PRIVATE HIGHER EDUCATION IN CHINA: HISTORY, LEGISLATION ... 2016... · Huimin & Xiang Private Higher Education in China: history, legislation and future 3 ... private higher education

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PRIVATE HIGHER EDUCATION IN CHINA: HISTORY,

LEGISLATION AND FUTURE

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Huimin & Xiang Private Higher Education in China: history, legislation and future

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PRIVATE HIGHER EDUCATION IN CHINA: HISTORY,

LEGISLATION AND FUTURE

Prof Qin Huimin Dr Zhou Xiang Renmin University of China Renmin University of China Beijing, China Beijing, China

Abstract: This article gives a brief introduction to the development of Chinese private

higher education and summarizes the unique tradition from history. Based on the realities

and complex culture, the article gives a framework for analyzing the legislation related to

private higher education in China and provides an overview of the legislation related to

private education on all levels. The conclusions reached are that legislators and policy

makers will focus on the for-profit universities and for-profit behaviors of education

institutes in the future. The non-government-run university will receive support from the

public and more Sino-foreign joint universities will be built in the next decade in different

forms. However the paper identifies that there is no legal space for establishment of sole

foreign higher education corporations in the current political and economic landscape.

Keywords: Private Higher Education, Chinese Education, Education Law, Legislation on

Private Higher Education, Revising the Law.

An overview: Chinese culture and the rising of modern private higher education

A good education has always been highly valued in China. The Chinese people believe

that education ensures not only the future development of individuals but also promotes the

family and country's prosperity as a whole. The idea came from the Confucius value in Han

Dynasty. When Confucian ideas became the national moral value that dominated the

Chinese empire under the king’s order, it subsequently became the fundamental base of

Chinese culture. This moral value strongly affected the Chinese Legal System's cultural

spirit and its implementation. Education actions in China are deeply merged with the basic

value of Chinese moral standard, ensuring the family can last for a long time. Education

will always be the only core issue in ordinary Chinese people's life. Educating family

members are the most important family issue and it has become the guidance or golden rule

for allocating family resources, even social resources.

Confucius classics expressed that 'it is a pleasure to learn something and to try it out at

intervals'(学而时习之，不亦乐乎). Education is promoted in normal life for every child

in China. Similarly, numerous students have been convinced that 'reading books excels all

other careers”. (万般皆下品，惟有读书高) Reading and learning would lead to a brilliant

career for students, that is the first original explanation of the purpose for higher learning

in Chinese society. The most important value of learning is that it will lead to a position in

government, and that is the definition of higher learning in China.

As far back as the Shang Dynasty (16th century BC - 11th century BC),the inscriptions on

tortoise shells were the special form of higher education, only identified by a small group

of experts in royal temples, sometimes the royal teachers of the king and princes. The

contemporary archaeologists even found the scripts of teaching, learning and university in

these tortoise shells. The higher learning in China was fully controlled by government.

ANZELA Conference 2016

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In the Western Zhou Dynasty (11th century BC - 771 BC) Shang nobles built schools to

educate their children, as their offspring would be in charge of the country's future. The

gifted student from poor families could go to school run by government via a special

selection process under the name of the Empire. The national aims of cultivating high talent

students for the governmental system led to a form of national wide evaluation system and

official selecting procedure. Even the study in private school would lead to the national

examination for officials. The Imperial Examination which survived from the Sui Dynasty

(589 - 618) to the Qing Dynasty (1644 - 1911) was the most important way to identify top

talented people in China and recruited them as governmental officers, which became the

original prototype of the National College Entrance Examination (Gao Kao) in China that

still remains.

The Chinese modern higher education system dated from 1898. The Yan-ching College,

first empire higher learning institute was modeled from the western countries and strongly

recommended by the reformists in late Qing Dynasty. It started a whole new era in China.

It combined educating, evaluating and managing functions all together, becoming the first

department in charge of Education in China. Since then, the Chinese government focused

on promoting the higher learning via various modern institutes. Even the private firm. Yan-

ching College is at the top of newly designed higher learning institutional hierarchy. It is

the predecessor of Peking University. The purpose of higher education is gathering more

talented people for the future purpose of Qing Dynasty modernization.

According to statistics in 1949, there were 84 registered private higher education institutes

in China, 41% of the whole HEIs. After the establishment of the People's Republic of

China, the old form of higher learning including the religious universities and individual

invested private colleges established by individuals were all transferred into public

institutions without exemption between 1950 and 1952. Even the public universities were

adjusted into different professional colleges. The national policies made all private forms

of education vanish in China. For a long time, public universities and institutes were the

only process available for higher learning, till the end of Cultural Revolution. There is no

space for legislating private higher education. All students graduated from universities are

identified as governmental officials. The universities followed the orders from central and

local government allocating students to different positions all round China.

During the Cultural Revolution, the Chinese Government temporally stopped Gaokao and

universities focused on ideology modifications. The university students during that period

were selected by recommendation of: all unites around China; farms; factories and

military. After 1978, the leaders from the top noticed the neglect of abandoning Gaokao

and the chaos caused by the higher education system. The modernization changed Chinese

higher education. After economic reform started in 1978, the new market development

needed more and more well educated workers in the new incoming information society.

Not only did the government rebuild the National Entrance Examination for Colleges, but

also the private processes of higher education emerged concurrently. The Non-government

run sectors in economic fields grew rapidly and the clerks inside government also needed

self-improvement for the huge changes of job definition. Some individuals started the

privately run institutions for educating workers and adults. Even government officials tried

learning at night, which was a new origin and advocate for private higher education in

China.


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The private sector proved eager and flexible enough to absorb some of the new demand1.

In 2001, the event of becoming a WTO member changed the legal standing of private higher

education in China, including new identification of legal standing for future foreign

investment. Education was to be considered a regular service to be traded freely. A few

months later, the legislation of Promoting Private Education Act (Promotion Law) was

passed by National Congress. Since then, higher education in China adopted new methods

and new ideas from Europe and America combined with the deep Chinese tradition of

learning and ruling.

The first law on regulating private schools and its impact

In the early 2000, private schools developed rapidly in China at different levels including

kindergartens, primary schools, high schools, colleges and vocational training, causing

many problems and arguments and conflicting public and private interests. The private

education reached it temporal peak at the beginning of new century. In 2001, considering

the newly situation in educational development and the pressures of globalization, Chinese

government started drafting its first law on private schools encouraging the development

of private education resources. This law was examined by the National People's Congress,

which is the top legislative organ in China. After passed in 2002, the said law provided a

basic legal framework for the development of private sectors investment in the field of

educational. It became one of the eight education laws passed by the National People's

Congress. After decades of development since the beginning of 1980s, the private

education was acknowledged by law for the first time in modern China, which is the most

significant event in Chinese public oriented education system.

According to statistics from the Education, Science, Culture and Health Committee of the

NPC, about 54,000 private schools had been set up in China by the end of 2000, with 6.93

million registered students at all level. At the end of 2015, the number of private institutes

in is 162.7K, with 45.7million students enrolled in total. Thanks to the Private-Run

Education Promotion Law, China expanded the education resources at all levels. The higher

education expanded in all aspects.

After 2002, based on the legislation, private schools enjoyed the same treatment as

government-run public education institutes. The law also protected the rights of teachers

and students in private schools, colleges and universities. After the implementation of

private promotion law, the environment of private education changed, giving a boost to the

healthy growth of private colleges, which are expected to become an important part of the

China educational system. Private institutes hold the same legal standing according to the

law and meet the mass demands of higher learning tradition in China.

Although local governments at different levels have multiple ways of supporting public

education, government-run schools can't meet the mass needs due to the large population

and the educational tradition of China. The shortage of education services requires more

privately-run and independent schools and provides many opportunities for private

investors making more profit. On other hand, students are eager to pursue higher education

after finishing high school, and there is demand since top universities can't recruit all of the

talented ones. Due to these circumstances, more and more students choose studying aboard

1 Y Cao, D Levy. China's Private Higher Education: The Impact of Public-Sector Privatization. International higher

education, 2015.


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as the first choice for higher education. Hence the traditional understanding of higher

learning in China has been effected by global education market.

The number of private schools is considerably small compared to public universities. Under

the origin promotion law, private schools will receive more preferential policies as tax

exemptions. Although all Chinese schools are considered as non-profit making institutes

according to the Education Law, private schools will be allowed to gain a reasonable

returns, which blurred the boundary of non-for-profit and for-profit in practice in the

education field.

In 2003, the government permitted private schools to partner with public universities.

Although still self-funded and self-governed, these new “independent schools (colleges)”

gained some prestige through the associations while also helping public universities deal

with overflow.2 This is the unique cooperative experiment between public and private

sector in the higher education field.

After 15 year’s development, the private higher education was a large portion in Chinese

higher education sector that made a great contribution to the progress of mass higher

education. The private higher education sector became a significant part of Chinese

education development. From 1998 to 2015, the higher education attendance rate rose from

less than 10% to 40%, and the scale of Chinese higher education became the largest in the

world. It caused many problems. Gaps of equality between public and private higher

education institutes expanded, some of the articles in the regulation are out of date and

could not fit the huge changes in education. The online course and MOOCs (Massive open

online courses) changed to an efficient way to promote private education, and it is hard to

control and regulate under current laws. The actual environment pushed the legislators and

administrators to investigate private education

Table-1 National Level Education Laws

Act Name Issued Date

Latest Revised

Regulations on Academic Degrees of the People’s Republic of China

1980.2.12 2004.8.28

Compulsory Education Law of the People’s Republic of China 1986.4.12 2006.6.29

Education Law of the People’s Republic of China 1995.3.18 2015.12.27

Teachers Law of the People’s Republic of China 1993.10.31 2009.8.27

Vocational Education Law of the People’s Republic of China 1996.5.15 ——

Higher Education Law of the People's Republic of China 1998.8.29 2015.12.27

Law on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language of the People’s Republic of China

2000.10.31 ——

Law on the Promotion Of Non-public Schools of the People’s Republic of China

2002.12.28 ——

The hot issues in legislation of private higher education and its future

The promotion law encouraged individuals and social organizations investing in private

higher education. In 1999, one year after passing of Higher Education Law, four years after

passing of Education Law, the authoritarian government decided to revise the restrictions

on the private higher education in an effort to propel economic growth due to the already

existing private actions around the country. During last two decades, Independent Colleges

2 https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/in-china-private-colleges-universities-multiply-to-meet-higher-

education-demand/2012/02/07/gIQAf1ey8Q_story.html

http://en.moe.gov.cn/Resources/Laws_and_Policies/201506/t20150626_191392.html










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became a unique phenomenon in Chinese higher education history, existing for only two

decades of practice, Independent colleges carried unclear ownership and property rights. It

became a signification experiment of mixed ownership in educational field . In 2008, after

5 years of experiment, a new rule was passed by the Ministry of Education (MOE) requiring

all independent colleges to clarify their cooperation with public partners, transferring to a

purely private institute having only one controlling group. According to the MOE

regulations, all independent colleges would be perished before 2013,which means the

ownership will pass to private parties without any public ownership.

In 2017, the national policy will have new changes, since the National Entrance

Examination for College cancelled the 3rd catalog (Independent College) of enrollment.

Independent College will no longer be on the national enrollment list. All the independent

colleges secured the Non-Government Run legal identity afterwards. More people will

receive a more varied and better education and the educational structure will be improved

after a fundamental reform in higher education in future years. Without the support of

public universities’ reputations, more independent colleges will focus on improvement of

teaching and living qualities. Better jobs after graduation will attract more students taking

Non-government Run institutes. Consumerism will be a dominant value in this type of

higher education. With regard to legal aspects, the following issues are hot issues in terms

of regulatory improvement, with impact on the communication and cooperation within the

private sector and potential foreign investment.

The conflicts and confusions of the concept of private education

Technically speaking, Chinese policies and regulations have not had the legal meaning or

definition of PRIVATE for a long period after establishment of People’s Republic of China.

The specific notion for private in china is Private-Run. Eventually, the Non-Government

Run Education Promotion Law allows the investors or sponsors of private sectors to obtain

reasonable amounts of requital. That is the general motivation for individuals and enterprise

investing in education. But the government documents do not clarify the property of

schools and colleges. According to the explanation of the National People's Congress, it

intended allowing reasonable amounts of requital as a preferential policy attracting and

encouraging nongovernmental sectors to invest more in the educational field. Since the

governmental resources supporting education were limited at the beginning of new the

century, this promotion policy attracted many enterprises investment and resources in

education, which contributed the growth of Private education. However, the National

People's Congress stressed that reasonable amounts of requital were conditional and limited

under the administrative regulation and that expression is not a legal term regulating for-

profit action. Until now, the administrative organ did not release specific articles on

REASONABLE REQUITAL. That is the origin and cause of an unclear policy context for

private education.

According to the Education Law and Higher Education Law, all the education institutes in

China should not aim to be for-profit. The specific rules for regulating requital should

passed by administrative regulation by the top administrative agency, the state council.

Until now, the State Council passed no rules giving a clear regulation on dealing with the

surplus income and asset increment inside private education institutes. In this situation,

many private education institutes transferred some profit by renting assets from mother

companies or making higher payment to the administrative team. The private institutes in

China kept the concept of stakeholder to obtain requital. On the other hand, due to the

confusion about the definition of the Reasonable Requital, private education in China held


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the title of public service and practiced under uncertain taxation status. Because there is

huge demand of higher learning, the private institutes can easily have students enrolled and

claim taxation decrement from government which causes a lot of problems and debate

about for-profit risks in the Non-government Run Education.sector The legal risk is abuse

of public resources. The situation has already triggered the national investigation.

The Promotion Law is applicable to two types of operating for private investors to choose.

One is the purely nonprofit institutes that operate under private donations and tuition fee.

The non-for-profit private schools are forbidden to obtain requital. Their legal identity

should be a non-for-profit foundation. The other form is schools or institutes that are run

by company investment, where students’ tuition, is allowed to obtain requital under

Promotion Law. They are managed more like businesses as companies. Most of the training

institutions are in second catalog registered in the Department of Industry and Commerce

and operate under its supervision. All private universities and colleges including

independent colleges chose the second catalog for daily operating as a non-for-profit

organization.

The unclear legal personality and ownership

The Promotion Law includes the following principles about legal identity of private

education institutes: First, it clearly specifies the concept of “ownership as legal persons”,

which is the general understanding of “corporation”. All private education institutes have

the origin and ownership of legal person assets. After establishment of the private colleges,

all legal titles should transfer to and only to the college. But, according to the policies, when

the colleges are terminated and dissolved, after cleaning debts, original investors could

withdraw their initial investment. The government grant shall belong to the government,

the donations colleges received from nongovernmental sectors and all increased assets

belong to the private education institutes themselves. Since the colleges are under the

process of terminating, these assets will reallocated by educational authorities for the same

use for public educational welfare purposes.

Second, the Promotion Law specifies the nature and use of assets of Non-government Run

Education. The assets of private education are not for business ends, and they are different

from enterprises’ assets. College assets can be used only for the said schools and shall not

be transferred or mortgaged. Practically, a few colleges will transfer their assets to the

colleges, and some universities still could get mortgages from banks. Many colleges rent

buildings avoiding the property problems.

Third, the Promotion Law clarified the ownership of school assets which is separated from

the right of decision making. To be more specific, in Chinese culture, it is very hard to

understand operating an entity not belonging to the operator. In Chinese traditional legal

culture, an investor in a school is the owner of the school without any doubt. But according

to the law, investors’ ownership of the assets put into the schools is separated from the right

to manage and dispose of them. They lose the legal standing of owning the school as soon

as they establish the school. No organizations or individuals, including investors, may

withdraw their assets at will or alter the use of their assets, and the schools have the right

to use and manage all of their own assets. The conflict is deeply rooted in the Chinese

understanding of ownership and the Chinese common value of education.


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Under the current Chinese laws and China’s commitments to the World Trade

Organization, higher education is considered as a commercial service which could trade

across the board. But the Chinese government does not allow foreign organizations or

institutions to run their wholly-owned schools in China. However, it allows them to

cooperate with Chinese education institutions in running schools. The main purpose of the

policy is to improve educational quality by cooperating with best universities and colleges

in western countries.

In accordance with the Regulations on Chinese-Foreign Cooperation Running Schools

promulgated in 2003, Chinese-foreign cooperation running schools are also public welfare

undertakings, under the parallel control of Private Education Promotion Law and all other

administrative regulations. The Chinese government’s basic need for establishing Chinese-

foreign cooperation running colleges and universities is bringing more excellent

educational resources from other developed countries. The state council and Ministry of

Education encourage the best use of world class resources at the level of higher education

. It encourages Chinese-foreign cooperation in providing good quality of higher education

under the name of top universities. For example, the establish of Shanghai-NYU is a big

event in Chinese higher education development, drawing much attention to the institute

announcement of its curriculum structure and all English teaching and living environment.

It also encourages Chinese colleges and universities to run departments in collaboration

with famous foreign colleges and universities in provincial level. Many provincial

governments announced their strategy of cooperation. This is strongly supported by the

local government who need to improve their higher education quality and cultivate many

talented workers and researchers supporting the local economy growth. The example would

be the high level construction plan of Shenzhen City in Guangdong. They are planning

eight cooperative programs with eight different world class universities.

According to the updated regulation, this joint type of universities are considered and

regulated as private universities under a special control of international affairs department

in the Ministry of Education. Chinese and their foreign partners may establish all types of

schools at all levels except schools for compulsory education, and for military, police,

political or special education (Article 6). Since China has about 3000 higher education

institutes, there are many good opportunities for the foreign higher education corporations

who aimed to engage with the Chinese market.

Independent College: A Unique Private Higher Education Experiment

The unclear legal standing of Independent Colleges has caused many problems in the

development of private education, which is the unique experiment in education law

practice. After 2003, the Chinese government promoted an Independent Colleges

movement in China and setup more than 300 colleges of the said type. All the independent

colleges had to fit certain conditions requested by the government, including the minimum

investment and one quota rule (one private entity can only invest one independent college).

The private partners of independent colleges can be enterprises, institutions, public

organizations, individuals or other competent agencies. But most of them in practice are

enterprises or relevant to enterprises, which having a natural conflict of interest in the

educational field. The public partner will always be a public university and have a sound

reputation in province level. Essentially, the form of public-private cooperation is not an

environment for fair competition and common development for higher education as a

whole.


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The Indecent College held the advantages of public universities and did not pay as much

taxation as other private universities. Most of the teachers in independent colleges are from

public universities, which would be an abuse of public resource. It is hard for institutes to

evaluate the standard salary for them, regarding the conflict in the human resource

assessment system between market oriented and public interest judgement. Teachers from

public universities are considered as public servants, the salary levels are regulated by the

government, and normally they are not allowed to have a full-time job in another

educational institutes. But the additional works in cooperated independent college could

lead to a re-allocating workload in different institutes and additional payments from

government grants. According to Promotion Law, the non-government/private colleges

which have a longer history and offer a higher level of education are qualified to be

promoted as regular public undergraduate colleges or universities and must be treated

equally as independent colleges.3 Some of the non-government run colleges think the

promoting policy is good for their development, and they have the same legal standing

inside the Chinese educational legal framework. But the promotion law has no impact on

other legislations outside education at the same level. If the taxation legislation did not

change, it was impossible for private higher education institutes get any government grant.

Practically, the national-wide policy helps public colleges and universities to compete with

non-government/private colleges recruiting new students. The private colleges are always

in second level of enrollment policy and independent colleges are even worse. It is

conducive to unfair competition between the private sector and the public sector.4

The Unsolved Questions and the future of private higher education in China

Clarify Identity of college teacher

During last decade, the non-government/private education sector grew fast. Great changes

have taken place not only in the quantity and scale, but also in quality and inequity of them.

As a result, Non-government run education plays a more important role in progress of mass

higher education and has greater effect on the whole national education system.

In recent years, the number of private institute is increasing steadily and its proportion in

the whole education system is heightening gradually. The different area and levels

attracting private investment are unbalanced. The more developed a province is, the more

it is attracting private capital, which broadens the gap of educational resources between

east and west provinces.

In December 2002, the National People's Congress passed the Promotion Law and the

Regulations on Implementing the Promotion Law. The private education have entered a

new stage of development. According to the law, the both public and private university

teachers have the same legal right and standings in China. But it is just in theory. Before

the Promotion Law, China did not have an official definition for teachers working in non-

government run institutes. Especially in the countryside, many counties supported their

own elementary school inside the villages. These teachers in such elementary schools do

not have equal rights when compared with their counterparts in public schools. The same

situation happened in higher education. The teachers in higher learning training colleges

3 Mou Yangchun, “Independent college: the historical selection of new development of higher education in china”,

Exploring Education Development (Shanghai), 2004.4. 4 Pan Maoyuan, “Connecting with the Capital Market,” Education Development Research, Shanghai, No. 3, 2004.


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have part-time jobs. Because of the unclear title of private university teachers, they may

not have the tenure-track insurance for their academic jobs. Some of the teachers could not

get the same salary level as in public universities. Their contracts are more like commercial

contacts.

The Chinese State Council passed the Regulations on Schools Run by Non-governmental

Sectors in 1997, just one year before the Higher Education Law. After the huge enrollment

expansion in 1999, these regulations are becoming increasingly limited. Five years later,

the Promotion Law and the Implementation Regulations improved the legal position and

environment of private education. The Chinese government passed 4 laws in 8 years

regulating education nationwide. In addition, the Promotion Law is China’s first education

law with “promotion” in its name, showing that the positive value orientation of

government enthusiastically encouraging and strongly supporting Non-government Run

Education.

In China, the first law regulating teachers passed in 1993, ten years before the promotion

law. The situation changed a lot, the new promotion law could not give a clear definition

for private teacher since the general Teacher Law did not change. Since the numbers of the

higher institutions and students increased several times, the Ministry of Education started

the procedures for Package Revising Education Laws. But until now, the Teachers Law is

not in this package. The protection for teacher would be the next urgent issue in Chinese

educational reform, which will depend on the revision of the general rule of teachers.

Facing the Equality Argument in Higher Education Enrollment

Because of the high risk of National Entrance Examination for Colleges (Gao Kao), only

less than 10% population could enter the higher learning system before 1998. After 1998,

the government adopted a new enrollment strategy, expanding the number of the students

learning in college and universities, which changed the structure of higher education. The

age grade(18-22) currently enrolled in all forms of postsecondary education raised to 40%

in 2015, five years ahead of original planning. It is the same situation of higher educational

development in U.S. after WWII. Not like the growth of America Higher Education which

caused a growth in numbers of non-traditional students, the Chinese culture of learning

extended the traditional students enrolled in higher education just after the graduation from

high school, which raised a totally different question for higher education development.

With the growth of Chinese higher education, more and more colleges and universities

adopted the basic values of open and globalized. The government is promoting the

cooperative program between the partners abroad. Just like Shanghai-New York, Ningbo-

Nottingham, the local and central government are eager to promote the joint universities.

To regular universities, the summer school has become a regular cultivation program and

students and professors are coming from abroad every summer term, which has increased

the cost of private higher education.

More Lawsuit Consent about the Student Right

After the expansion of higher education in China, the relationship between students and

universities has changed. Before 1998, the chance to be a college student was a privilege.

All the university graduates were automatically became government officers. The legal

identity of university is as a governmental corporation not a civic institute. The first legal

case of a student suiting a university in Chinese history happened in 1998, which gave the


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university a practical legal standing in a lawsuit the first time. The private higher education

faced the same situation in development and more regulation will focus on the basic right

of equality of access to higher learning resources.

Conclusion

In accordance with the 2010-2020 Reform and Plan for Chinese Education Development

promulgated by the Ministry of Education, the Chinese government will continually focus

on the revision of the essential structure of private education. The fundamental change will

be to put the two types of private education into practice. This policy will probably be re-

considered and be passed in National Council this year. The modification of Promoting

Private Education Law would be a turning point for Chinese education legislation, which

will complete the framework of Chinese education, giving the private education a full legal

standing within suitable and reasonable statues. The significance of revising private

education law would be to reconsider the position of private education. After revision, the

private education is not an educational issue anymore. Changes on Promotion Law will

result from revising the corporation law and taxation regulations at the same time, which

fit the intention of comprehensive reform happening all around China now.

Without any doubt, the incoming regulations on private education including the joint

universities with foreign counterparts, would be an ideal policy making orientation and

procedure combined with the deep educational value within Chinese culture, which makes

the control of private higher education focus on both quantity and quality.

There are many changes for the vocational training and higher learning field, especially the

online postsecondary education attracted attention of all other traditional industries. The

revising of private education law provide basic guidance for investing and operating private

colleges in China, with coexisting challenges and opportunities. The changes to private

education law will give Chinese students more choices of higher education resources, more

private investment would join the arena, and broaden the demands of education law as a

profession.

References:

Department of development & planning, Ministry of education of china, Educational

Academy of Shanghai. 2002 Green Paper on Non-governmental Education in China.

Educational press of Shanghai, 2003.

National Center of Educational Development Research. 2001 Green Paper on Education

in China。Educational Science Publishing House, Beijing, 2001.

Huang Teng, Qifang Series of Books on Non-government/private Education, China Social

Science Press, 2003

Hu Dabai, Zhang Xihou, Tang Baomei. The Swift Rise and Develping Tendency of China’s

Civilian-run Higher Education. Journal of Huanghe S&T University. 2004.3.

Shen Jianguang. The strategic Transformation and Policy Response of the Development of

Non-Governmental Education. Educational Research. 2009.8


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Huwei Dong Shengzu. Reviewing of Chinese Non-government Run Education. Journal of

Educational Development Research. 2011.1

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