Principles of Writing

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Academic Writing

A. The immediate Objectives: The students are able to (a) understand--mention and write--the principles of writing; (b) write the correct sentences; (c) write the punctuations; (d) combine sentences correctly; (e) write the correct word spelling; (f) write the correct paragraph; (g) write the appropriate essay, (h) write the acceptable paper for academic purposes.

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B. Writing is a language skill

Writing is considered the last skill to be acquired after Listening, Speaking, and Reading skills. As a skill, the learners (students) must learn the language more actively in that they learn the structures of sentences, paragraphs, and essays first, then implement the structures in writing. They follow the rules and write sentences, paragraphs, etc. according to the rules. Another consideration for correct writing is the style of sentences in which writing style involves constructing sentences for correct situations and for correct meaning.

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C. Writing in Academic Community

That is writing more confidently because the writers (students) understand their subject, know their purpose, and can successfully predict their readers’ response. To become adept (proficient, skilled) at college writing the students will need to understand the nature and purpose of the academic community in which they write.

The academic community is the learning life of flexibility but formality, objectivity, and excellence which is called the scientific life for study (teaching-learning, research, and public services).

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D. WRITING PROCESS

Writing is a process of thoughts, feelings, and senses toward attitude representation. This means that in its process, this language skill involves the three domains or areas of thinking (cognitive), feeling (affective), and action (psycho-motor). These three domains interact one another.

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D. WRITING PROCESS

That is the interactions which form the organization as the sub-skills the writers must acquire:

1. Exploring ideas: generating ideas for listing ideas (vocabulary building) 2. Organizing ideas : writing effective topic sentences, limiting the information

in a paragraph, organizing different types of paragraphs.3. Developing Cohesion and Style: the grammatical and lexical features that

serve to unify a paragraph, choice of tense4. Using Correct Form: mechanics of writing such as paragraph form, spelling,

punctuation, and capitalization.5. Writing the First Draft: paragraphs by an outline (brainstorming, observation,

mind-mapping, writing the outline), writing 1st paragraph6. Editing and Revising: to check and correct common mistakes or errors of

form, grammar, cohesion, ideas and organization.7. Writing the Second Draft: rewriting the first draft8. Sharing and Using Feedback: rewriting for correct & logical ideas9. Writing the Final Draft: rewriting the second draft (real writing).

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E. The Outline of Writing Structure and Form

NO Writing Focus

Writing 1 Writing 2 Essay Writing

01.

Sentence Patterns

compound, complex sentences; sentence agreement, parallelism

Topic sentence

Thesis Statement Thesis Statement

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A Paragraph Introduction to paragraph

Paragraph Writing: elements &

organization Essay Writing: elements &

organization

03.

Developmental Paragraph

Paragraph development

Paragraph development (Discourse: Essay/Paper)

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Other Related Skills

Business Correspondence Report Writing

05. Paper (Academic) Writing

Paper, thesis, summary, abstract, paraphrasing

06. Style, Words Punctuations and spelling

Transitional & content words. Sentence style, technical/academic words/terms

Sentence and paragraph style

Technical/academic words/terms

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Learning Time Table

Topics Meeting 1 Meeting 2 Meeting 3 Meeting 4 Meeting 5 Meeting 6 Meeting 7 Meeting 8 Meeting 9 Meeting 10

00. Introduction To Academic Writing

1. Essay Organization

2. Logical Division of Ideas

Independent writing, class Discussion

3. Supporting an Opinion

4. Comparison and Contrast

5. Personal Narrative

Independent writing, class discussion

6. More about Comparison and Contrast

7. Summarizing and Reacting to What You have read and written

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Writing The Essay and Paper

• An Essay is a piece of writing several paragraphs long instead of just one or two paragraphs. It is written about one topic, just as a paragraph is. A paper is a set of writing about a topic/subject in elaborated paragraphs within the chapters/sections from introduction to conclusion.

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Three parts of an essay/paper

1. An Introductory Paragraph

2. A body

3. A concluding paragraph.

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What is a paper/essay composed of?

• 1. The INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH (INTRODUCTION) consists of • two parts:• a. a few general statements about the subject to • attract the reader’s attention. It introduces the • topic of an essay and gives background information • on the topic.• b. a thesis statement is:• about the specific subdivisions of the topic/or the “plan” of the paper; • states the main topic, lists the subdivisions of the topic; • the method of organization of the entire paper, and is usually written in the last sentence in the

introductory paragraph;• a single sentence that formulates the writer’s topic and his/her point of view;• ‘‘about two important factors: purpose and audience • =>purpose: to describe, explain, argue, or persuade• =>audience: specialists, agreeing-disagreeing, interested-uninterested in • the topic• 2. The BODY in each paragraph• develops a subdivision of the topic that the number of paragraph will vary with the number of

subdivisions • 3. The CONCLUDING/CONCLUSION is• a summary or review of the main points discussed in the body.

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Notice the two parts of the following introductory paragraph:

• An Indonesian student born and brought up in the twenty-first or millennium century has experienced a lot of changes which take place in almost all areas of university life. Some students are excited by the challenges as the relationships within individuals and groups in sharing feelings or expressing thoughts. These changes offer certain ways of exchanging attitudes, or actions and working with so called sophisticated computerized media. However, others want to return to the simpler, less automated life style of the past. Living in the twenty-first century for university students has certain advantages such as a higher standard of living and a much easier help of the rooted facilities as well as qualified instructors, but it also has some disadvantages such as a polluted environment, the depersonalization of human relationships, and the weakening of spiritual values.

• =>does the first sentence contain very general comment about the subject?• =>is the purpose to attract the reader’s attention and give background • information on the topic?• =>do you agree that the last sentence is the thesis statement?

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PATTERNS OF ESSAY/PAPER ORGANIZATION: the purpose the writer conveys

• 1. Description in chronological/time order (a-c) & space order (d)• a. to describe historical events, biographies, autobiographies;• b. to explain physical, chemical, biological, and mechanical processes;• c. to give directions or instructions: how to perform an experiment, how to • operate a piece of equipment;• d. to visualize a place: the three-dimensional description or image.• 2, Logical Division: to group related items according to some quality they • have in common.• E.g. The English Language Acquisition may cover Language Learning & Mastery, Methods & Techniques of

Learning, Motivation, and Language Skills(listening, speaking, reading, writing).• 3. Cause & Effect: to discuss the reasons(causes= why) for something, and • then discuss the results(effects) of it.• 4. Comparison & Contrast• a. Comparison=> how certain aspects of one item are • similar to the same aspects of another item in the • same general class.• b. Contrast=> to point out the differences between two • things: how they are not alike.• 5. Definition: to define a word or an expression • 6. Argumentative paragraphs: to prove or make right • a point. The point is to convince the readers with an • opinion statement followed by giving facts or • reasons to support or refute that opinion.

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THESIS STATEMENT

• As you get closer to writing, you can begin to shape the information you have at hand into a unified, coherent whole by framing a thesis statement for your paper: a single sentence that formulates both your topic and your point of view. In a sense, the thesis statement is your answer to the central question or problem you have raised. Writing this statement will enable you to see where you are heading and to remain on a productive path as you plan and write. Try out different possibilities until you find a statement that seems right for your purpose. Moreover, since the experience of writing may well alter your original plans, do not hesitate to revise the thesis statement as you write the paper or thesis.

• Two factors are important to the shaping of a thesis statement—your purpose and your audience:• What purpose will you try to achieve in the paper? Do you want to describe something, explain

something, argue for a certain point of view, or persuade your reader to think or do something?• What audience are you writing for? Is your reader a specialist on the subject? someone likely to

agree or disagree with you? someone likely to be interested or uninterested in the subject?• The answers to these questions should to a large extent give your research writing the

appropriate slant or point of view not just in your thesis statement but also in the final outline and the paper itself.

• The following sample is a thesis statement for a topic: Using Library and Other Information Sources:

• Students who wish to write successful research papers must know as much as possible about the resources and services of the library, such as its central catalog or central information system, the reference works in the collection, and the location of materials.

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LANGUAGE AND STYLE IN WRITING

• The Grammar of Clarity: clearness, simplicity, precision, intelligibility

• The Grammar of Coherence: consistency, unity, logic

• The Grammar of Emphasis: importance, prominence

• The Grammar of Concision: conciseness, briefness

• Managing long Sentences • Style and Usage • Style and Punctuation

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Effective writing

• Effective writing depends as much on clarity and readability as on content. The organization and development of your ideas, the unity and coherence of your presentation, and your command of sentence structure, grammar, and diction are all important, as are the mechanics of writing—capitalization, spelling, punctuation, italics (underlining), names of persons, numbers, titles of work, quotations, capitalization and personal names in languages other than English.

• The key to successful communication is using the right language for the audience you are addressing. In all writing, the challenge is to find the words, phrases, clauses, sentences, and paragraphs that express your thoughts and ideas precisely and that make them interesting to others.

• Because good scholarship requires objectivity, careful writers of research papers avoid language that implies unsubstantiated or irrelevant generalizations about such personal qualities as age, economic, class, ethnicity, sexual orientation, political or religious belief, race, or sex. Discussions about this subject have generally focused on wording that labeled sexist. For example, many writers no longer use he, him, or his to express a meaning that includes women or girls: “If a young artist is not confident, he can quickly become discouraged.” This use of he, him, or his can often be avoided through a revision that recasts the sentence into the plural or that eliminates the pronoun: “If young artists are not confident, they can quickly become discouraged.” Or “A young artist who is not confident can quickly become discouraged.” Another technique is to make the discussion refer to a person who is identified, so that there is a reason to use a specific singular pronoun. He or she and her or him are cumbersome alternatives to be used sparingly. Many authors now also avoid terms that unnecessarily integrate a person’s sex with a job or role. For instance, anchorman, policewoman, stewardess, and poetess are commonly replaced with anchor, police officer, flight attendant, and poet, which can apply to both men and women.

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Sample 1: Writing A Paragraph

Computers make teaching-learning work easier. The computer searches its files for certain teaching-learning programs. All to have to do is type in the name of the file to search. This saves a lot of time compared to otherwise spending searching by hand through extensive like storage files about the topics in one semester. The computer also answers he questions, such as certain teaching-learning objectives immediately. The computer also helps quickly and easily type the drafts, and revise, and edit them. This fantastic communication and technology tool makes copies, prints out information in a minute. In fact, by a computer both a teacher and a student have made their teaching-learning activities move up effectively and productively.

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Sample 2: Writing A Paragraph

While soft-drink producers are cheered by the fact that overall annual per capita consumption has grown from 33 gal. in 1975 to 40 gal. today, other trends are giving them pause. A number of different beverages—notably wine, bottled waters and juices—are being consumed in greater quantities than ever before. Part of the reason is that as the population matures, health and fitness are its new bywords. Calorie-counting accounts for the surge in diet drinks, which grew at a 10% rate last year, far outpacing the 1.4% rise that sugared products eked out. And the public’s perception that caffeine is harmful has given rise to a host of decaffeinated drinks. (Copied in “The Top 10 Soft Drink Brands,”Business Week, May 30, 1983, p. 60).

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Sample 3: Writing A Paragraph

THC (tetrahydro-cannabino), the most important active ingredient inmarijuana, can cross the potential barrier between mother and unformedchild. The THC is definitely carried in mother’s milk. There is somedisputed evidence that marijuana produces a higher rate of miscarriagesand stillbirths in monkeys. Because of the risks to the unborn child,evidence of birth defects is difficult to obtain. But fetal tissue isextremely sensitive to foreign chemicals. Experience has shown thatmany substances which are safe for adults are teratogenic (capable ofproducing birth defects). Even NORML agrees that pregnant or nursingwomen should avoid marijuana. (Adapted from Richard Vigilante, “Pot Talk—Is Decriminalization Advisable?” 1983 by National Review, Inc., 150 East Street, New York,NY 10016. In Abrams Kathleen S. 1986. Communication at Work. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc.)

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Sample 4: Writing A ParagraphRecognizing listing in writing: consider the following two paragraphs to

see how the author treats two similar topics differently. Paragraph A

My experience in English writing class has taught me a number of ways in writing more effectively . I know, first-draft writing is the immediate activity to do. Through the processes of a topic writing such as exploring and organizing ideas, developing cohesion and style, including using correct forms are the next three steps to take. The following is to write for editing and revising, that is, to check and correct common mistakes or errors of form, grammar, cohesion, ideas and sentence organization. Writing the second draft is in addition to writing through the above processes. Here, then the writer rewrites the paragraph of the first draft to appear better in organization, contents, usage, and expressions. A paragraph is finally completely written to fulfill the correct and clear paragraph in any writing types and purposes.

Paragraph BMy experience for a paragraph writing has taught me a number of ways in writing more effectively . Writing the first draft is the first activity in the writing that is from a topic selected. In this draft the author usually writes the organization or outline for ideas or the contents of the topic, first, and then the usage, and expressions. The paragraph commonly describes the topic, the main idea, the controlling ideas and the closing or concluding idea. For the purpose of better paragraph in it process, writing moves up by putting in the cohesion and style besides correct forms. Cohesion is useful to unite the main ideas with the controlling or supporting ideas and concluding idea, while style gives correct use of structure and vocabulary to describe the topic according to the correct situation or context. Cohesion is usually written using descriptive listing on certain people, places, characters, situations, or activities. The listing of details is then written as transitional signals with the forms of words and phrases which are called word signals, such as first, next, later, also, in addition, moreover, and last. Later, the writer checks the paragraph for correct and clear forms of grammar, words, spelling, and sentence organization. Finally, the writer writes the second draft or final paragraph with correct and clear ideas, grammar, vocabulary, style, mechanics and organization.

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Sample 5Stages of Adjustment

Someone who goes to stay in a foreign country, whether it is for ashort time or forever, passes through several stages of adjusting to thenewness of the culture. If the stay is going to be short, the personmoves quickly through the stages. If the stay will be long, the stageslast longer. Even children, who seem more adaptable than adults,go through the adjustment cycle, though they pass through it ratherquickly.

The first stage of adjustment begins before the travelers even leavehome. During this stage they form ideas and images of what life in thenew country will be like. In a way, they imagine themselves into thenew way of life. It is a way to begin adjusting to the change.

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Sample 6Ways To Pass Through The Newness of The Culture

• To visit and to stay in a new or foreign country for the first time may make you surprised, shock, or even panic. Whether the stay is short or long, there will be inconvenient experience to undergo. This happens because of the newness of many things, such as the people you meet, the food to eat, and the way of life to adjust for. Difficulties is encountered in that there are doubts and insecure believing in different styles, behaviors, or customs which are called the culture. However, you should be making yourself adaptable to this new culture and, in the process, there are at least three stages of adjustment should be realized and recognized. The success to pass through the stages of adjusting yourself will make you successful and be comfortable to stay.

• At first, what to be aware of is that the adjustment stage usually begins pre-departure which means you know a good way to experience a feeling of uneasy before you leave home. If you are able to realize this, you are ready enough and strong that you form ideas and images of what life is like in the new country. By this, you yourself imagine the new way of life. This is the stage to begin adjusting to the changes.

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• The second experience is the stage when you arrive in the foreign country. Although everything is new and not very interesting, you will be aware and understand the difficult situation. It is common that you will be tensely confused of many things, and this may make you passive, or just a spectator. One way to cope with such this condition is by making the new situation be natural and be logical that this is common to happen to everyone who experiences it. In addition, you should be brave enough to face the changes through learning-by-doing stay technique. That is trying to learn by reading the source of information about a place, a name, etc. and visiting or meeting to talk with the people for correct information. This is a good practice to the newness of the culture.

• The next stage comes when you spend more time in the new situation. Following the first and second stages of adjustment is the stage to force you to participate in the new culture or way of life. You will be the participant who is active entering into the life where you stay. Anyway, you must again realize that the process to this stage is not as easy as you may think. To be successful you need to participate in any activities or programs of the community where you stay or live. However, you will experience difficult time to adjust that, for example, the community are still not automatically accept you as the member in the community.

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Of all these three stages, a note for your personal appearance and flexibility will make your stay successful. As a result, you are accepted and regarded to be the member of the community, the same in rights and privileges as the others in the community. It will be amazing and memorable to find out how you have experienced very difficultly but then successfully in spending the time and doing new things through the stages of adjustment.

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Sample of an Essay (7)

• A distinctively new year • The measure of a nation's greatness lies in its ability to reconcile its diversity.• There continue to be many things wrong with this country. Every day, this and other newspapers report an endless stream of

injustices that occur across the archipelago. Still, amid all that is wrong it is heartening to find some things so gloriously right. • The continued outpouring of benevolence for victims of the tsunami in northern Sumatra is one such thing. It marks a triumph not

only for Indonesians, but humanity as a whole. Without prejudice to religion or race, people donated and contributed whatever they could to comfort those in need.

• The upcoming two-day national holiday is another measure of how far this country has come. The commemoration of the Chinese New Year and the Islamic New Year, which fall on consecutive days, shows that plurality can work without the imposition of stringent controls, as was the case during the New Order era.

• Less than a decade ago such adjoining public events would have been unthinkable. Chinese cultural traditions were considered taboo. Under a misguided political pretext -- related to the anti-communist hysteria -- anything that was even vaguely connected to Chinese culture was frowned upon.

• Few even stopped to ask what Chinese culture, one of the oldest and most revered in human history, had to do with modern Communism?

• Generations of Indonesians of Chinese descent were forced to suppress their heritage and forsake their identity. The politically correct phrase of the day was "assimilation", but in practice it was closer to discrimination.

• President Abdurrahman Wahid was the first to ease the cultural restrictions in 2000 by allowing ethnic Chinese to resume and celebrate their cultural identity. President Megawati Soekarnoputri went a step further in providing the ultimate acknowledgement of Chinese culture by declaring the Lunar New Year a national holiday.

• The stereotypes have not been completely jettisoned from ignorant minds, but formal acceptance of Chinese culture is a tremendous leap forward. Even non-ethnic Chinese can now enjoy the richness of the occasion.

• In similar fashion, the Islamic New Year generates distinct rites and ceremonies that may not be strictly religious in nature. • Satu Suro festivities, for example, always draw a large crowd at the sultan's palace in Yogyakarta, where a hodgepodge of animism

and Islamic rituals are intertwined with each other. • Each religion or faith is distinct. One cannot interchange between them. But distinctiveness does not have to lead to differences. Our

sense of identity, as Indonesians, draws upon this richness of cultures and faiths, whether or not a person feels tangible links to them.

• The ethnic Chinese can appreciate and respect the Islamic New Year just as much as Muslims can enjoy the colorful festivities of Imlek.

• Because whether it is the Year of the Rooster or 1426 Hijriah on the Islamic calender, everyone is commemorating and praying for a safe and prosperous 2005.

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Sample of an Essay (8)

• The Jakarta Post, March 14, 2005• Extradition Treaty Must Exclude Terrorism

• Bambang Widjojanto and Mohamad Mova Al 'Afghani, Jakarta• Dubbed a "red dot on the map" by former President Habibie, Singapore has become a sanctuary for some

extremely rich Indonesian tycoons accused of fraud in Jakarta.• In Singapore, they have not only found a sanctuary from prosecution, they have also found a safe port to park

their hot money. • In a bid to combat corruption, this year the Indonesian government has started negotiating an extradition treaty

with Singapore. Following a meeting with President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono last month, Singapore Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong said the negotiation process was expected to continue again in March.

• Authorities in Singapore said some Indonesians wrongly believed an extradition treaty would curb Indonesia's chronic corruption.

• The statement is quite reasonable -- Singapore is not the only safe heaven for graft suspects -- it would be easy for those accused or guilty of graft to escape to another country where no extradition treaties exist.

• Although an extradition treaty is only one small step in the fight against corruption, it is an important advance in Indonesia-Singapore bilateral relations.

• However, we should be extremely careful not to let this extradition treaty backfire upon us. If it is not prudently reviewed, the government may be put into a difficult situation of having to comply with treaty obligations while being faced with a national protest. Extradition may potentially infringe on an individual's human rights in obtaining access to proper justice and it may also spark concerns if it deals with sensitive politically-related issues such as terrorism.

• By definition, extradition is a formal process by which an individual is delivered from the state where he is located to another state in order to face prosecution, or if already convicted, to serve a sentence. An extradition will involve two states, the state requesting an extradition ("Requesting State") and the state extraditing the individual ("Requested State

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Extradition Treaty Must Exclude Terrorism(cont.) Bambang Widjojanto and Mohamad Mova Al 'Afghani, Jakarta

• Major concerns in an extradition treaty traditionally involved several issues such as: Reciprocity, double criminality, extraditable offense, speciality and non-inquiry. Reciprocity deals with a quid-pro-quo performance of extradition, which means that extradition provisions will give obligations to a state similar to another. A double criminality principle requires the action to be punishable under the law of both states.

• Under the double criminality principle, extradition from the Requesting State can be refused if in the Requested State, the act is not considered as a crime. Extraditable offenses is one key provision that often cause dispute among states, as the definition of criminalized actions may not be entirely similar in both states. The specialty rule regulates that an individual may only be prosecuted under a certain crime and that his extradition is not transferable to a third state.

• Our interest in the extradition treaty with Singapore is more or less to prevent a graft suspect or convict from escaping the reach of our legal system. On the other hand, as a country with a relatively clean government and an ally of the United States, Singapore's interests are likely to be to capture alleged terrorists that threaten their security. They have less interest in corruption issues.

• If the government wishes to include acts of terrorism as an extraditable offense under the treaty, then it is likely to risk a nationwide protest as these charges of terrorism could involve Islamic fundamentalists.

• A majority of Indonesian Muslims would still consider terrorism a Western-fabricated issue to corner Islamic movements in their fight against Western domination and colonialization. Imagine what would happen if Singapore requested Ustadz Ba'asyir's extradition.

• From legal perspective, the criminalization of terrorism itself is still a subject of academic debate. • Indonesia anti-terrorism law for example, defined terrorism as "an act which deliberately entails violence or a

threat of violence so as to cause widespread terror or fear among the community or to cause widespread fatalities". Therefore, under our existing law, people caught spreading last year's urban myth about the kolor ijo (green underwear) ghost that raped virgins and could only be prevented by obtaining yellow bamboo (presumably intended to refer a particular color of a political party during last year's election) -- should be punished as terrorist

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Extradition Treaty Must Exclude Terrorism (cont.) Bambang Widjojanto and Mohamad Mova Al 'Afghani, Jakarta

• Given the loose definition of terrorism and the politically sensitive nature of the issue, we suggest that terrorism should not be listed as an extraditable offense under any extradition treaty to which Indonesia is a party, especially an extradition treaty with Singapore.

• As has been previously elaborated, any treaty with Singapore would only have a minimum impact toward eradicating corruption.

• It is actually Singapore that has more interest in the treaty because of the potential terrorist strikes on their territory.

• The International Crisis Group once listed Indonesia as a international safe haven for terrorist recruitment so it is likely that Singapore would bargain hard to make terrorism an extraditable crime.

• We also must reform our own internal legal system to cope with extraditions. With the absence of any specific legislation pertaining to extradition, we have put every individual's rights in danger as the competent authority in deciding on extraditions in our country lies in the hands of the executive branch. The case of Mohamad Al Farouq's extradition to Guantanamo by our police and intelligence officers a few years ago is a violation of what is regarded in common law as a habeas corpus right.

• Decisions to extradite should be in the hands of the judicial system, or in other words, the courts. Although Al Farouq is an alleged terrorist and possibly a national of a third state, he should not be deprived of his habeas corpus rights. By transferring him into the hands of foreign intelligence officers and putting him somewhere in Guantanamo, this country has conspired to violate his human rights, undermining the presumption of innocence principle and denying him access to justice.

• It is therefore wiser that we fix our internal legal system while we negotiate the extradition treaty.

• Bambang Widjojanto ([email protected]) is a former chairman of Indonesian Legal Aid Foundation and former consultant for the UNDP.

• Mohamad Mova Al 'Afghani ([email protected]) is a lawyer at Lubis Ganie Surowidjojo. • printer friendly

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Let Us Write An Essay

My experience for an essay writing has taught me a number of ways in writing more effectively. Selecting a topic is the first step to do and is followed the organization for an outline. In this first step, I usually write by brainstorming for ideas or the contents of the topic. The next step is rewriting the brainstorming ideas for the outline of the whole essay, followed by writing the first paragraph which is called the introductory paragraph. The introductory paragraph should be consisting of general statements about the topic and end with the last statement, namely the thesis statement.

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Who is a Lecturer?

A lecturer is an academic figure in higher education that he/she is excellent person at his/her position. As many professionals have believed that he/she is a member of the faculty of a college or university usually having qualified status without rank or tenure. This professional person is an active facilitator, reader and writer besides a teacher, researcher, advisor, or a supervisor. His/her profession specifically deals with teaching, research, and public services.