Prehistoric copper metallurgy in the Italian Eastern Alps: recent results

Historical Metallurgy 47(1) for 2013 (published 2014) 51–59

Prehistoric copper metallurgy in the Italian Eastern Alps: recent results

Gilberto Artioli, Ivana Angelini, Paolo Nimis, Anna Addis and Igor M Villa

ABSTRACT: The University of Padova has developed a geochemical database for

the Alpine copper mines which contains lead isotope data for most of the copper

deposits in the Western Alps and Italian Eastern Alps, besides a number of other

geochemical tracers for selected deposits. The database ills an existing gap in avail-able reference data and provides information for the geochemical interpretation of

the mineral deposits. It is of course also an important reference for archaeometric

purposes, to provenance the mineral source of slags and metal objects. Several Alpine

copper deposits may now be successfully discriminated from those of other European

and Mediterranean mining areas. The results obtained on a number of Copper Age

and Bronze Age metal objects are presented. A few objects made with copper ores of

South-East Alpine origin have been positively identiied for the irst time, though the data also indicate a wide circulation of copper metal possibly originating from ore

sources outside the Alps.

Introduction

Provenancing the ore source of copper and bronze metal

objects implies the use of geochemical and isotopic

tracers to:

• signiicantly discriminate the geographically and geologically different ore sources from the physi-co-chemical and statistical points of view, and

• link the metallurgical product (raw metal, slag, metal

object) to the source.

To date, the successful provenancing of copper and

bronze metals has been mainly performed by lead isotope analysis, because lead isotopes are part of a radiometric series that records the geological age of

the deposit (Gale and Stos-Gale 2000; Villa 2009;

Artioli 2010). Although ambiguities are present because

geographically different deposits may show similar iso-

topic signatures, the availability of a well selected and reasoned database can usually aid in the discrimination of the possible ore sources (Pernicka 1999; Pernicka

2004; Pollard 2009; Gale 2009). Although a number

of investigations resulted in the publication of lead

isotope data for many deposits in Europe and around the Mediterranean region (see for example the OXALID

database at the Oxford Isotrace Laboratory: http://oxalid.

arch.ox.ac.uk/; and the vast literature quoted in Ling et

al 2014), surprisingly few studies have focused on the Italian Alps, which are nonetheless a very well-known source of prehistoric metal because of the occurrence

of vast amounts of smelting slags (Weisgerber and

Goldenberg 2004).

To fill the gap, a project developed in the last dec-

ade (AAcP Alpine Archaeocopper Project: http://geo.

geoscienze.unipd.it/aacp/welcome.html) focused on the

preparation of a database of lead isotope analyses for a substantial number of Alpine deposits (Fig 1), both in the

Western Alps (Artioli et al 2009) and the in the Italian

Eastern Alps (Nimis et al 2012). An early attempt to discriminate the mining areas through statistical analysis of a large number of geochemical parameters (Artioli et

al 2008) met with some success, although proved too

costly and demanding from the experimental point of view to be extended over the whole Alpine area. The

52

ARTIOLI ET AL: COPPER METALLURGY IN THE ITALIAN ALPS HM 47(1) 2013

present database therefore is based on lead isotope ratios,

and geochemical tracers are used only to resolve local ambiguities for mines having similar isotopic signal.

The same combination of geochemical and isotopic

parameters has been used to resolve isotopic ambiguities

in speciic cases (Baron et al 2013).

Here we report:

• the rationale employed to develop the Alpine copper database,

• the strategies to distinguish Alpine deposits between

themselves and from other European deposits, and • application of provenancing to a number of prehis-

toric artefacts.

The lead isotope (LI) database

The sampling started almost a decade ago in the most

famous copper mines exploited in the Middle Age and

later times, such as Valle Imperina (Agordo, Veneto),

Pfundererberg (Chiusa, Alto Adige), Saint-Véran

(Queyras), Libiola and Monte Loreto (Liguria), and Calceranica and Vetriolo (Valsugana, Trentino). The

sampling was then slowly extended to most known copper-bearing localities, even the small ore occurrences

that could not be exploited proitably for modern indus-

trial production but could be the centres of small-scale

prehistoric mining. To date, the only Italian Alpine area that has not been systematically investigated is the Central Alps of Lombardy.

The strength of the database is that all isotopic data have

been collected from carefully characterised materials. There are at least 5-10 samples from most mining areas.

Each specimen has been characterised by mineralogical and petrographic analysis using relected-light optical microscopy, X-ray powder diffraction, and most of them also by scanning electron microscopy. This al-lows appropriate classiication of the ore minerals into primary ores (usually chalcopyrite, locally bornite or tetrahedrite), remobilised copper sulphides (second

generation chalcopyrite), secondary minerals produced by alteration (commonly azurite, malachite, brochantite etc), and eventually native copper. The identiied copper minerals were subsequently separated for chemical attack and mass spectrometric analysis.

The measurements of the LI ratios were performed

by a Nu Plasma MC-ICP-MS spectrometer, equipped with 12 Faraday cages acting as detectors and opti-cal zooms (Isotope Laboratory, Institut für Geologie, Universität Bern). Calibration is referred to NIST SRM 981 (204Pb/206Pb = 0.05904 ± 0.00004, 207Pb/206Pb =

0.91464 ± 0.00033, 208Pb/206Pb = 2.16810 ± 0.00080).

As a final note, we would like to encourage the use

of modern three dimensional data (ie using the 204Pb

measurements) in plotting the LI data (ie 206Pb/204Pb

vs 207Pb/204Pb vs 208Pb/204Pb plots), irst of all because they bear a more direct relationship to the geological and geochemical signiicance of the deposits, ie age

Figure 1: Map of the Alpine copper mines studied.

53

HM 47(1) 2013 ARTIOLI ET AL: COPPER METALLURGY IN THE ITALIAN ALPS

isochrons and parent reservoir (Faure and Mensing

2007), and furthermore because they allow far better discrimination between deposits (Nimis 2010, Baron et

al 2013). It is unfortunate that many old studies could not measure the 204Pb signal, so that the data are restricted

to two dimensional information, ie the commonly used 208Pb/206Pb vs 207Pb/206Pb plots.

Discrimination of Alpine copper deposits

Taken at face value, the plots of the LI ratios for most

of the copper deposits in Europe and around the Mediterranean region look hopeless, whether we plot

them in the conventional way (ie over 206Pb, Fig 2a)

or in the more discriminant way (ie over 204Pb, Fig 2b).

Figure 2: Overall diagrams of the available LI data for copper deposits in Europe and around the Mediterranean. a) conventional 2-D 208Pb/206Pb vs 207Pb/206Pb plot, b) 3-D 207Pb/204Pb vs vs 207Pb/204Pb vs 208Pb/204Pb plot. The data are those available in the literature for copper minerals: OXALID database, the literature cited in Ling et al (2014), and our Alpine data (Artioli et al 2009, Nimis et al 2012).

b

a

54

ARTIOLI ET AL: COPPER METALLURGY IN THE ITALIAN ALPS HM 47(1) 2013

The points in Figure 2 were critically selected from the literature data insofar as they are only the analyses relat-ed to copper ores and not all the published data, which

include many analyses of galena from Cu-poor deposits or from uncharacterised assemblages of mineral phases.

This is actually an important point, because it may help constrain the interpretation of the copper mineralisations.

Further restriction may be performed by including only those mines that are known to have been exploited in

the past, although this limitation may create biases due to the incomplete archaeological record.

For the time being we retain all the copper ore infor-

mation, with no restriction based on modern or ancient

exploitation, but we zoom in on the central left part

of Figure 2b, to comment on the Alpine data (Fig 3a).

The Alpine data measured so far can be simpliied into three major ields by using the 207Pb/204Pb vs 206Pb/204Pb

projection (Fig 3b):

• the pre-Variscan stratiform deposits (marked with the

dark red ellipse), whose most notable mining areas

are those located along the Valsugana tectonic line

(Valsugana sensu lato mines: Calceranica, Vetriolo,

Valle Imperina),

• the deposits related to post-Variscan volcanism in

the Southalpine region (marked with the magenta el-

lipse), which include a number of mining areas in the

Trentino and Alto Adige regions (eg Pfundererberg,

Val dei Mocheni), and

• the deposits of the Western Alps (green ellipse),

which include the Ligurian ophiolite-associated

deposits (eg Libiola) and their more northerly, high pressure metamorphic counterparts in the so-called

Falda Piemontese (Piedmont Zone) geological unit

(eg Saint-Véran, Queiras).

Some of the points relative to the Falda Piemontese fall

within the ields of the Eastern Southalpine deposits. This overlap will be discussed in detail below because

it is important for the interpretation of the copper used

for the Chiusa di Pesio objects. This simpliied view of course does not give justice to the complex Alpine

geology, whose details are to be found in the original papers (Artioli et al 2009, Nimis et al 2012). The ield of the Southern Tuscany (Toscana meridionale) deposits

(grey ellipse) is shown for comparison on Figure 3b to indicate that they can be discriminated from the Alpine copper deposits. Very similar discrimination ields can be obtained using the complementary 208Pb/204Pb vs 206Pb/204Pb diagram (Fig 3c) or the full 3D plot (Fig 3a).

Although schematic and somewhat arbitrary, these ields can be eficiently used as a start for the interpretation of Alpine ore provenancing.

Figure 3: a) 3-D plot of the LI data for Alpine copper deposits. b) 207Pb/204Pb vs 206Pb/204Pb plot, and c) 208Pb/204Pb vs 206Pb/204Pb plot of the same data showing simplified discriminating ields of the deposits; see text for details.

b

a

c

55

HM 47(1) 2013 ARTIOLI ET AL: COPPER METALLURGY IN THE ITALIAN ALPS

Several important points are discussed with reference to

speciic examples. Most of the deposits in the Western Alps do indeed carry a strong signal (ie low 207Pb/204Pb

ratio) due to the mantle origin of the source. As a

matter of fact many of the data points relative to the Saint-Véran bornites (and other ophiolite-associated

deposits from the Falda Piemontese with blueschist

metamorphic overprint) and the Libiola/Monte Loreto

ophiolite-related chalcopyrite are even lower than those shown in the diagram. However, despite the fact that the

signal is easily recognisable and both mining areas are likely to be have been exploited in ancient times (Early Chalcolithic for Libiola and Monte Loreto: Maggi and

Pearce 2005; Pearce 2007; Early Bronze Age for Saint- Véran: Bourgarit et al 2008; 2010) to date there are no

investigated objects which can be securely referred to the Ligurian or Queyras copper.

In the Western Alps (Piemonte, Valle d’Aosta) there are

also widespread pyrite-chalcopyrite ore sources related to the Falda Piemontese, which is mainly composed of calcschists with embedded ophiolites. Their LI signal

is partially overlapping with that of the mines in the Eastern Southalpine region (green circles in the magenta ellipse, Figs 3b and 3c), with which they can of course be confused. Some other yet unsampled mining areas in the Central Alps may also have a comparable isotopic signal. The issue is of some importance for the interpretation of

objects having an isotopic signal that is partly shifted with respect to the main ields of the Eastern Alpine ores. A case example are the bronze objects forming the Final

Bronze Age (FBA) hoard of Chiusa Pesio (Venturino Gambari 2009). Apart from two specific objects (la-

belled CP161 and CP162) that will be discussed below,

all of the analysed objects from the hoard are made of isotopically similar copper, and they mostly plot in between the two major ields of the Eastern Southalpine (Fig 4). The surprising fact is that they have a minimal overlap with the ields of the Eastern Alpine ores (apart from object CP161, which is perfectly compatible with the ores of the Valsugana valley, Trentino). Our favoured interpretation is that the observed mismatch is not due

to missing samples or unexplored areas in the Eastern Southalpine, which has been extensively surveyed, but rather to a partially missing signal from the still undersampled Western Alps or possibly, the unsampled Central Alps. The match between the objects and the

Falda Piemontese ores is entirely plausible, especially in view of the signiicant variability of isotopic data for the latter (Artioli et al 2009). Furthermore: in the

hoard there is a small lump of raw metal (CP162) with

composition around Cu 54wt%, Ni 16wt%, Co 8wt%, As 6wt%, Sb 3wt%, Fe 4wt%, S 3wt% (Angelini et al

Figure 4: a) 3-D plot of the LI data for the bronze objects of the FBA Chiusa di Pesio hoard (black stars); the data are from Artioli et al (2009). The drop lines indicate the projection of the data for the objects (black) and the two major ields of the eastern Alpine ores (red and orange). b) and c) 2-D plots of the same data showing the data for the objects compared with the major Alpine ore ields (as shown on Figures 3b and 3c). The two speciic objects (CP161 and CP162) are discussed in the text.

b

a

c

56

ARTIOLI ET AL: COPPER METALLURGY IN THE ITALIAN ALPS HM 47(1) 2013

2009). This amazing piece of metal, rich in Ni and Co, has a LI signal that apparently falls within the ield of the Eastern Southalpine (Figure 4), although there are no known Co, Ni-rich mineralisations in the area. On the other hand, there is a famous cobalt locality in the Western Alps (the Cruvino mine, near Usseglio) that

shows an assemblage of Ni-pentlandite and skutteru-

dite, besides other Co and As mineral species, such as

löllingite and saflorite (Fenoglio and Fornaseri 1940; Piccoli 2007). This locality has a LI signal perfectly compatible with the metal lump of the hoard, and similar

to other chalcopyrite occurrences in the Piedmont area (eg Valli di Lanzo), which are interpreted as the source

of the Chiusa di Pesio metal (Artioli et al 2009).

Of course in principle it is not possible to exclude the

possibility of metal mixing from different sources. In this speciic case the mixing would imply copper from both the main areas in the Italian Eastern Alps, with a substantial contribution of the signal from the Valle

Imperina, Agordo ores, which would decrease the 206Pb

signal of the Eastern Southalpine ores without lowering the 207Pb one. However to date, despite extensive re-

search, there is no indication that the Agordo ores were

exploited in pre-medieval times, so that the hypothesis of mixing of Eastern Alpine copper ores is rather unlikely. The Chiusa di Pesio case study shows the problems and the pitfalls that are encountered when LI data are

interpreted simplistically.

The two main ields of the ores from the Italian Eastern Alps can be distinguished from most of the other de-

posits in Europe and in the Mediterranean area. Figure 5 illustrates the LI data of the Italian Eastern Alps compared to the data of the copper deposits showing

overlap with the Alpine ields: Sardinia, Tuscany, and the Austrian Tyrol (Inn valley, Schwaz). The igures also shows that the Sardinian copper ores can be divided into

four well separated isotopic groups. In the 206Pb/204Pb

vs 207Pb/204Pb plot the 206Pb-poor ield of the Alps (dark red ellipse: Valsugana sensu lato mines) substantially overlaps with the typical SW Sardinian ores (Fig 5a), whereas the 206Pb-rich ield of the Eastern Southalpine domain (magenta ellipse) partially overlaps with the cen-

tral Sardinian ores. The discrimination can be better per-

formed using the 206Pb/204Pb vs 208Pb/204Pb diagram (Fig

5b). In both plots the Tuscan and Tyrol ores are distinct from the Southalpine ields. It is worth noting that apart from the SW Sardinian mines (Iglesiente) there are no

other ore ields in Europe or around the Mediterranean that overlap significantly with the Valsugana sensu

lato mines (Calceranica, Vetriolo, Valle Imperina), so

that objects carrying this signal can generally be safely

distinguished.

This is the case of the Chiusa di Pesio object (CP161)

discussed before (see also Fig 6) and of some of the ob-

jects found in the very important Eneolithic hoard from Col del Buson, Valle del Piave, near Agordo (Bianchin Citton 2006, Angelini et al 2011). Figure 6 shows that at

least two of the objects in the hoard (axes) were clearly manufactured with ores from the Valsugana sensu

lato mines, although the metallography and chemical characterisation show that the smelted ore was mainly oxidic (Angelini et al 2011), possibly the supergenic minerals of the Calceranica-Vetriolo deposits that were

exploited in the early stages of local mining. The data also indicate that two other objects from the same hoard

(an awl and an axe fragment) are probably derived from distinct copper sources from the same Trentino

area (Fig 6), whereas a fragment of a metal bead is not

compatible with the known copper sources from the

Figure 5: a) and b) 2-D plots of the LI data for some of the major ore deposits partially overlapping with the Alpine ields. The triangular points represent Sardinian ores and are grouped into four pale and darker brown rectangles, the blue ellipse includes most of the Tyrol ores; see text for details. Data sources as for Figure 2.

b

a

57

HM 47(1) 2013 ARTIOLI ET AL: COPPER METALLURGY IN THE ITALIAN ALPS

Eastern Southern Alps, suggesting derivation from far sources, possibly even from the Balkans. Despite the geographical proximity of the Col del Buson site to the Agordo area, the local metal was not used. The presence

of isotopically different copper in objects found in the same site testiies the movement of the metal through the Alps already in the Copper Age, and the very early exploitation of the resources of the Eastern Alps.

As an example of the proicient use of the database, we attempted to interpret the provenance of the metal of a

set of Early Bronze Age (EBA) objects recently analysed from the Garda area (Pernicka and Salzani 2011, table

4). The data are plotted in Figure 7 together with the

previously discussed ields of the Italian Eastern Alps, and the Southern Tuscany and Austrian Tyrol ore ields for comparison. Four of the objects plot in the low 206Pb part of the diagram and agree rather well with the

Valsugana ield (Calceranica and Vetriolo mines). The

fact that two of the objects show appreciable arsenic

in the composition (with no other impurities) is a fur-

ther conirmation that the interpretation is plausible: arsenopyrite is a common accessory in the mineral assemblage of these mines (Frizzo 2004). One of the

objects, containing tin (in the high 206Pb part of the

diagram) is hardly from Alpine copper. It roughly its with the ield of the Tyrol ores, although the reported lack of fahlerz-type composition typical of such ores makes this interpretation doubtful. Of course a number of other

ore ields in the Eastern Mediterranean also cover this part of the diagram (for example several mining areas

in Greece and Turkey among others, not shown in the igure), though possible provenance from these areas still has to be checked against the archaeological and

elemental data for the object.

A number of other objects approximately fit in the LI field of the Eastern Southalpine deposits (Fig 7). However they bear little afinity to the major chalcopy-

Figure 6: a) and b) 2-D plots of the LI data for some of the Eneolithic objects from the Col del Buson hoard, Belluno; the data are from Angelini et al (2011). The Alpine ore ields are marked for comparison, as are the data for the copper ores from Austrian Tyrol, Tuscany, and the Balkans. Data sources as for Figure 2.

Figure 7: a) and b) 2-D plots of the LI data for some of the EBA objects from the Garda area; the data are from Pernicka and Salzani (2011).The Alpine ore ields are marked for comparison, as are the data for the copper ores from Austrian Tyrol and Tuscany.

b

a

b

a

58

ARTIOLI ET AL: COPPER METALLURGY IN THE ITALIAN ALPS HM 47(1) 2013

rite-rich deposits in Trentino and Alto Adige (the orange

circles in the diagrams). Rather they plot near the data measured on several small Cu deposits in Carnia and

in the Agordo area (yellow and magenta circles in the diagrams) that have mineral assemblages including

tetrahedrite, bournonite, and boulangerite, together with

other minor components. The reported composition of

these objects is close to what is expected for such ores,

and rather similar to what is commonly considered the composition of fahlerz copper. Actually some of the reported fahlerz from Tyrol (Brixlegg) have similar 206Pb/204Pb values, but they have lower 207Pb/204Pb values

than those of the reported objects. If the geochemical

correspondence with Carnia and Agordo ores is con-

firmed, it has the important consequence that some

of the fahlerz-based objects assigned to the Austrian

provenance (North Tyrol, Schwaz-Inn area) on the basis of composition alone, could actually be made of Southern Alpine copper. Of course mixing of different

sources cannot be excluded. This is an important issue

that needs to be clariied in the future.

Conclusions

Lead isotope data for many Alpine copper deposits have been measured and inserted in a mineralogically- and geologically-reasoned database encompassing copper mineral data selected from the literature. It covers

most of the copper deposits in Europe and around the Mediterranean area. The data can be rationalised into

reference discriminating ields for Alpine ores using the 208Pb/204Pb vs 207Pb/204Pb vs 206Pb/204Pb plots, which

can be effectively used to interpret the provenance of prehistoric metal. The application of the discriminating

diagrams with artefacts’ data yields strong indication that the Eastern Southalpine ores have been extensively exploited since Eneolithic times. Some published data in the literature with no secure interpretation may now be safely provenanced, and we trust that the database will help in the interpretation of ancient metal production

and trade in the Alpine region.

Acknowledgements

Collaboration is acknowledged with Marica Venturino

(Chiusa di Pesio hoard), Elodia Bianchin (Col del Buson hoard), the ARCA Agordo Archaeological Group (Agordo Project), Benno Baumgarten (Alto Adige ores), and Paolo Ferretti (Trentino ores).

ReferencesAngelini I, Molin G and Artioli G 2009, ‘L’atelier metallurgico di

Monte Cavanero. Indagini chimiche e metallograiche’, in M Venturino Gambari (ed), Il ripostiglio del Monte Cavanero di

Chiusa di Pesio (Cuneo) (Alessandria), 107-165.

Angelini I, Giunti I and Artioli G 2011, ‘Indagini archeometallurgiche

su reperti dell’età del Rame della valle del Piave’, Quaderni di

Archeologia del Veneto 27, 107-105.

Artioli G 2010, Scientiic methods and the cultural heritage (Oxford).

Artioli G, Baumgarten B, Marelli M, Giussani B, Recchia S, Nimis P, Giunti I, Angelini I and Omenetto P 2008, ‘Chemical and isotopic

tracers in Alpine copper deposits: geochemical links between

mines and metal’, Geo Alp 5, 139-148.

Artioli G, Angelini I, Giunti I, Omenetto P, Villa I M 2009, ‘La

provenienza del metallo degli oggetti di Monte Cavanero: con-

siderazioni basate sugli isotopi del Pb e sulla geochimica delle

mineralizzazioni cuprifere limitrofe’, in M Venturino Gambari

(ed,) Il ripostiglio del Monte Cavanero di Chiusa di Pesio (Cuneo)

(Alessandria), 167-178.

Baron S, Tămaş C G and Le Carlier C 2013, ‘How mineralogy and geochemistry can improve the signiicance of Pb Isotopes in metal provenance studies’, Archaeometry DOI: 10.1111/arcm.12037.

Bianchin Citton E 2006, ‘Belluno, Col del Buson nella Valle dell’Ardo: un sito a lunga frequentazione, dal tardo Neolitico agli inizi dell’età del Bronzo’, Quaderni di archeologia del

Veneto 22, 15-25.

Bourgarit D, Rostan P, Burger E, Carozza L, Mille B and Artioli G 2008, ‘The beginning of copper mass production in the western

Alps: the Saint-Véran mining area reconsidered’, Historical

Metallurgy 42(1), 1-11.

Bourgarit D, Rostan P, Carozza L, Mille B and Artioli G 2010, ‘Vingt

ans de recherches à Saint-Véran, Hautes Alpes: état des connais-

sances de l’activité de production de cuivre à l’âge du Bronze ancien’, Trabajos de Prehistoria 67, 269-285.

Faure G and Mensing T M 2007, ‘Isotopes: principles and applica-

tions’ (Hoboken)

Fenoglio M and Fornaseri M 1940, ‘Il giacimento di nichelio e

cobalto del Cruvino in Val di Susa’, Periodico di Mineralogia

11, 23-43.

Frizzo P 2004, ‘La miniera di Calceranica e i giacimenti a solfuri

massicci della zona Agordino-Valsuganese’, in P Passardi and

P Zammatteo (eds), Le miniere del Mandola in Valsugana,

Monograie I del Museo Tridentino di Scienze Naturali (Trento),

157-180.

Gale N H and Stos-Gale ZA 2000, ‘Lead isotope analyses applied to provenance studies’, in E Ciliberto and G Spoto (eds), Modern

analytical methods in art and archaeometry (New York), 503-584.Gale N H 2009, A response to the paper of A M Pollard: ‘What a

long, strange trip it’s been: lead isotopes and archaeology’, in A J Shortland, I C Freestone and T Rehren (eds), From mine

to microscope – advances in the study of ancient technology

(Oxford), 191-196.

Ling J, Stos-Gale Z, Grandin L, Billström K, Hjärthner-Holdar E and Persson P O 2014, ‘Moving metals II: provenancing Scandinavian

Bronze Age artefacts by lead isotope and elemental analyses’, Journal of Archaeological Science 41, 106-132.

Maggi R and Pearce M 2005, ‘Mid fourth-millennium copper mining in Liguria, north-west Italy: the earliest known copper mines in Western Europe’, Antiquity 79, 66-77.

Nimis P 2010, ‘Some remarks on the use of geochemical tracres for metal provenancing’, in: C Magrini and F Sbarra (eds), Late

Roman glazed pottery in Carlino and in central-east Europe

(Oxford: BAR IS 2068), 3-9.

59

HM 47(1) 2013 ARTIOLI ET AL: COPPER METALLURGY IN THE ITALIAN ALPS

Nimis P, Omenetto P, Giunti I, Artioli G and Angelini I 2012, ‘Lead

isotope systematics in hydrothermal sulphide deposits from the central-eastern Southalpine (Northern Italy)’, European Journal

of Mineralogy 24, 23-37.

Pearce M 2007, Bright blades and red metal. Essays on north Italian

prehistoric metalwork (London).

Pernicka E 1999, ‘Trace element ingerprinting of ancient copper: A guide to technology or provenance?’, in S M M Young, A M Pollard, P Budd and R A Ixer (eds), Metals in Antiquity (Oxford:

BAR IS 792), 163–171.Pernicka E 2004, ‘Archaeometallurgy: examples of the application

of scientiic methods to the provenance of archeological metal objects’, in M Martini, M Milazzo and M Piacentini (eds), Physics

methods in archaeometry (Bologna/Oxford), 309–329.Pernicka E and Salzani P 2011, ‘Remarks on the analyses and future

prospects’, in A Aspes (ed), I bronzi del Garda (Verona), 89-98.

Piccoli G C (ed) 2007, Minerali del Piemonte e della Valle d’Aosta

(Alba).

Pollard AM 2009, ‘What a long, strange trip it’s been: lead isotopes

and archaeology’, in A J Shortland, I C Freestone and T Rehren (eds), From mine to microscope – advances in the study of ancient

technology (Oxford), 181-189.

Venturino Gambari M 2009, Il ripostiglio del Monte Cavanero di

Chiusa di Pesio (Cuneo) (Alessandria).

Villa I M 2009, ‘Lead isotopic measurements in archaeological

objects’, Journal of Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences

1, 149-153.

Weisgerber G and Goldenberg G (eds) 2004, Alpenkupfer – Rame

delle Alpi (Bochum: Der Anschnitt 17).

The Authors

Gilberto Artioli is professor of mineralogy and crystallography at the University of Padova and director of the CIRCe Centre for the investigation of cement materials. He has a degree in geology from the University of Modena and a PhD in geophysical sciences from the University of Chicago. His scientiic interests include crystal structures and crystal chemistry, applied and industrial mineralogy, materials science, archaeometry and advanced characterisation techniques in the solid state.

Address: Dipartimento di Geoscienze, Università di

Padova, Via Gradenigo 6, I-35131 Padova, Italy.e-mail: [email protected]

Ivana Angelini has a degree in chemistry from the University of Milan, a MSc in polymer science from Milan Polytechnic and a PhD in conservation of the cultural heritage from the University of Padova where she is now a postdoctoral researcher. Her research

interests include the archaeometry and archaeology of metals, amber, and protohistoric glass.

Address: Dipartimento di Geoscienze, Università di

Padova, Via Gradenigo 6, I-35131 Padova, Italy.

Paolo Nimis graduated in geological sciences in 1990 and earned a PhD in earth sciences in 1994 at the

University of Padova, where he has been a researcher in mineral resources 1998-2006 and Associate Professor

since 2006. His research activity is in the ields of mantle and diamond science, ore deposits and archaeometry.Address: Dipartimento di Geoscienze, Università di

Padova, Via Gradenigo 6, I-35131 Padova, Italy.

Anna Addis is a postdoctoral researcher at the

Geosciences Department at the University of Padova. She received a MA in science of the cultural heritage

from the University of Bologna in 2008 and a BA in engineering from the University of Cagliari in 2005. In 2013, she obtained her PhD in earth sciences investigat-

ing copper metallurgy in Northern Italy during the Late Bronze Age. Her main focus is the characterisation of cultural heritage materials, including historical mortars,

Renaissance metals and archaeological slags.Address: Dipartimento di Geoscienze, Università di

Padova, Via Gradenigo 6, I-35131 Padova, Italy.

Igor M Villa graduated in physics in Pisa, was a research-

er at the Istituto di Geocronologia in Pisa 1976-1991,

then moved to Universität Bern and since 2002 he is Professor of Geochemistry at Università di Milano Bicocca; he is Director of the Centro Universitario Datazioni e Archeometria di Milano Bicocca since 2013. His research interests are geochronology, isotope geochemistry, and archeometry.Address: Institut für Geologie, Baltzerstrasse 3, 3012 Bern, Switzerland and Centro Universitario Datazioni e Archeometria, Università di Milano Bicocca, I-20126 Milano, Italy.