Prenatal “experience” and the phylogenesis and ontogenesis of music Richard Parncutt, University of Graz Music & Science, Baden bei Wien, Austria, 1-4 October 2006
Dec 30, 2015
Prenatal “experience” and the phylogenesis and ontogenesis of music
Richard Parncutt, University of Graz
Music & Science, Baden bei Wien, Austria, 1-4 October 2006
Music, the body and biology
• Movement and dance (Trevarthen)
• Identity (Janata)
• Melody and speech (Koelsch)
• Rhythm and tempo (several…)
• Emotion (several…)
Why is music like this?
Origins and definitions of music
• A definition is necessary– to analytically explain origins
• Every definition and theory of origins – assumes universals– is ethnocentric
Music: A definition
(a) an acoustic signal that
(b) evokes recognizable patterns of sound,
(c) implies physical movement, (d) is perceived as segmented and structured,
(e) is meaningful,(f) is intentional wrt (b), (c), (d) or (e), and
(g) is accepted by a cultural group
Further musical universals
• Exists in all known cultures
• Has dedicated brain structures (Peretz)
• Functions– social (communication, group, identity)– emotional (share/influence states)– religious (gods, spirits)
Widespread musical structures
Themes and forms call-answer (antecedent-consequent) development (repetition, variation)
Melody pitch and interval distributions (M2, P8, P5 etc.) rise-fall phrases
Rhythm pulse perception/production, entrainment tempo distributions
Origins of musicSome theories
• Extended vocalisation– from speech (Spencer, 1890)– "tumbling strains" (Sachs, 1962)– primate vocalisations (Wallin,
2000)
• Imitation– Child’s drive to play– Movement, gesture, mimesis
(Tolbert, 2001)– Environmental sounds
(Cazden, 1951)
• Survival– mating (Darwin)– training (Roederer)– group survival
• long-distance communication (Stumpf, 1911)• rhythmic work (Bücher, 1896; Hornbostel, 1912)
Origins of musicTheoretical problems
• Evolutionary adaptation vs “parasite”
• Strong emotionality; spirituality, identity
• Biological basis of structures– rhythm and walking/heartbeat– melody and speech
• Roles of men vs women
• What actually happened and why?
Origins of music
a new scenario1. Fetus
a) environmental sounds and movementsb) perception c) classical conditioningd) communication with mother
2. Infanta) transnatal memory b) protomusical sensitivityc) communication with mother / adultsd) operant conditioning
3. Child and adultreflective consciousness and culture
1. Fetus
a) Environmental sounds, movementsInternal to mother’s body• vocalizations and breathing • heartbeat• body movements and footfalls • digestion
All these sounds• are repetitive• depend on mother’s (emotional) state• are muffled (low-pass to about 2 kHz)
External sounds• Only loud, mid-frequency sound
1. Fetus
b) Perception
• Functioning cochlea and vestibule – from 20-24 weeks– both sound and motion
• Myelinization of auditory pathways– from 24-28 weeks – improved neural transmission
1. Fetus
c) Classical conditioning
• Pavlov’s dog• Parncutt’s fetus
Both are examples of• perceptual learning (Gibson)• without reflective awareness
Classical conditioningPavlov‘s dog
neutral stimulus footsteps
unconditioned stimulus food
unconditioned response saliva
many repetitions
conditioned stimulus footsteps
conditioned response saliva
Classical conditioning of fetus (Spelt 1948; Hepper 1996)
neutral stimulus vibration or tone
unconditioned stimulus loud noise
unconditioned response fetal movement
15-20 repetitions
conditioned stimulus vibration or tone
conditioned response fetal movement
Classical conditioning
Parncutt‘s fetus
neutral stimulus auditory, tactile, kinesthetic
unconditioned stimulus biochemical
unconditioned response emotional
many repetitions
conditioned stimulus auditory, tactile, kinesthetic
conditioned response emotional
Biochemical correlates of emotionExamples
• fear– corticosteroids, e.g. glucocorticoids, e.g. cortisol
• anger – high cortisol, adrenaline– low dopamine, serotonin
• bonding– oxytocin
Placental filtering
• passes – nutrients and oxygen toward fetus– wastes and carbon dioxide away– fetal steroids since highly lipophilic
• partly filters out – bacteria, viruses, toxins, drugs– chemicals like alcohol, nicotine, cocaine
Brain-blood barrier
• Protects brain from infection
• Passes lipid-soluble molecules– O2, CO2, ethanol, steroid hormones
• Steroid hormones include– glucocorticoids incl. cortisol– mineralocorticoids incl. aldosterone– sex steroids
• androgens• estrogens• progestagens
1. Fetus
d) “Communication” with mother
• Emotion, physical state
• Physiological and behavioural
• Survival value: bonding after birth
2. Infant
a) Transnatal “memory”
Babies “recognize” “melodies” heard repeatedly before birth (e.g. Hepper)
This is not “memory” but• ontogenetic adaptation to prenatal environment• phylogenetic exaptation (Buss)
– parasitic on prenatal audition/bonding
Duration of “memory”:• Hepper: a few weeks• Lamont: one year?
2. Infant
b) Protomusical sensitivityInfants are:1. sensitive to musical structure2. sensitive to musical emotion3. more interested in singing than speech
Trehub & Nakata (2001)
Prenatal perceptual learning model:1. heart/feet rhythm, voice melody2. sound patterns depend on emotion 3. muffling emphasizes pitch contour
2. Infant
c) Communication with adults
Infant-adult vocal play (motherese) • is universal
• promotes speech acquisition
• involves meaningful gestures (Papousek)
• may underlie (musical) ritual (Dissanayake)
• projects prenatal learning into childhood
2. Infant
d) Operant conditioning
• Skinner’s rat
• Parncutt’s baby
Both are examples of• perceptual learning (Gibson)• without reflective awareness
Operant conditioning Skinner: positive reinforcement
quasi-random behavior
accidentally
push lever
reward receive sugar
increase in frequency of behavior
Why does the rat push the lever?
Operant conditioning:Motherese
quasi-random behavior
accidentally create prenatally “familiar” sound patterns
reward emotion
increase in frequency of behavior
Why do mother and baby exchange physical/vocal gestures?
3. Child and adult
Reflective consciousness
„Cultural explosion“ (Mithen) 100-50 kya• “conscious” use of symbols
– painting, body decoration
• social organisation– migration, ritual (e.g. burial)
Music as deliberate creation of emotional sound patterns
The origins of music3 stages
A = adaptation, E = exaptation (parasite)
1. Fetus: Emotionality of pitch-time patternsA: Prenatal bonding and preparation for languageE: Classical conditioning (sound-movement-emotion)
2. Infant: Motherese as protomusicA: Postnatal bonding and preparation for languageE: Operant conditioning (sound-movement-emotion)
3. Children and adults: Music as we know itA: Reflective language and consciousnessE: Music as deliberate emotional manipulation
Thesis• Music is exaptive
– a parasite on pre- and postnatal • bonding • preparation for language
• Music may also be adaptive– trains individual cognitive and motor abilities– promotes social coherence