Principles of Sociology SOC-201 Unit 2 – Science and Methods in Sociology
Principles of Sociology SOC-201
Unit 2 – Science and Methods in Sociology
Scientific Sociology How Theory and Research Work Together
Without research to back it up, a theory will remain an abstract concept with little value
Without theory, research is simply a collection of meaningless facts
Every theory must be tested with research and findings need to be explained
To test their theories, sociologists conduct research They rely on scientific method to investigate how
and why people behave the way they do Scientific knowledge is based on empirical evidence
Sociological research often reveals that what we accept as “common sense” is not entirely true
Concepts, Variables, and Measurements Concept
A mental construct that represents some aspect of the world in a simplified form
Examples: family, gender, race, social class Variable
A concept whose values changes from case to case Examples: price, economic classes (upper class, lower
class) Measurement
A procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case
Researcher must specify exactly what they are measuring in each case
Concepts, Variables, and Measurements Descriptive Statistics
Sociologists need to employ statistics to state what the “average” is for a large population
Mean - Arithmetic average of all measures Median – The middle score that divides the
distribution in half Mode – The single score that appears most often
With measurements, you also need reliability and validity Reliability – The consistency of the measure
Must yield the same results each time it is measured Validity – The precision in measuring exactly what
one intends to measure
Cause and Effect
Correlation and Cause How do we determine that the variables are
related? Correlation
A relationship by which two or more variables change together
But we want to know not just the how but the why Cause and Effect
A relationship in which we know that change in one variable causes change in another
It allows researchers to predict how one pattern of behavior will affect another
Correlation and Cause Types of variables
Independent – The causal factor Dependent – The effect
Spurious Correlation When two variables change together but neither
one caused the other to change Usually results from a third factor
Correlation and Cause A true cause and effect relationship must
show: That the two variables are correlated That the independent variable precedes the
dependent in time There is no evidence that the correlation is
spurious Ideal of Objectivity
This is allowing the facts to speak for themselves Try not to filtering them through the personal
values and biases of the researcher However, total neutrality is impossible
Research and Gender
Research and Gender There are a five problems involving gender:
Androcentricity “Male Centered” Ignoring what women do
Overgeneralizing Using a small segment to represent the population as a
whole For example, using only males in studies
Gender Blindness Failing to consider gender at all
Double Standards Interference
Where a subject sees the researcher as a woman instead of a researcher
Research and Gender Feminist Research
Sociology focused mainly on men in the past This new focus allows research to focus mainly on
women It looks at the social standing of women, guided by
the assumption that women experience subordination
There is no single feminist strategy
Research Models
Research Model Eight steps involved in scientific research:
Selecting a Topic What do you want to learn more about?
Defining the Problem Narrow the topic to focus on a specific area
Reviewing the Literature To make sure what you want to study has not already been
studied Formulating a Hypothesis –
Hypothesis is a statement of how variables are expected to be related to one another, often according to predictions from a theory
Variables are factors that vary or change from one person or situation to another
Your hypothesis will need operational definitions, which are precise ways to measure the variables
Research Model Choosing a Research Model
The means by which you collect your data Sociologists use six basic research methods
Collecting the Data When you gather data, you must take care to assure its
validity and its reliability Analyzing the Results
This is why you test your hypothesis Sharing the Results
Publish a report with your findings to the scientific community
Research Methods
Research Methods There are many different types of research
methods that sociologists use as systematic plans for conducting research What you use depends on the questions you want
to answer Qualitative Analysis
This measurement deals with descriptions, where the data can be observed but not measured
Quantitative Analysis This measurement deals with numbers, where the
data can be measured
Research Method - Experiment Experiment
It is a research method used to investigate cause and effect relationships under highly controlled conditions
Specifically used to test a hypothesis This is an unverified statement of a relationships
between two or mor variables
Gathering Evidence Measure the dependent variable (the “effect”) Expose the dependent variable to the independent
variable Measure the dependent variable again to see
what, if any, changes took place
Research Method - Experiment Applications
For explanatory research that specifies the relationships among variables
Generates quantitative data Advantages
Provides the greatest ability to specify cause and effect
Replication is very easy Limitation
Control is easiest in a laboratory but those have an artificial quality
Unless the environment is carefully controlled, results may be biased
Research Methods - Survey Survey
Subjects respond to a series of statements or questions in a questionnaire or an interview
How to do a survey: Select a sample of the population
Sample – A selection of the population intended to represent the population to be studied
Select the type of questions to be used Questions should always be neutral to prevent bias Closed-Ended Questions Open-Ended Questions
Research Methods - Survey Applications:
Gathering information that cannot be directly observed (values, beliefs, attitudes)
It is useful for descriptive and explanatory research It generates quantitative or qualitative data
Advantages Sampling allows surveys of large populations using
questionnaires Interviews provide in-depth responses
Limitations Questionnaires must be carefully prepared to avoid
bias and may produce a low-return rate Interviews are expensive and time consuming
Research Methods - Fieldwork Participant Observation
Researcher observes the subjects while joining in their regular activities
Goal is to gain entry into a setting without disturbing the normal routine behaviors of others
Cultural anthropologists use this method calling it “fieldwork”
Uses Exploratory and descriptive study of people in a
“natural” setting Produces qualitative data
Research Methods - Fieldwork Applications:
For an exploratory and descriptive study of people in a “natural” setting
Generates qualitative data Advantages
Allows study of “natural” behavior Rather inexpensive
Limitations Very time consuming Difficult to reproduce findings Researcher must balance the roles between being
an observer and a participant
Research Methods – Existing Sources Existing Sources – “Secondary Analysis”
The analysis of data that someone else has already collected
Application For any type of research where suitable data is
unavailable Advantages
Saves time and effort on collecting original data Allows historical research
Limitations Researcher has no control over possible biases in the
data The data may not be suitable for current research needs
Ethics in Research
Ethics in Research Sociologists must remember that their
research can be used to both help and hurt their subjects and communities
The American Sociological Association (ASA) has set down guidelines for conducting ethical research Professional Competence
Sociologists should be technologically competent and fair-minded in their work
Professional and Scientific Responsibility They must present their findings without omitting data Are ethically bound to share their studies with other
sociologists who want to replicate their research
Ethics in Research Professional Integrity
Sociologists must conduct themselves in ways that inspire trust
Ensure the safety of their subjects Informed consent Avoid deception Avoid conflicts of interest, especially in regards to
funding