s e b u t c e n d e r u n g u n t u k m e n g a b a i k a n p e n g a r u h c a m p u r a n d a r i u n s u r p e m i l i k a n , p e r a t u r a n d a n k o m p e t i s i . U n t u k m e m i s a h k a n p e n g a r u h p e m i l i k a n a t a s e f i s i e n s i p e r u s a h a a n d a r i p e n g a r u h u n s u r l a i n n y a t e r u t a m a u n s u r k o m p e t i s i m a k a p e r l u d i a d a k a n s u a t u s t u d i t e r h a d a p p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a d a n p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a y a n g b e r a d a d a l a m s u a t u l i n g k u n g a n y a n g k o m p e t i t i f .

ketiga, a d a l a h m e n g e n a i t o l o k u k u r e f i s i e n s i d a n c a r a p e n g u k u r a n n y a . P e n g g u n a a n t i n g k a t k e u n t u n g a n s e b a g a i t o l o k u k u r t e r h a d a p e f i s i e n s i a t a u t i d a k n y a s u a t u p e r u s a h a a n t i d a k s e l a l u t e p a t . D a l a m p a s a r y a n g k o m p e t i t i f , t i n g k a t k e u n t u n g a n d a p a t d i j a d i k a n t o l o k u k u r e f i s i e n s i a l o k a t i f k a r e n a p e n y i m p a n g a n - p e n y i m p a n g a n d a r i m a k s i m a l i s a s i k e u n t u n g a n a d a l a h k e c i l . A k a n t e t a p i d a l a m h a l / k a s u s i n d u s t r i - i n d u s t r i m o n o p o l i s , t i n g k a t k e u n t u n g a n y a n g t i n g g i b u k a n l a h s u a t u i n d i k a t o r t i n g g i n y a e f i s i e n s i d a r i i n d u s t r i - i n d u s t r i t e r s e b u t m e l a i n k a n m e r u p a k a n c e r m i n a n d a r i p e n y a l a h g u n a a n k e k u a s a a n m o n o p o l i . D i l a i n p i h a k r e n d a h n y a t i n g k a t k e u n t u n g a n s u a t u i n d u s t r i

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m u n g k i n b u k a n c e r m i n d a r i k e t i d a k e f i s i e n a n m e l a i n k a n k a r e n a b e s a r n y a b e b a n s o s i a l y a n g d i e m b a n i n d u s t r i t e r s e b u t m i s a l n y a d a l a m b e n t u k t i n g k a t g a j i y a n g l e b i h t i n g g i d a n p e n y e r a p a n t e n a g a k e r j a y a n g l e b i h b a n y a k .

S e k a r a n g m a r i l a h k i t a l i h a t b u k t i - b u k t i e m p i r i s y a n g a d a d a n b a g a i m a n a p a r a p e n e l i t i m e n g a t a s i m a s a l a h t e r s e b u t . P r y k e ( 1 9 8 6 , h a l . 1 0 2 - 7 ) t e l a h m e l a k u k a n s a t u s t u d i p e r b a n d i n g a n a n t a r a p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a d a n p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a y a n g s a l i n g b e r k o m p e t i s i a t a u p a l i n g t i d a k t e r l i b a t d a l a m s u a t u j e n i s b i s n i s y a n g s a m a . P r y k e m e m b a n d i n g k a n k e t i g a j e n i s i n d u s t r i s e b a g a i b e r i k u t : ( 1 ) I n d u s t r i p e n e r b a n g a n y a n g m e l i p u t i British Airways y a n g m e r u p a k a n p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a d a n British Caledonian y a n g m e r u p a k a n p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a . ( 2 ) A n g k u t a n p e r k a p a l a n j a r a k p e n d e k , d a n ( 3 ) p e n j u a l a n g a s d a n p i r a n t i l i s t r i k . K e s i m p u l a n n y a a d a l a h b a h w a p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a m e m p u n y a i k i n e r j a y a n g r e l a t i f l e b i h r e n d a h b i l a d i b a n d i n g k a n d e n g a n p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a . S e b a g a i c o n t o h p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a t e l a h m e n g g u n a k a n t e n a g a k e r j a d a n m o d a l s e c a r a t i d a k e f i s i e n , d a n k u r a n g m e n g u n t u n g k a n . P r y k e b e r p e n d a p a t b a h w a a l a s a n u t a m a d a r i k e t i d a k e f i s i e n a n p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a a d a l a h k a r e n a f a k t o r p e m i l i k a n . S e m e n t a r a i t u K a y d a n T h o m s o n ( 1 9 8 6 , H a l . 2 2 - 3 ) m e n g a t a k a n b a h w a r e n d a h n y a e f i s i e n s i d a r i p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a British Airways m u n g k i n s e b a g a i a k i b a t d a r i l i n g k u n g a n d i m a n a p e r u s a h a a n t e r s e b u t b e r o p e r a s i d a r i p a d a k a r e n a f a k t o r s t r u k t u r p e m i l i k a n . A l a s a n n y a a d a l a h b a h w a b e b e r a p a r u t e / j a l u r p e n e r b a n g a n p e r u s a h a a n p e n e r b a n g a n t e r s e b u t d i a t u r s e c a r a k e t a t b e r d a s a r k a n p e r t i m b a n g a n m e n g e n a i j u m l a h o p e r a t o r , t a r i f / h a r g a , t i k e t d a n k a p a s i t a s p e s a w a t . K a y d a n T h o m s o n m e m b a n d i n g k a n n y a d e n g a n s t u d i d a r i A s h w o r t h d a n F o r s y t h ( 1 9 8 4 ) y a n g m e n u n j u k k a n b a h w a p e r u s a h a a n p e n e r b a n g a n Air Canada a d a l a h m e r u p a k a n p e r u s a h a a n y a n g p a l i n g e f i s i e n d a r i s t u d i m e r e k a . A l a s a n n y a a d a l a h b a h w a p e r u s a h a a n t e r s e b u t b e r o p e r a s i d a l a m l i n g k u n g a n p a s a r p e n e r b a n g a n y a n g k o m p e t i t i f d i A m e r i k a U t a r a , d a n Air Canada a d a l a h s a t u - s a t u n y a p e r u s a h a a n p e n e r b a n g a n m i l i k n e g a r a y a n g b e r t i n d a k d e m i k i a n .

S e m e n t a r a i t u s t u d i d a r i D o m b e r g e r d a n P i g g o t t ( 1 9 8 6 , h a l . 1 5 1 ) m e n y i m p u i k a n b a h w a d a r i 1 2 s t u d i p a d a d u a p e r u s a h a a n p e n e r b a n g a n d o m e s t i k u t a m a d i A u s t r a l i a d i t e m u k a n b a h w a p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a s e d i k i t a g a k l e b i h e f i s i e n d a r i p a d a p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a .

S t u d i d a r i B o a r d m a n d a n V i n i n g ( 1 9 8 9 ) , t e r h a d a p 5 0 0 i n d u s t r i p e n g o l a h a n d a n p e r t a m b a n g a n t e r b e s a r d i l u a r A m e r i k a j u g a m e n u n j u k k a n b a h w a p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a a d a l a h m e m p u n y a i t i n g k a t k e u n t u n g a n y a n g l e b i h r e n d a h d a n k u r a n g e f i s i e n d i b a n d i n g k a n d e n g a n p e r u s a h a a n -p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a . B o a r d m a n d a n V i n i n g m e n j e l a s k a n b a h w a p e r u s a h a a n -p e r u s a h a a n y a n g d i t e l i t i t e r s e b u t b e r k o m p e t i s i d a l a m p a s a r i n t e r n a s i o n a l d a n m e r e k a p a d a u m u m n y a d i b e n t u k d e n g a n t u j u a n u t a m a u n t u k m e n c a p a i k e u n t u n g a n . D e n g a n d e m i k i a n B o a r d i n a n d a n V i n i n g t e l a h b e r u s a h a u n t u k m e m i s a h k a n p e n g a r u h p e m i l i k a n d a r i f a k t o r k o m p e t i s i . D a l a m p e n e l i t i a n

2 4 1

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t e r s e b u t B o a r d m a n d a n V i n i n g m e n g g u n a k a n t i n g k a t k e u n t u n g a n s e b a g a i t o l o k u k u r e f i s i e n s i y a k n i : return on equity, return on assets, return on sales and net income.

P e n e l i t i a n l a i n d i l a k u k a n o l e h C a v e s d a n C h r i s t e n s e n ( 1 9 8 0 ) y a n g m e m p e l a j a r i t e n t a n g e f i s i e n s i P e r u s a h a a n N a s i o n a l K e r e t a A p i K a n a d a y a n g d i m i l i k i o l e h n e g a r a d a n P e r u s a h a a n K e r e t a A p i

P a s i f i k K a n a d a y a n g d i m i l i k i o l e h s w a s t a . K e d u a n y a a d a l a h p e r u s a h a a n b e s a r d e n g a n u k u r a n r e l a t i f s a m a . C i r i - c i r i t e r s e b u t m e m u n g k i n k a n m e r e k a u n t u k m e m i s a h k a n p e n g a r u h j e n i s p e m i l i k a n t e r h a d a p k i n e r j a p e r u s a h a a n d a r i p e n g a r u h f a k t o r l a i n s e p e r t i p e r a t u r a n p e m e r i n t a h d a n p a s a r y a n g t i d a k k o m p e t i t i f . M e r e k a j u g a m e n g g u n a k a n m e t o d e p e n g u k u r a n e f i s i e n s i p r o d u k t i f y a n g p a l i n g b a g u s y a i t u total factor productivity y a k n i real output per unit of real resources expended.WasiXnya a g a k m e n g e j u t k a n b a h w a P e r u s a h a a n K e r e t a A p i m i l i k n e g a r a m e m p u n y a i p r o d u k t i v i t a s y a n g l e b i h t i n g g i d a r i p a d a P e r u s a h a a n K e r e t a A p i m i l i k s w a s t a . P a d a a k h i r t a h u n 1 9 5 0 - a n d a n p a d a a w a l t a h u n 1 9 6 0 - a n t i n g k a t p r o d u k t i v i t a s p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a t u r u n m e n j a d i k u r a n g l e b i h 9 0 p e r s e n d a r i t i n g k a t p r o d u k t i v i t a s p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a , a k a n t e t a p i p e r b e d a a n i n i t e l a h d a p a t d i t u t u p . S e c a r a s i n g k a t d a p a t d i k a t a k a n b a h w a t i d a k a d a b u k t i y a n g m e n u n j u k k a n b a h w a p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a s e l a l u m e m p u n y a i k i n e r j a e k o n o m i y a n g l e b i h j e l e k d a r i p a d a p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a . T e m u a n t e r s e b u t m e n u n j u k k a n b a h w a d a l a m k a s u s p e r u s a h a a n p e r k e r e t a a p i a n p e n g a r u h - p e n g a r u h y a n g m e n g u n t u n g k a n d a r i k o m p e t i s i a d a l a h m e m a d a i u n t u k m e n g a t a s i s e t i a p k e c e n d e r u n g a n k e a r a h k e t i d a k e f i s i e n a n y a n g d i a k i b a t k a n o l e h p e m i l i k a n n e g a r a .

S e m e n t a r a i t u s t u d i y a n g d i l a k u k a n B o o r c h e r d i n g ( 1 9 8 2 ) y a n g m e r u p a k a n review d a r i 5 0 s t u d i d a r i 5 n e g a r a , m e l a p o r k a n b a h w a d a r i k e l i m a p u l u h s t u d i t e r s e b u t h a n y a d a l a m 9 k a s u s y a n g m e n u n j u k k a n b a h w a p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a g a g a l u n t u k t a m p i l s e b a g a i p e r u s a h a a n y a n g l e b i h e f i s i e n d a r i p a d a p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a . T e t a p i B o o r c h e r d i n g m e n g a k u i b a h w a a d a a t a u t i d a k n y a k o m p e t i s i m e r u p a k a n f a k t o r y a n g p e n t i n g d a l a m m e n e n t u k a n k i n e r j a e k o n o m i p e r u s a h a a n , s e b a g a i m a n a d i k e m u k a k a n n y a s e b a g a i b e r i k u t ;

"It is not so much the difference in the transferability of ownership but the lack of competition which leads to the often observed less efficient production in public firms".

D e m i k i a n l a h m a s i h b a n y a k l a g i h a s i l p e n e l i t i a n y a n g m e n u n j u k k a n k e u n g g u l a n p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a a t a s p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a d a l a m h a l p e n c a p a i a n t i n g k a t e f i s i e n s i . T e t a p i a g a k m e n g e j u t k a n b a h w a a d a d u a k a s u s p e n e l i t i a n y a n g b e r k e s i m p u l a n s e b a l i k n y a , y a k n i k e u n g g u l a n p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a a t a s p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a . K a y d a n T h o m s o n ( 1 9 8 6 , h a l . 2 4 ) m e n u n j u k p a d a American electric utilities, d a n p e r u s a h a a n -p e r u s a h a a n a s u r a n s i J e r m a n s e b a g a i c o n t o h - c o n t o h n y a .

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K e d u a j e n i s p e r u s a h a a n t e r s e b u t s a m a - s a m a m e n g h a d a p i p e r a t u r a n y a n g k e t a t t e n t a n g h a r g a d a n k e u n t u n g a n . P e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a m e m p u n y a i o n g k o s y a n g i e b i h t i n g g i a n t a r a I a i n k a r e n a over-capitalisation d a n p e n g e l u a r a n u n t u k b i a y a p e m a s a r a n y a n g b e r l e b i h a n . B a g i p a r a p e n e n t a n g i d e p r i v a t i s a s i k e d u a c o n t o h d i a t a s c u k u p d i j a d i k a n a l a s a n u n t u k b e r a r g u m e n t a s i b a h w a e f i s i e n a t a u t i d a k n y a s u a t u p e r u s a h a a n t i d a k l a h t e r l e t a k p a d a f a k t o r s i a p a y a n g m e m i l i k i p e r u s a h a a n t e r s e b u t y a i t u n e g a r a a t a u s w a s t a , m e l a i n k a n t e r g a n t u n g p a d a f a k t o r b a g a i m a n a p e r u s a h a a n t e r s e b u t d i k e l o l a . A y l e n ( 1 9 8 7 ) a d a l a h s a l a h s e o r a n g e k o n o m y a n g l a i n y a n g m e n c o b a u n t u k m e n u n j u k k a n b a h w a i s u t e n t a n g p e m i l i k a n s e b a g a i s u a t u h a l y a n g k u r a n g a t a u t i d a k r e l e v a n . D i a m e n g a m b i l c o n t o h d a r i i n d u s t r i b a j a d i K o r e a S e l a t a n d a n I n d i a y a n g m a n a k e d u a n y a d i m i l i k i o l e h n e g a r a . D i a m e n g a t a k a n b a h w a i n d u s t r i b a j a d i K o r e a S e l a t a n d i k e l o l a s e c a r a p r o f e s i o n a l , s e c a r a t e k n i s up-to-date d a n b o l e h j a d i m e r u p a k a n i n d u s t r i b a j a y a n g m e m p u n y a i o n g k o s p a l i n g r e n d a h d i d u n i a . S e m e n t a r a i t u i n d u s t r i b a j a d i I n d i a d i k a t a k a n s e b a g a i k e t i n g g a l a n j a m a n / u s a n g , d i k e l o l a s e c a r a b i r o k r a t i s , d i i i n d u n g i d a r i b a r a n g i m p o r d a n m e m p u n y a i p r o d u k t i v i t a s t e n a g a k e r j a s e k i t a r s e p e r s e p u l u h d a r i p r o d u k t i v i t a s b u r u h p a d a i n d u s t r i b a j a d i K o r e a S e l a t a n . K e u n g g u l a n i n d u s t r i b a j a d i K o r e a S e l a t a n d i b a n d i n g k a n d e n g a n p e r u s a h a a n s e j e n i s d i I n d i a a d a l a h k a r e n a t i d a k a d a n y a b i r o k r a s i y a n g k a k u d a n r u m i t p a d a i n d u s t r i y a n g d i s e b u t k a n p e r t a m a . D i a m e n y e b u t i n d u s t r i b a j a d i K o r e a S e l a t a n s e b a g a i the market model s e d a n g k a n y a n g k e d u a ( d i I n d i a ) s e b a g a i the bureaucratic-model. The market model m e m p u n y a i c i r i - c i r i t e r t e n t u s e p e r t i : p e r u s a h a a n m e m p u n y a i o t o n o m i k e u a n g a n d e n g a n p e n e k a n a n p a d a k e u n t u n g a n , m e m p u n y a i t u j u a n - t u j u a n k o m e r s i a l d a n s o s i a l y a n g j e l a s , m e m i l i k i k e b e b a s a n d a l a m m e n g e l o l a p e r u s a h a a n , p r e s t a s i p e r u s a h a a n d i u k u r d e n g a n p r o d u k s i , p e r u s a h a a n j u g a d i l e c u t d e n g a n a d a n y a k o m p e t i s i b a i k d a r i d a l a m n e g e r i m a u p u n d a r i b a r a n g i m p o r . S e m e n t a r a i t u t h e bureaucratic model m e m i i i k i c i r i - c i r i y a n g b e r l a w a n a n y a k n i : p e m b i a y a a n p e r u s a h a a n t u m p a n g t i n d i h d e n g a n a n g g a r a n b e l a n j a n e g a r a , t e r l a l u s e r i n g n y a c a m p u r t a n g a n p e m e r i n t a h d a l a m p e n g a m b i l a n k e p u t u s a n d i d a l a m p e r u s a h a a n , k o m p e t i s i d i b a t a s i d e n g a n j a l a n p e m a s a n g a n t a r i f i m p o r d a n p e r i j i n a n i m p o r , d a n s e b a g a i n y a . D a r i d u a m o d e l y a n g s a l i n g b e r l a w a n a n t e r s e b u t , A y l e n b e r k e s i m p u l a n b a h w a :

"/'/ is not ownership so much as market environment, firm organisation and managerial incentives which determine the performance of companies" (hal. 20).

J a d i m e n u r u t A y l e n , f a k t o r y a n g l e b i h m e n e n t u k a n e f i s i e n s i p e r u s a h a a n b u k a n l a h p e m i l i k a n , m e l a i n k a n market environment, o r g a n i s a s i p e r u s a h a a n d a n i n s e n t i f - i n s e n t i f m a n a j e r i a l .

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I V . P R I V A T I S A S I D I I N D O N E S I A

P r i v a t i s a s i a t a u s w a s t a n i s a s i d a l a m a r t i l u a s m e n g a n d u n g p e n g e r t i a n s e b a g a i s u a t u k e b i j a k a n u n t u k m e m b e r i k a n p e r a n a n y a n g l e b i h l u a s t e r h a d a p k e k u a t a n p a s a r s e b a g a i a l o k a t o r s u m b e r - s u m b e r d a y a e k o n o m i d a n s e k a l i g u s m e n g u r a n g i c a m p u r t a n g a n p e m e r i n t a h y a n g t e r l a l u k u a t d a l a m p e r e k o n o m i a n . K a r e n a i t u p r i v a t i s a s i t i d a k h a n y a m e n c a k u p p e r u b a h a n p e m i l i k a n d a r i n e g a r a k e s w a s t a m e l a l u i p e n j u a l a n a s e t a t a u S a h a m B a d a n U s a h a M i l i k N e g a r a k e p a d a s e k t o r s w a s t a m e l a i n k a n j u g a m e l i p u t i l i b e r a l i s a s i , d e r e g u l a s i d a n franchising.

T e l a h d i k e m u k a k a n b a h w a a d a e m p a t f a k t o r y a n g d i d u g a m e m p u n y a i p e n g a r u h t e r h a d a p k i n e r j a e k o n o m i s u a t u b a d a n u s a h a y a k n i p e m i l i k a n , o r g a n i s a s i , k o m p e t i s i d a n p e r a t u r a n . I m p l i k a s i n y a a d a l a h b a h w a k i n e r j a e k o n o m i p a d a t i n g k a t m i k r o p e r u s a h a a n d a n t i n g k a t m a k r o p e r e k o n o m i a n n a s i o n a l d a p a t d i p e n g a r u h i m e l a l u i k e b i j a k a n p r i v a t i s a s i , r e f o r m a s i o r g a n i s a s i d a n m a n a j e m e n B U M N , l i b e r a l i s a s i d a n d e r e g u l a s i .

K a l a u p r i v a t i s a s i d i I n g g r i s l e b i h b a n y a k m e n g a m b i l b e n t u k p e n j u a l a n B U M N k e p a d a s e k t o r s w a s t a d a n t e l a h m e n i n g k a t k a n k i n e r j a P e r u s a h a a n N e g a r a y a n g t e l a h d i p r i v a t i s a s i b a i k d i u k u r d e n g a n turnover m a u p u n k e u n t u n g a n ( T h o h a , 1 9 9 2 = 1 2 5 - 6 ) , t i d a k d e m i k i a n h a l n y a d e n g a n m e t o d e p r i v a t i s a s i d i I n d o n e s i a .

P e m e r i n t a h t a m p a k n y a c e n d e r u n g m e m i l i h m e t o d e p r i v a t i s a s i d a l a m b e n t u k r e f o r m a s i i n t e r n p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a , l i b e r a l i s a s i d a n d e r e g u l a s i d a r i p a d a p e n j u a l a n p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a k e p a d a s e k t o r s w a s t a . H a l i n i s e j a l a n d e n g a n p e m i k i r a n t e o r i t i s m a u p u n b u k t i - b u k t i e m p i r i s y a n g m e n u n j u k k a n b a h w a f a k t o r o r g a n i s a s i d a n k o m p e t i s i m e m p u n y a i p e n g a r u h y a n g l e b i h k u a t t e r h a d a p k i n e r j a p e r u s a h a a n d a r i p a d a f a k t o r p e m i l i k a n .

D e r e g u l a s i p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a t e l a h d i l a k u k a n , d i m a n a s e j a k t a h u n 1 9 9 0 , p e m e r i n t a h t i d a k m e n s u b s i d i l a g i B U M N k e c u a l i t e r h a d a p s e p u l u h

j e n i s i n d u s t r i s t r a t e g i s y a i t u : P T K r a k a t a u S t e e l ( I n d u s t r i B a j a ) , I P T N ( p e s a w a t t e r b a n g ) , P T P A L ( b a n g u n a n k a p a l ) , P T P I N D A D ( s e n j a t a ) , P T I N K A ( k e r e t a a p i ) , P T I N T I ( t e l e k o m u n i k a s i ) , L E N - L I P I ( e l e k t r o n i k a ) , P T D a h a n a ( b a h a n p e l e d a k ) , P T B h a r a t a d a n B o m a B i s m a I n d r a ( p e r a l a t a n m e s i n ) , ( S w a S e m b a d a ; 1 9 9 0 : 5 1 - 2 ) .

D e r e g u l a s i s e k t o r f i n a n s i a l t e l a h d i l a k u k a n s e b e l u m n y a . P a d a b u l a n O k t o b e r 1 9 8 8 , s e k t o r p e r b a n k a n d i d e r e g u l a s i , a n t a r a l a i n m e l i p u t i k e m u d a h a n u n t u k m e n d i r i k a n b a n k - b a n k s w a s t a d o m e s t i k d a n b a n k - b a n k p a t u n g a n , d a n k e m u d a h a n b a g i b a n k - b a n k a s i n g u n t u k m e n d i r i k a n c a b a n g - c a b a n g n y a d i l u a r k o t a J a k a r t a , s e r t a d i c a b u t n y a p e r a t u r a n y a n g m e w a j i b k a n B U M N u n t u k m e n y i m p a n d e p o s i t o n y a p a d a b a n k - b a n k p e m e r i n t a h .

R e o r g a n i s a s i p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a d i l a k u k a n d e n g a n p e n y e d e r h a n a a n b a d a n h u k u m d a n b e n t u k b a d a n u s a h a . K a l a u d u l u d i k e n a l t i g a j e n i s b a d a n h u k u m y a i t u P e r u s a h a a n J a w a t a n ( P e r j a n ) , P e r u s a h a a n U m u m ( P e r u m )

2 4 4

Privatisasi dan Efisiensi

T a b e l 1 P e r k e m b a n g a n U s a h a B U M N d i I n d o n e s i a s a m p a i t a h u n 1 9 9 0 / 1 9 9 1

keterartgan 1908/89 1 9 8 8 9 / 9 0 1 9 9 0 / 9 1 1. Jumlah P e r u s a h a a n 2 1 3 2 1 2 2 0 5 2. K e u a n g a n

a. Tota l aktiva 1 2 5 , 2 3 9 1 7 8 , 1 7 0 2 0 2 , 4 3 8 b. P e n j u a l a n 3 5 , 7 1 0 4 2 , 4 4 0 4 9 , 1 7 4 c . L a b a s e b e l u m pajak 3 , 2 9 7 5 , 3 1 0 5 , 9 1 3

3. P e r a n a n E k o n o m i (RP Mi lyar ) a. Pa jak Perseroan 1 .839 ,3 2 . 6 6 1 , 4 4 . 0 0 5 , 8 b. Pajak Perseroan/penghas i lan B U M N 1 .198 ,6 1 .198 ,6 1 .450 ,0 c . P e n e r i m a a n non-pa jak 1 .568 ,8 2 . 0 6 2 , 1 2 . 3 5 7 , 8 d. D e v i d e n / D P S / B L P 6 3 6 , 3 8 1 1 , 0 9 1 5 , 2

4 . T e n a g a kerja (juta orang) 1 ,006 1 .145 1 ,145 5. T ingkat kesehatan B U M N

a. Sehat sekal i b. Sehat c . K u r a n g sehat d. T i d a k sehat

3 5 ( 1 8 , 5 % ) 5 8 ( 3 1 , 5 % ) 7 2 ( 3 8 , 7 % ) 2 5 ( 1 3 , 2 % ) 3 8 ( 2 0 , 7 % ) 3 5 ( 1 8 , 8 % ) 3 7 ( 1 9 , 6 % ) 2 9 ( 1 5 , 8 % ) 2 9 ( 1 5 , 6 % ) 9 2 ( 4 8 , 7 % ) 5 9 ( 3 2 , 1 % ) 5 0 ( 2 6 , 9 %

Sumber: Pidato Kenegaraan Presiden RI, 1991 dan Departemen Keuangan RI , dalam Didik J. Rachbini, Prisma, 1992

d a n P e r u s a h a a n P e r s e r o a n ( P e r s e r o ) , k i n i t i n g g a l d u a j e n i s s a j a y a i t u P e r u m d a n P e r s e r o . D i m a s a d e p a n p e m e r i n t a h b e r m a k s u d u n t u k m e n g a r a h k a n B U M k e s a t u b e n t u k s a j a y a i t u P e r s e r o . ( F u a d B a w a z i e r 1 9 9 2 , 4 8 - 9 ) . D e n g a n p e n y e d e r h a n a a n t e r s e b u t d i h a r a p k a n b a h w a c a m p u i t a n g a n p e m e r i n t a h t e r h a d a p B U M N b e r k u r a n g s e h i n g g a k e g i a t a n B U M h m e n j a d i l e b i h o t o n o m . S e l a i n i t u s i s t e m p e n g g a j i a n p i m p i n a n B U M h t i d a k l a g i m c n g g u n a k a n s t a n d a r g a j i b i r o k r a s i m e l a i n k a n m e m a k a i s t a n d a i g a j i u s a h a s w a s t a . P i m p i n a n B U M N j u g a m e m p e r o l e h i n s e n t i f y a n j d i k a i t k a n d e n g a n p r e s t a s i p e r u s a h a a n . D e n g a n s i s t e m p e n g g a j i a n d a i i n s e n t i f t e r s e b u t d i h a r a p k a n b a h w a p e m e r i n t a h d a p a t m e r e k r u t p a r s m a n a j e r p r o f e s i o n a l s e b a g a i m a n a p e r u s a h a a n - p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a b e s a r s e h i n g g a k i n e r j a B U M N d a p a t d i t i n g k a t k a n .

B e r b a g a i l a n g k a h p r i v a t i s a s i t e r b a t a s d a l a m b e n t u k p e n j u a l a n a s e a t a u s a h a m B U M N j u g a d i l a k u k a n . M i s a l n y a , p a d a b u l a n A p r i l 1 9 9 0 , 7 ( % s a h a m P T I n t i r u b y a n g m e m p r o d u k s i b a n d i j u a l k e p a d a P T B i m a n t a r s i C i t r a . P a d a b u l a n M e i 1 9 9 0 , d i u m u m k a n b a h w a t i g a B U M N y a n g b e r g e r a l : p a d a p r o d u k s i s e m e n a k a n go-public. P T S e m e n G r e s i k a k a n m e n j u a l 2 5 j u t a l e m b a r s a h a m s e n i l a i R p . 5 0 0 j u t a ; u n t u k m e n i n g k a t k a n k a p a s i t a p r o d u k s i . D e m i k i a n p u l a P T S e m e n T o n a s a a k a n m e n j u a l 2 5 j u t a l e m b a : s a h a m k e p a s a r m o d a l ( M a r i P a n g e s t u , 1 9 9 1 ; 3 6 ) .

24:

T h o h a

T a m p a k b a h w a d a l a m r a n g k a m e n i n g k a t k a n e f i s i e n s i a t a u k i n e r j a B U M N , p e m e r i n t a h l e b i h b a n y a k m e n g g u n a k a n p i r a n t i k e b i j a k s a n a a n p e r u b a h a n o r g a n i s a s i d a n m a n a j e m e n B U M N , l i b e r a l i s a s i d a n d e r e g u l a s i d a r i p a d a p r i v a t i s a s i d a l a m a r t i s e m p i t y a i t u p e n j u a l a n a s e t a t a u s a h a m B U M N k e p a d a s e k t o r s w a s t a . S e c a r a t e k n i s p r i v a t i s a s i m e m a n g l e b i h s u l i t d i l a k u k a n . S e c a r a p o l i t i s p r i v a t i s a s i j u g a k u r a n g d a p a t d i t e r i m a d i b a n d i n g k a n d e n g a n l i b e r a l i s a s i , d e r e g u l a s i d a n r e o r g a n i s a s i . A l a s a n n y a a d a l a h b a h w a p e n j u a l a n a s e t a t a u s a h a m B U M N k e p a d a s e k t o r s w a s t a d a p a t m e n g a k i b a t k a n t e r a k u m u l a s i n y a p e m i l i k a n m o d a l p a d a p e r o r a n g a n a t a u k e l o m p o k k e c i l m a s y a r a k a t . K e c e n d e r u n g a n d e m i k i a n l e b i h t i d a k d i i n g i n k a n , a p a l a g i b i l a s e k e l o m p o k k e c i l m a s y a r a k a t t e r s e b u t a d a l a h t e r d i r i d a r i e t n i s m i n o r i t a s a t a u o r a n g a s i n g .

B a g a i m a n a p e n g a r u h d a r i m a s i n g - m a s i n g k e b i j a k s a n a a n p r i v a t i s a s i d a l a m a r t i l u a s t e r s e b u t t e r h a d a p k i n e r j a p e r u s a h a a n , a g a k s u l i t u n t u k d i u k u r . Y a n g d a p a t d i l a k u k a n a d a l a h m e n c o b a m e l i h a t p e n g a r u h g a b u n g a n d a r i r e o r g a n i s a s i , l i b e r a l i s a s i , d e r e g u l a s i d a n p r i v a t i s a s i t e r h a d a p k i n e r j a B U M N s e c a r a k e s e l u r u h a n s e b a g a i m a n a t e r l i h a t p a d a T a b e l 1 .

S e b a g a i m a n a d i k e t a h u i , t i n g k a t e f i s i e n s i a t a u k i n e r j a s u a t u p e r u s a h a a n d a p a t d i u k u r d e n g a n b e r b a g a i c a r a s e p e r t i return of investment, total factor productivity, o m s e t p e n j u a l a n , l a b B d a n I a i n - I a i n . D i t i n j a u d a r i s e g i k e u a n g a n p e r k e m b a n g a n B U M N d a l a m t i g a t a h u n ( 1 9 8 8 / 8 9 - 1 9 9 0 / 9 1 ) m e n u n j u k k a n p e n i n g k a t a n y a n g c u k u p b e r a r t i . O m s e t p e n j u a l a n m i s a l n y a m e n i n g k a t s e k i t a r 1 8 , 5 % p e r t a h u n , d a n l a b a s e b e l u m p a j a k n a i k r a t a - r a t a 4 0 % p e r t a h u n . R a s i o l a b a s e b e l u m p a j a k t e r h a d a p t o t a l a k t i v a j u g a m e n g a l a m i p e n i n g k a t a n d a r i 2 , 6 % p a d a t a h u n 1 9 8 8 / 8 9 , m e n j a d i 2 , 9 % p a d a t a h u n 1 9 9 0 / 9 1 . D e m i k i a n p u l a p e r a n a n p e n g h a s i l a n B U M N s e b a g a i s u m b e r p e n e r i m a a n n e g a r a s e c a r a a b s o l u t m e n i n g k a t d a r i R p . 1 . 1 9 8 , 6 m i l y a r p a d a t a h u n 1 9 8 8 / 8 9 m e n j a d i R p . 1 , 4 5 0 m i l y a r p a d a t a h u n 1 9 9 0 / 9 1 a t a u m e n g a l a m i k e n a i k a n r a t a - r a t a 1 0 % p e r t a h u n .

D i t i n j a u d a r i a s p e k s o s i a l , k e b i j a k s a n a a n p e n i n g k a t a n e f i s i e n s i B U M N d i I n d o n e s i a t e r n y a t a t i d a k m e n i m b u l k a n d a m p a k n e g a t i f s e b a g a i m a n a t e r j a d i d i I n g g r i s . J u m l a h t e n a g a k e r j a d a r i e n a m P e r u s a h a a n N e g a r a y a n g t e l a h d i j u a l k e s e k t o r s w a s t a y a i t u B r i t i s h A i r p o r t s A u t h o r i t y , B r i t i s h A i r w a y s , B r i t i s h G a s d a n B r i t i s h T e l e c o m s e r t a N a t i o n a l F r e i g h t d a n R o l l s R o y c e , m e n g a l a m i p e n u r u n a n d a r i 4 9 4 . 2 3 1 o r a n g p a d a t a h u n 1 9 7 9 m e n j a d i 4 4 6 . 1 0 4 o r a n g p a d a t a h u n 1 9 8 8 , a t a u 4 8 . 1 2 7 o r a n g k e h i l a n g a n p e k e r j a a n s e b a g a i a k i b a t p r i v a t i s a s i d i I n g g r i s . J u m l a h t e n a g a k e r j a y a n g d i s e r a p B U M N d i I n d o n e s i a j u s t r u m e n i n g k a t d a r i 1 , 0 0 6 j u t a o r a n g p a d a t a h u n 1 9 8 8 / 8 9 m e n j a d i 1 , 1 4 5 o r a n g p a d a t a h u n 1 9 9 0 / 9 1 .

D i t i n j a u d a r i s e g i k e s e h a t a n B U M N , k e b i j a k s a n a a n p r i v a t i s a s i d a l a m a r t i l u a s d i I n d o n e s i a b i s a d i k a t a k a n b e r h a s i l . D e n g a n k r i t e r i a r e n t a b i l i t a s , l i k u i d i t a s d a n s o l v a b i l i t a s ( R L S ) , j u m l a h B U M N y a n g t e r g o l o n g s e h a t s e k a l i m e n i n g k a t d a r i 3 5 b u a h ( 1 8 , 5 % ) , m e n j a d i 7 2 b u a h ( 3 8 , 7 % ) s e l a m a k u r u n w a k t u d i a t a s . D e m i k i a n p u l a B U M N y a n g t e r g o l o n g s e h a t m e n g a l a m i p e n i n g k a t a n d a r i 2 5 b u a h m e n j a d i 3 5 b u a h .

2 4 6

P r i v a t i s a s i d a n E f i s i e n s i

S e d a n g k a n B U M N y a n g t e r g o l o n g k u r a n g s e h a t d a n t i d a k s e h a t m e n g a l a m i p e n u r u n a n d r a s t i s d a r i 1 2 9 b u a h ( 6 8 , 3 % ) m e n j a d i 7 9 b u a h ( 4 2 , 5 % ) . _ : - - : , ' .f. ' '•- -; .

V . K E S I M P U L A N

D a r i k e r a n g k a t e o r i t i s y a n g t e l a h k i t a d i s k u s i k a n d i a t a s d a p a t k i t a s i m p u l k a n b a h w a p e m i l i k a n d a n k o m p e t i s i b u k a n l a h d u a h a l y a n g s a l i n g b e r t e n t a n g a n s a t u s a m a l a i n n y a m e l a i n k a n s a l i n g m e l e n g k a p i . B e r d a s a r k a n c i r i - c i r i y a n g a d a , p e m i l i k a n s e c a r a p r i b a d i / s w a s t a b e r u j u n g p a d a e f i s i e n s i p r o d u k t i f , s e d a n g k a n k o m p e t i s i b e r a k i b a t p a d a e f i s i e n s i a l o k a t i f . A k a n t e t a p i d a l a m k a s u s m o n o p o l i a l a m i a h , p e m i l i k a n s w a s t a b u k a n h a n y a g a g a l u n t u k m e n g h a s i l k a n e f i s i e n s i a l o k a t i f , t e t a p i j u g a g a g a l u n t u k m e n g h a s i l k a n e f i s i e n s i p r o d u k t i f s e c a r a m a k s i m u m , p a d a h a l k o m p e t i s i a d a l a h t i d a k p r a k t i s / t i d a k e f i s i e n d a n a t a u t i d a k d i i n g i n k a n . O l e h k a r e n a i t u , u n t u k m e n g h i n d a r i a d a n y a k e m u n g k i n a n p e n y a l a h g u n a a n k e k u a s a a n m o n o p o l i d i p e r l u k a n s u a t u p e r a t u r a n . I n i b e r a r t i b a h w a p e m i l i k a n , k o m p e t i s i d a n p e r a t u r a n ( d a l a m k a s u s m o n o p o l i a l a m i a h ) a d a l a h f a k t o r - f a k t o r y a n g s a n g a t p e n t i n g d a l a m r a n g k a m e n g h a s i l k a n e f i s i e n s i t o t a l s e c a r a m a k s i m u m .

S u a t u k o n t r o v e r s i t e r j a d i k a r e n a a d a n y a p e m i k i r a n b a h w a p e m i l i k a n s w a s t a b u k a n l a h s a t u - s a t u n y a f a k t o r y a n g m e n e n t u k a n e f i s i e n s i p r o d u k t i f . R e f o r m a s i i n t e r n p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a j u g a m e n j a n j i k a n h a s i l y a n g s a m a . L e b i h - l e b i h l a g i d i n y a t a k a n b a h w a k o m p e t i s i t i d a k h a n y a m e n g h a s i l k a n e f i s i e n s i a l o k a t i f m e l a i n k a n j u g a m e r a n g s a n g e f i s i e n s i p r o d u k t i f k a r e n a k o m p e t i s i a k a n m e m a k s a p e r u s a h a a n - p e r u s a h a a n u n t u k t e t a p h i d u p .

B u k t i - b u k t i e m p i r i s t a m p a k n y a m e n d u k u n g k e r a n g k a t e o r i t i s t e r s e b u t d a l a m p e n g e r t i a n b a h w a p e m i l i k a n , k o m p e t i s i d a n ( t e r k a d a n g ) p e r a t u r a n a d a l a h f a k t o r - f a k t o r y a n g t a k t e r p i s a h k a n d a l a m m e n e n t u k a n e f i s i e n s i . T e m u a n - t e m u a n d a r i k e b a n y a k a n s t u d i m e n y a t a k a n b a h w a p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a a d a l a h k u r a n g e f i s i e n d i b a n d i n g k a n p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a . A k a n t e t a p i t e m u a n - t e m u a n i n i m e n g e s a m p i n g k a n p e n g a r u h c a m p u r a n a n t a r a p e m i l i k a n , p e r a t u r a n d a n k o m p e t i s i y a n g t e r b a t a s . B e b e r a p a s t u d i t e l a h m e n c o b a m e m i s a h k a n p e n g a r u h p e m i l i k a n t e r h a d a p e f i s i e n s i d a r i p e n g a r u h f a k t o r - f a k t o r l a i n n y a . A k a n t e t a p i h a s i l n y a b e r v a r i a s i . B o a r d m a n d a n v i n i n g m i s a l n y a m e n e m u k a n b a h w a p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a a d a l a h k u r a n g e f i s i e n d i b a n d i n g k a n d e n g a n p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a . S e b a l i k n y a , C a v e s d a n C h r i s t e n s e n m e n e m u k a n b a h w a t i d a k c u k u p a l a s a n u n t u k m e n y a t a k a n b a h w a p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a s e l a l u l e b i h u n g g u l d a r i p a d a p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a . S e m e n t a r a i t u t e m u a n - t e m u a n d a r i A u s t r a l i a m e n u n j u k k a n b a h w a t i d a k a d a p e r b e d a a n y a n g s i g n i f i k a n d a l a m h a l e f i s i e n s i a n t a r a p e r u s a h a a n p e n e r b a n g a n d o m e s t i k s w a s t a d e n g a n p e r u s a h a a n p e n e r b a n g a n d o m e s t i k m i l i k n e g a r a .

K a r e n a k e b a n y a k a n s t u d i m e n e m u k a n k e u n g g u l a n p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a a t a s p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a , m a k a a g a k s u l i t u n t u k m e n g e l a k d a r i k e n y a t a a n b a h w a p e m i l i k a n m e m a n g m e r u p a k a n f a k t o r y a n g t u r u t

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m e n e n t u k a n k i n e r j a e k o n o m i s u a t u p e r u s a h a a n . D i l a i n p i h a k b a n y a k j u g a s t u d i y a n g m e n g u n g k a p k a n b a h w a t i d a k a d a p e r b e d a a n y a n g n y a t a a n t a r a k i n e r j a e k o n o m i p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a d a n p e r u s a h a a n s w a s t a , l e b i h - i e b i h l a g i a d a s a t u d u a k a s u s y a n g m e n u n j u k k a n k e u n g g u l a n s e k t o r n e g a r a a t a s s e k t o r s w a s t a . B u k t i - b u k t i i n i m e n u n j u k k a n b a h w a k o m p e t i s i d a n o r g a n i s a s i m e m p u n y a i p e r a n a n y a n g l e b i h p e n t i n g d a l a m m e n e n t u k a n e f i s i e n s i p e r u s a h a a n d a r i p a d a f a k t o r p e m i l i k a n . D a p a t d i s i m p u l k a n b a h w a k o m p e t i s i , o r g a n i s a s i , p e m i l i k a n d a n ( d a l a m b e b e r a p a k a s u s ) p e r a t u r a n s e m u a n y a a d a l a h f a k t o r - f a k t o r y a n g c u k u p p e n t i n g d a l a m m e n e n t u k a n k i n e r j a e k o n o m i p e r u s a h a a n . A k a n t e t a p i b u k t i - b u k t i e m p i r i s c e n d e r u n g u n t u k m e n d u k u n g p e n d a p a t b a h w a k o m p e t i s i d a n o r g a n i s a s i a d a l a h l e b i h p e n t i n g d a r i p a d a p e m i l i k a n . I m p l i k a s i k e b i j a k s a n a a n n y a a d a l a h b a h w a l i b e r a l i s a s i d a n r e o r g a n i s a s i p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a m e n j a n j i k a n p e r b a i k a n e f i s i e n s i p e r u s a h a a n l e b i h t i n g g i d a r i p a d a y a n g d i j a n j i k a n o l e h p r o g r a m p r i v a t i s a s i .

S e j a l a n d e n g a n p e m i k i r a n t e o r i t i s d a n b u k t i - b u k t i e m p i r i s d i a t a s , p e m e r i n t a h I n d o n e s i a t a m p a k n y a c e n d e r u n g m e m i l i h p r i v a t i s a s i d a l a m b e n t u k p e r b a i k a n o r g a n i s a s i d a n m a n a j e m e n B U M N , l i b e r a l i s a s i d a n d e r e g u l a s i d a r i p a d a p e n j u a l a n a s e t a t a u s a h a m B U M N k e p a d a s e k t o r s w a s t a .

D i t i n j a u d a r i a s p e k f i n a n s i a l d a n s o s i a l , p r i v a t i s a s i d i I n d o n e s i a d a p a t d i k a t a k a n b e r h a s i l , d a l a m b e n t u k p e n i n g k a t a n r a s i o l a b a t e r h a d a p t o t a l a k t i v a , j u m l a h p a j a k p e r s e r o a n d a r i B U M N , j u m l a h p e r u s a h a a n n e g a r a t e r g o l o n g s e h a t d a n s e h a t s e k a l i , s e r t a j u m l a h t e n a g a k e r j a y a n g d i s e r a p .

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Contributors to this Issue

Basri, Muh. Chatih

Kameo, Daniel D.

Mahyuddin, Moh. Ikhsan

Nasution, Darmin

Rietveld, Piet

Saleh, Irsan Azhary

Thoha, Mahmud

Tjiptoherijanto, Prijono

Lecturer, Faculty of Economics, University of Indonesia, Jakarta.

Lecturer, Faculty of Economics, Satya Wacana Christian University, Salatiga.

Lecturer, Faculty of Economics, University o Indonesia, Jakarta. |

Director, Institute for Economic and Socia Research, Faculty of Economics, University' of Indonesia.

Professor, Faculty of Economics, Vrij Universiteit, Amsterdam.

Lecturer, Faculty of Economics, University cjf Indonesia, Jakarta..

Researcher, LIPI, Jakarta.

Deputy C h a i r m a n , The National Agency for State Administration (LAN), Jakarta.