Principles of Ecology What is ecology? The study of the interactions between organisms and the living and nonliving components of their environment.

Principles of EcologyPrinciples of Ecology

What is ecology?What is ecology? The study of the interactions between The study of the interactions between

organisms and the living and nonliving organisms and the living and nonliving components of their environmentcomponents of their environment

Involves collecting information about organisms and Involves collecting information about organisms and their environmenttheir environment

Issues dealing with EcologyIssues dealing with Ecology Thinning ozone layerThinning ozone layer Climate changes (greenhouse effect)Climate changes (greenhouse effect) Habitat destructionHabitat destruction PollutionPollution

Levels of OrganizationLevels of Organization BiomeBiome

Large areas characterized by climate conditions and plant lifeLarge areas characterized by climate conditions and plant life Temperate GrasslandTemperate Grassland

EcosystemEcosystem Includes all of the organisms and the non living environment Includes all of the organisms and the non living environment

found in a particular placefound in a particular place Ex. Ponds, bottom of shoe, deep oceans, rain forestsEx. Ponds, bottom of shoe, deep oceans, rain forests

CommunityCommunity All the interacting organisms living in an areaAll the interacting organisms living in an area Ex. All the fish, turtles, plants, algae, and bacteria in a pondEx. All the fish, turtles, plants, algae, and bacteria in a pond

PopulationPopulation A group of the same species that lives in one areaA group of the same species that lives in one area All the painted turtles in a pondAll the painted turtles in a pond

OrganismOrganism An individual living thingAn individual living thing A painted turtleA painted turtle

Biotic and Abiotic FactorsBiotic and Abiotic Factors

Habitat is where an organism livesHabitat is where an organism lives Includes abiotic and biotic factorsIncludes abiotic and biotic factors

Biotic factors include all living things that affect the organismBiotic factors include all living things that affect the organism Ex. Animals, plants, algae, fungi, bacteriaEx. Animals, plants, algae, fungi, bacteria

Abiotic factors are nonliving factors which are the physical Abiotic factors are nonliving factors which are the physical and chemical characteristics of the environmentand chemical characteristics of the environment Ex. Temperature, humidity, pH, salinity, oxygen Ex. Temperature, humidity, pH, salinity, oxygen

concentration, amount of sunlight, availability of nitrogen concentration, amount of sunlight, availability of nitrogen in the soil affects how fast plants can growin the soil affects how fast plants can grow

Biotic and abiotic determine the survival and growth of Biotic and abiotic determine the survival and growth of an organism, productivity of the ecosystem in which an organism, productivity of the ecosystem in which organism livesorganism lives

ProducersProducers

What is the main energy source for life on Earth?What is the main energy source for life on Earth? What are producers?What are producers?

Organisms that capture energy and use it to make foodOrganisms that capture energy and use it to make food Also known as autotrophsAlso known as autotrophs ExamplesExamples

Photosynthesis-light energy is used to power chemical Photosynthesis-light energy is used to power chemical reactionsreactions COCO₂ and H₂O are converted into O₂ and sugars₂ and H₂O are converted into O₂ and sugars Plants, algae, cyanobacteriaPlants, algae, cyanobacteria

Chemosynthesis-convert energy from chemical bonds within Chemosynthesis-convert energy from chemical bonds within inorganic molecules into chemical energyinorganic molecules into chemical energy Use hydrogen sulfide and convert it into carbohydratesUse hydrogen sulfide and convert it into carbohydrates BacteriaBacteria Volcanic vents on deep ocean floors, hot springs, tidal marshesVolcanic vents on deep ocean floors, hot springs, tidal marshes

Types of ConsumersTypes of Consumers

Heterotroph- organisms that rely on other Heterotroph- organisms that rely on other organisms for their energy and food supplyorganisms for their energy and food supply ConsumerConsumer Many types of heterotrophsMany types of heterotrophs

Herbivores eat only plantsHerbivores eat only plants Carnivores eat animalsCarnivores eat animals Omnivores eat both plants and animalsOmnivores eat both plants and animals Detritivores eat plant and animal remains, and Detritivores eat plant and animal remains, and

other dead organic matterother dead organic matter Decomposers break down organic matterDecomposers break down organic matter

Decomposers are essential for autotrophs to obtain Decomposers are essential for autotrophs to obtain their necessary nutrientstheir necessary nutrients

Feeding RelationshipsFeeding Relationships

What happens to the energy in an ecosystem?What happens to the energy in an ecosystem? Flows through ecosystem in one directionFlows through ecosystem in one direction Starts with sun to various consumersStarts with sun to various consumers

Food chain- steps showing the transfer of energy Food chain- steps showing the transfer of energy from organism to organismfrom organism to organism Producer-pri consumer- sec consumer- tertiary Producer-pri consumer- sec consumer- tertiary

consumerconsumer https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0ZOvqYypOuohttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0ZOvqYypOuo

Food web- network of complex interactions, Food web- network of complex interactions, among organisms in community from producers among organisms in community from producers to decomposersto decomposers linking all food chains in an ecosystem togetherlinking all food chains in an ecosystem together

Trophic LevelsTrophic Levels

Trophic levels- levels of Trophic levels- levels of nourishment in a food chainnourishment in a food chain

Each step in food chain or food Each step in food chain or food web=trophicweb=trophic

Ecological pyramids- shows the Ecological pyramids- shows the relative amount of energy available relative amount of energy available at each trophic levelat each trophic level Organisms use about 10% of this Organisms use about 10% of this

energy for life processes, rest is lost energy for life processes, rest is lost as heatas heat

Respiration, movement, reproductionRespiration, movement, reproduction Most ecosystems contain only 3 or Most ecosystems contain only 3 or

4 trophic levels4 trophic levels First level-ProducersFirst level-Producers Second level-HerbivoreSecond level-Herbivore Third level-PredatorsThird level-Predators Biomass- total amount of living Biomass- total amount of living

tissue w/in given trophic leveltissue w/in given trophic level

All organisms need energy to carry out essential All organisms need energy to carry out essential functionsfunctions Ex. Growth, movement, maintenance, repair and Ex. Growth, movement, maintenance, repair and

reproductionreproduction The amount of energy an ecosystem receives and The amount of energy an ecosystem receives and

the amount that is transferred from organism to the amount that is transferred from organism to organism has an important effect on the organism has an important effect on the ecosystem’s structureecosystem’s structure

NicheNiche

Habitat is where an organism livesHabitat is where an organism lives Includes abiotic and biotic factorsIncludes abiotic and biotic factors

What is an ecological niche?What is an ecological niche? All the physical, chemical, and biological factors that a species All the physical, chemical, and biological factors that a species

needs to survive, stay healthy, and reproduceneeds to survive, stay healthy, and reproduce It is a species way of life, or the role the species plays in its It is a species way of life, or the role the species plays in its

environmentenvironment Includes the range of conditions that the species can tolerateIncludes the range of conditions that the species can tolerate How it obtains food, competes with others, fits into food webHow it obtains food, competes with others, fits into food web When is it active and reproducesWhen is it active and reproduces

Competitive exclusion- when two species are competing for Competitive exclusion- when two species are competing for same resources, one species will be better suited to niche, same resources, one species will be better suited to niche, other species will pushed into another niche or become other species will pushed into another niche or become extinctextinct

Ecological equivalents- species that occupy similar niches Ecological equivalents- species that occupy similar niches but live in different geographical regionsbut live in different geographical regions

Community EcologyCommunity Ecology

5 major types of close interactions 5 major types of close interactions can powerfully affect can powerfully affect an ecosysteman ecosystem Predation, parasitism, competition, mutualism, and Predation, parasitism, competition, mutualism, and

commensalismcommensalism Competition- occurs when organisms of the same or Competition- occurs when organisms of the same or

different species attempt to use a resource in same place at different species attempt to use a resource in same place at same timesame time

Predation- interaction where one organism captures and Predation- interaction where one organism captures and feeds on another organismfeeds on another organism Predator- higher on food chainPredator- higher on food chain Prey- lower on food chainPrey- lower on food chain

Symbiosis- any relationship where 2 species are living Symbiosis- any relationship where 2 species are living closely togetherclosely together 3 types- mutualism, commensalism, parasitism\3 types- mutualism, commensalism, parasitism\ Discovery EducationDiscovery Education

Types of Symbiotic Types of Symbiotic RelationshipsRelationships

Mutualism- relationship where both Mutualism- relationship where both species benefitsspecies benefits

Commensalism- relationship where one Commensalism- relationship where one specie benefits and others is not helped specie benefits and others is not helped or harmedor harmed

Parasitism- relationship where one Parasitism- relationship where one organism lives on or inside other organism lives on or inside other organism and harms itorganism and harms it

Write down which relationship is being Write down which relationship is being shownshown

Lions and zebrasLions and zebras Honey bee pollinates flowerHoney bee pollinates flower Remora fish attaches itself to other shark Remora fish attaches itself to other shark

and eats the food that is dropped by and eats the food that is dropped by sharkshark

Lions and cheetahsLions and cheetahs Mosquito bites humansMosquito bites humans

Population EcologyPopulation Ecology

Why do populations Why do populations change?change?

Population density- Population density- number of individuals number of individuals per unit areaper unit area Depends on species Depends on species

and its ecosystemand its ecosystem # of individuals# of individuals= population density= population density area (units^2) area (units^2)

Population dispersion- way in Population dispersion- way in which individuals of a which individuals of a population are spread in an population are spread in an area or volumearea or volume

Population GrowthPopulation Growth

What factors affect population size?What factors affect population size? # of births, # of deaths, and # of individuals # of births, # of deaths, and # of individuals

that enter and leave the populationthat enter and leave the population ImmigrationImmigration- the movement of individuals - the movement of individuals

into an areainto an area EmigrationEmigration- the movement of individuals - the movement of individuals

out of an areaout of an area What causes these movements?What causes these movements?

Young animals reach maturity search for mates, Young animals reach maturity search for mates, shortage of foodshortage of food

Exponential GrowthExponential Growth

Individuals in a Individuals in a population reproduce at population reproduce at a constant ratea constant rate

Under ideal conditions Under ideal conditions with unlimited with unlimited resourcesresources, and in the , and in the absence of predation and absence of predation and disease, a population will disease, a population will grow exponentiallygrow exponentially

Logistic GrowthLogistic Growth

A population’s growth slows A population’s growth slows or stops following a period or stops following a period of exponential growthof exponential growth

Why might this happen?Why might this happen? Resources become less Resources become less

availableavailable Carrying capacityCarrying capacity- the largest - the largest

number of individuals that a number of individuals that a given environment can supportgiven environment can support

Many natural populations Many natural populations follow the logistic growth curvefollow the logistic growth curve

Ecological Factors that Ecological Factors that limits to Growthlimits to Growth

Limiting factorsLimiting factors- factor that causes population - factor that causes population growth to decreasegrowth to decrease

A resource can also affect long term survival of a A resource can also affect long term survival of a speciesspecies PandasPandas

Density-dependent factorsDensity-dependent factors- limiting factor that - limiting factor that depends on population sizedepends on population size Factors greatly affect large and dense Factors greatly affect large and dense

populationspopulations Factors include; Factors include; competition, predation, competition, predation,

parasitism, and diseaseparasitism, and disease

Competition may occur between Competition may occur between individuals of same species or of individuals of same species or of different speciesdifferent species The more individuals the faster The more individuals the faster

the resources are used upthe resources are used up Competition between different Competition between different

species leads to evolutionary species leads to evolutionary changechange

Predation- often controls Predation- often controls populations in naturepopulations in nature Moose populations rise, wolves Moose populations rise, wolves

population soon rises. Moose population soon rises. Moose populations soon decrease, later populations soon decrease, later followed by the decline in wolves followed by the decline in wolves

Parasitism and disease- range in Parasitism and disease- range in size, similar to predators, take size, similar to predators, take nourishment from host, nourishment from host, weakening or causing death to weakening or causing death to themthem

Density-Independent FactorsDensity-Independent Factors- affect all - affect all populations in similar ways, regardless of populations in similar ways, regardless of population sizepopulation size Unusual weatherUnusual weather Natural disastersNatural disasters Seasonal cyclesSeasonal cycles Certain human activities- clearing forests, Certain human activities- clearing forests,

damming riversdamming rivers

Environments are always changing, most Environments are always changing, most populations can adapt to certain amount of populations can adapt to certain amount of changechange

Ecological SuccessionEcological Succession

Ecosystems are constantly changing in response to natural and Ecosystems are constantly changing in response to natural and human disturbances, as ecosystem changes, older inhabitants human disturbances, as ecosystem changes, older inhabitants gradually die out and new organism move in, causing further gradually die out and new organism move in, causing further changes in communitychanges in community These predictable changes that occurs in community over time= These predictable changes that occurs in community over time=

ecological successionecological succession Primary succession- succession that occurs on surface where no Primary succession- succession that occurs on surface where no

soil existssoil exists Volcanic eruption builds new island- HawaiiVolcanic eruption builds new island- Hawaii Pioneer species- 1Pioneer species- 1stst organisms that live in previously uninhabited area organisms that live in previously uninhabited area

Secondary succession- succession that occurs after natural Secondary succession- succession that occurs after natural events or human activities, after disturbance community events or human activities, after disturbance community interactions restore the ecosysteminteractions restore the ecosystem WildfiresWildfires

Sec 3- Cycles of MatterSec 3- Cycles of Matter

95% of body made up of 4 elements95% of body made up of 4 elements Matter is recycled within and between Matter is recycled within and between

ecosystemsecosystems Biogeochemical cycles- the passing of Biogeochemical cycles- the passing of

elements, compounds and other forms of elements, compounds and other forms of matter from one organism to anothermatter from one organism to another Each substance travels through a Each substance travels through a

biogeochemical cycle-moving from the abiotic biogeochemical cycle-moving from the abiotic portion of the environment, such as the portion of the environment, such as the atmosphere, into living things and back againatmosphere, into living things and back again

Water Cycle and Nutrient Water Cycle and Nutrient CyclesCycles

4 important processes of the water cycle4 important processes of the water cycle Evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitationEvaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation

The amount of water the atmosphere can hold The amount of water the atmosphere can hold depends on temperature and air pressuredepends on temperature and air pressure

Nutrient cycles- every organism needs nutrientsNutrient cycles- every organism needs nutrients Build tissues, carry out essential life functionBuild tissues, carry out essential life function Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygenCarbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen

The basis of the carbon cycle is photosynthesis The basis of the carbon cycle is photosynthesis and cellular respirationand cellular respiration Plants use carbon dioxidePlants use carbon dioxide 3 major sources of CO2-cellular respiration, combustion, 3 major sources of CO2-cellular respiration, combustion,

and decomposition of organic matterand decomposition of organic matter

Nitrogen CycleNitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen is essential for organisms to make Nitrogen is essential for organisms to make proteins and nucleic acidsproteins and nucleic acids

Makes up 78% of atmosphereMakes up 78% of atmosphere Plants can only use nitratePlants can only use nitrate Nitrogen fixation is the process of converting Nitrogen fixation is the process of converting

nitrogen gas to nitrate (ammonia)nitrogen gas to nitrate (ammonia) How does this happen?How does this happen?

BacteriaBacteria Live in soil or in the roots of plantsLive in soil or in the roots of plants

Denitrification- nitrates converted into nitrogen gasDenitrification- nitrates converted into nitrogen gas

Phosphorus CyclePhosphorus Cycle

Forms part of DNA and RNAForms part of DNA and RNA Not found in atmosphere, found mostly in Not found in atmosphere, found mostly in

rock and soil minerals, ocean sedimentsrock and soil minerals, ocean sediments Most exist in form of inorganic phosphateMost exist in form of inorganic phosphate Land-plants-consumersLand-plants-consumers

Sec 3- BiomesSec 3- Biomes

What is a biome?What is a biome? Very large terrestrial ecosystems that contain number of smaller Very large terrestrial ecosystems that contain number of smaller

but related ecosystems within them, have characteristic climate but related ecosystems within them, have characteristic climate and speciesand species

How many different biomes cover the Earth’s land surface?How many different biomes cover the Earth’s land surface? 1010

Each is defined by unique set of abiotic factors-climate, and Each is defined by unique set of abiotic factors-climate, and by characteristic set of plants and animalsby characteristic set of plants and animals Tundra, taiga, temperate forest, northwestern coniferous Tundra, taiga, temperate forest, northwestern coniferous

forest, temperate woodland and shrubland, tropical rain forest, forest, temperate woodland and shrubland, tropical rain forest, tropical dry forest, temperate grassland, tropical savanna, and tropical dry forest, temperate grassland, tropical savanna, and desertdesert

Tundra is cold and treelessTundra is cold and treeless Covers 1/5 of world’s land surfaceCovers 1/5 of world’s land surface Very little precipitation, short growing seasons, animals include Very little precipitation, short growing seasons, animals include

caribou, musk oxen, snowy owls, arctic foxes, snowshoe harescaribou, musk oxen, snowy owls, arctic foxes, snowshoe hares PermafrostPermafrost Northern N America, Asia, EuropeNorthern N America, Asia, Europe

Taiga- covered with dense evergreen Taiga- covered with dense evergreen forestsforests Plants are adapted for long and cold winters, Plants are adapted for long and cold winters,

short summers and poor soilshort summers and poor soil Animals include moose, bears, wolves and lynx-Animals include moose, bears, wolves and lynx-

many hibernate for 6-8 monthsmany hibernate for 6-8 months North America, Asia, northern EuropeNorth America, Asia, northern Europe

Temperate forests-trees loose their leaves, Temperate forests-trees loose their leaves, pronounced seasons, precipitation evenly pronounced seasons, precipitation evenly distributed, cold winters/warm summersdistributed, cold winters/warm summers Trees include cottonwood, mapleTrees include cottonwood, maple Animals include deer, foxes, raccoons Animals include deer, foxes, raccoons Eastern U.S., most of Europe, ChinaEastern U.S., most of Europe, China

Temperate Grasslands- contain grasses, low Temperate Grasslands- contain grasses, low rainfall, fertile soil, support herds of mammals, rainfall, fertile soil, support herds of mammals, turned into farmlandturned into farmland Warm to hot summers/cold wintersWarm to hot summers/cold winters North America, central EuropeNorth America, central Europe

Deserts- receive less than 25 cm of rainfall a year, Deserts- receive less than 25 cm of rainfall a year, cold at night, vegetation is sparse, animals include cold at night, vegetation is sparse, animals include foxes, lizards and snakesfoxes, lizards and snakes Africa, Middle East, AustraliaAfrica, Middle East, Australia

Savannas- tropical and subtropical grasslands with Savannas- tropical and subtropical grasslands with scattered trees and shrubsscattered trees and shrubs Herbivores-zebras, giraffes, and gazellesHerbivores-zebras, giraffes, and gazelles Carnivores-lions, leopards, and cheetahsCarnivores-lions, leopards, and cheetahs Climate-Two seasons- wet and dryClimate-Two seasons- wet and dry Eastern Africa, southern BrazilEastern Africa, southern Brazil

Tropical Rain forest-tall trees, year round Tropical Rain forest-tall trees, year round growing seasons, abundant rainfall, highest growing seasons, abundant rainfall, highest species richnessspecies richness Animal life very diverse-birds, monkeys, snakes, Animal life very diverse-birds, monkeys, snakes,

lizardslizards Insects very abundantInsects very abundant Contains 1/5 of world’s known speciesContains 1/5 of world’s known species 2 football fields may have 300 species2 football fields may have 300 species Southeast Asia, southern India, parts of Central and Southeast Asia, southern India, parts of Central and

South AmericaSouth America Tropical Dry forest- precipitation is seasonal Tropical Dry forest- precipitation is seasonal

rather than year-roundrather than year-round Generally warm year-round, rich soilsGenerally warm year-round, rich soils Tigers, elephantsTigers, elephants Parts of Africa, Mexico, IndiaParts of Africa, Mexico, India

Temperate Woodland and Shrubland- Temperate Woodland and Shrubland- semiarid climate, dominated by shrubs semiarid climate, dominated by shrubs and open woodlandsand open woodlands Coyotes, foxes, blacktailed deerCoyotes, foxes, blacktailed deer Hot, dry summers, cool moist wintersHot, dry summers, cool moist winters Western coasts of N and S AmericaWestern coasts of N and S America

Northwestern Coniferous forest- made up Northwestern Coniferous forest- made up of variety of conifers, lush vegetationof variety of conifers, lush vegetation Mild temperatures, cool summers with Mild temperatures, cool summers with

abundant precipitation during spring, winter, abundant precipitation during spring, winter, fallfall

Pacific coast of northwestern U.S. and Pacific coast of northwestern U.S. and CanadaCanada

TundraTundra TaigaTaiga SavannaSavanna Deciduous ForestDeciduous Forest RainforestRainforest GrasslandsGrasslands DesertDesert

www.blueplanetbiomes.org/world_biomes.htm

Aquatic EcosystemsAquatic Ecosystems

Determined by primarily the depth, flow, temperature, Determined by primarily the depth, flow, temperature, and chemistry of the overlying waterand chemistry of the overlying water Grouped by abiotic factors that affect themGrouped by abiotic factors that affect them

Freshwater ecosystems divided into 2 types- flowing Freshwater ecosystems divided into 2 types- flowing water and standing water ecosystemwater and standing water ecosystem

Plankton- tiny, free-floating organisms live in Plankton- tiny, free-floating organisms live in freshwater and saltwaterfreshwater and saltwater

Phytoplankton- unicellular algae supported by Phytoplankton- unicellular algae supported by nutrients, form base of food webnutrients, form base of food web

Zooplankton- planktonic animals that feed on Zooplankton- planktonic animals that feed on phytoplanktonphytoplankton

Freshwater wetlands- water covering land for at least Freshwater wetlands- water covering land for at least part of yearpart of year Bogs, marshes, swampsBogs, marshes, swamps

EstuariesEstuaries Estuary occurs where freshwater rivers and streams Estuary occurs where freshwater rivers and streams

flow into the seaflow into the sea Ex. Bays, mud flats, salt marshes, Mangrove Ex. Bays, mud flats, salt marshes, Mangrove

swampsswamps Very species richVery species rich Vital to marine animals that are used as foodVital to marine animals that are used as food

Ex. Shrimp, mullet, redfish, anchoviesEx. Shrimp, mullet, redfish, anchovies Marine EcosystemsMarine Ecosystems

Divided into photic and aphotic zonesDivided into photic and aphotic zones Ocean divided into zones based on depth, distance Ocean divided into zones based on depth, distance

from shore: intertidal zone, coastal ocean, open oceanfrom shore: intertidal zone, coastal ocean, open ocean