Pre-Socratics to Aristotle

The Pre-SocraticsThe Pre-Socratics

Thales 624-545 B.C.E.Thales 624-545 B.C.E. Born in Miletus (Turkey). Born in Miletus (Turkey). Interests: natural philosophy, mathematics, and Interests: natural philosophy, mathematics, and

astronomy. astronomy. He wrote “On Nature” He wrote “On Nature” Using physics, he measured the Egyptian Using physics, he measured the Egyptian

pyramids. pyramids. Predicted a solar eclipse in 585 B.C.E. Predicted a solar eclipse in 585 B.C.E. He was in search of the He was in search of the archearche or “first principle or “first principle

of the universe.” of the universe.” His conclusion: all is water, the world rests on His conclusion: all is water, the world rests on

water and has a soul or spirit. water and has a soul or spirit.

Anaximander 610-540 B.C.E.Anaximander 610-540 B.C.E. Possibly a student of Thales Possibly a student of Thales Interests-geometry, astronomy, philosophy. Interests-geometry, astronomy, philosophy. First philosophy in prose. First philosophy in prose. Invented theInvented the sundial sundial.. First Greek to give us a map of the world. First Greek to give us a map of the world. Argues: all is “boundless” with no specific Argues: all is “boundless” with no specific

qualities, qualities, creating opposites.creating opposites. Divine because it is deathless and Divine because it is deathless and

indestructible. indestructible. world surrounded by concentric circles made up world surrounded by concentric circles made up

of the earth in the center then water, air, fire. of the earth in the center then water, air, fire.

Anaximenes 545 B.C.E.Anaximenes 545 B.C.E. An “associate” of Anaximander. An “associate” of Anaximander. Argues: All is air, has no limits and never dies. Argues: All is air, has no limits and never dies. Empirical research led him to believe that what Empirical research led him to believe that what

is alive breaths and has a soul and this must be is alive breaths and has a soul and this must be true of the cosmos. true of the cosmos.

Argues: what happens to the smallest creature Argues: what happens to the smallest creature must also happen on a greater level. (e.g. must also happen on a greater level. (e.g. Condensation of air creates water to snow then Condensation of air creates water to snow then ice.)ice.)

Like Thales, Anaximenes believed the earth Like Thales, Anaximenes believed the earth rested on something and his something was air.rested on something and his something was air.

Xenophones 570 B.C.E.Xenophones 570 B.C.E. A traveler and roaming poet, born in Colophon. A traveler and roaming poet, born in Colophon. May have been the teacher of Parmenides. May have been the teacher of Parmenides. Interests: Poetry, Religion, and Natural Interests: Poetry, Religion, and Natural

Philosophy. Philosophy. First to try to discredit the gods. First to try to discredit the gods. Argues: humans project their thoughts and Argues: humans project their thoughts and

actions onto the gods. actions onto the gods. Humans have knowledge from experience; Humans have knowledge from experience;

perception is different for each (culturally).perception is different for each (culturally).

Pythagoras 570-497 B.C.E.Pythagoras 570-497 B.C.E. Pythagoras was the leader of a popular Pythagoras was the leader of a popular

religious cult named after him. religious cult named after him. Pythagorean Brotherhood lived a regimented Pythagorean Brotherhood lived a regimented

life in Croton, Italylife in Croton, Italy He believed in reincarnation and the He believed in reincarnation and the

transmigration of the soul. transmigration of the soul. The soul is immortal and humans can reunite The soul is immortal and humans can reunite

with the divine by perfecting/puryfying themselfwith the divine by perfecting/puryfying themself Incarnation is punishment for bad things we do. Incarnation is punishment for bad things we do. Main argument is that the world is a place of Main argument is that the world is a place of

order and that order comes from numbers. He order and that order comes from numbers. He studied math and furthered the study of studied math and furthered the study of geometry. geometry.

Heraclitus 540-480 B.C.E.Heraclitus 540-480 B.C.E. Born in Ephesus to an aristocratic family. Born in Ephesus to an aristocratic family. He shunned his duties, preferring the study of He shunned his duties, preferring the study of

everything from philosophy to politics. everything from philosophy to politics. Argues: Universe is Argues: Universe is ruled by order, or logosruled by order, or logos. . He once said, "One cannot step in the same He once said, "One cannot step in the same

river twice".river twice". Studied the philosophers before him and built Studied the philosophers before him and built

upon their ideas.upon their ideas. Like the philosophers before him, he believed Like the philosophers before him, he believed

that the “all” led to one thing and that that the “all” led to one thing and that thing is thing is change or fluxchange or flux. .

Parmenides of Elea (515-445 B.C.E.Parmenides of Elea (515-445 B.C.E.)) Born in Elea, Italy. Born in Elea, Italy. Likely a student of Xenophanes. Likely a student of Xenophanes. Also wants to find the “one” basic principle. Also wants to find the “one” basic principle. Considered to be Considered to be the first rationalistthe first rationalist. . Argues: "What is, is, - What is not, is not" wasArgues: "What is, is, - What is not, is not" was so, if we say nothing exists, we are in fact so, if we say nothing exists, we are in fact

acknowledging something because nothing is acknowledging something because nothing is in fact something. in fact something.

The “one” is the mysterious X factor (Being), The “one” is the mysterious X factor (Being), which neither comes into being nor passes which neither comes into being nor passes away, but is unchangeable. away, but is unchangeable.

Zeno of Elea 490-430 B.C.E.Zeno of Elea 490-430 B.C.E. Born in Elea, student of Parmenides. Born in Elea, student of Parmenides. Famous for his paradox of the turtle and Famous for his paradox of the turtle and

Achilles, using it to defend his teacher Achilles, using it to defend his teacher ParmenidesParmenides

Imagine Achilles and a turtle are in a race, the Imagine Achilles and a turtle are in a race, the turtle gets a head start. For Achilles to catch up turtle gets a head start. For Achilles to catch up to the turtle he must travel half the distance of to the turtle he must travel half the distance of his intended goal. The turtle is still moving, so his intended goal. The turtle is still moving, so again he must travel half the distance. As you again he must travel half the distance. As you can see, he will never catch the turtle, can see, he will never catch the turtle, therefore motion is an illusion.therefore motion is an illusion.

Empedocles  -440 B.C.E.Empedocles  -440 B.C.E.

Merged ideas of Parmenides and Merged ideas of Parmenides and Pythagoras. Pythagoras.

He asked what accounts for change and He asked what accounts for change and concluded that the four elements are the concluded that the four elements are the cause. For change to occur, there must cause. For change to occur, there must be forces to move elements. be forces to move elements.

Those forces are love and strife. Those forces are love and strife. Empedocles gives up the idea the “One”. Empedocles gives up the idea the “One”.

Anaxagoras 500-428 B.C.E.Anaxagoras 500-428 B.C.E.

Born in Clazomenae, Ionia (Asia Minor). Born in Clazomenae, Ionia (Asia Minor). He used Parminedes’ idea of the mysterious He used Parminedes’ idea of the mysterious

"X" factor, "X" factor, May have been writing an answer to May have been writing an answer to

Empedocles’ idea of change. Empedocles’ idea of change. Agreed with the idea of the four elements.Agreed with the idea of the four elements. Believed any kind of stuff we have has always Believed any kind of stuff we have has always

been there. been there.

Lucippus (dates disputed) and Lucippus (dates disputed) and Democritus 470-360 B.C.E.Democritus 470-360 B.C.E.

Lucippus and Democritus are known as Lucippus and Democritus are known as atomistsatomists who believed in the great void and who believed in the great void and that atoms are the only things that exist. that atoms are the only things that exist.

The “divine” equals immortality and power.The “divine” equals immortality and power. Nothing happens randomly, but everything Nothing happens randomly, but everything

happens from necessity. happens from necessity. Democritus was a professional student and Democritus was a professional student and

wrote more than fifty books. wrote more than fifty books. In the fourth century, Christians destroyed his In the fourth century, Christians destroyed his

work. work.

The SophistsThe Sophists Were Were notnot interested in facts, but in making interested in facts, but in making

money by teaching to win arguments by any money by teaching to win arguments by any means, Mostly by making the opposing means, Mostly by making the opposing person's argument weak. person's argument weak.

Most famous: Protagoras 490-420 B.C.E who Most famous: Protagoras 490-420 B.C.E who said “a man is the measure of all things.” said “a man is the measure of all things.” Gorgias 483-375 B.C.E. Antipone and Gorgias 483-375 B.C.E. Antipone and Thrasymacus show up later in Plato’s Republic.Thrasymacus show up later in Plato’s Republic.

Socrates 469-399B.C.E.Socrates 469-399B.C.E. ““The unexamined life is not worth living.”The unexamined life is not worth living.” Born middle class family in the city of Attica.Born middle class family in the city of Attica. Infantryman in the Peloponnesian War, Infantryman in the Peloponnesian War,

recognized for his courage. recognized for his courage. The only thing he really knew was that he knew The only thing he really knew was that he knew

nothing.nothing. Put on trial for “corrupting the youth” and Put on trial for “corrupting the youth” and

“questioning the gods” (i.e. impiety).“questioning the gods” (i.e. impiety). Being true to yourself is the most important Being true to yourself is the most important

thing a man can do.thing a man can do.

Socrates on WisdomSocrates on Wisdom Wisdom: The awareness of your own ignorance. Wisdom: The awareness of your own ignorance. Contrasts unethical characterizations of Contrasts unethical characterizations of

knowledge of the self-serving Sophists,knowledge of the self-serving Sophists, Connects his lack of knowledge, and Connects his lack of knowledge, and

subsequent search for it, to virtue, the most subsequent search for it, to virtue, the most important of virtue being important of virtue being aretearete (excellence). (excellence).

Knowledge is innate and by questioning in a Knowledge is innate and by questioning in a method (Socratic dialogue) he separates method (Socratic dialogue) he separates knowledge from true belief, because truth knowledge from true belief, because truth requires justification for the belief.requires justification for the belief.

SocratesSocrates

Socrates is famous for his Skepticism. He Socrates is famous for his Skepticism. He would approach popular people who would approach popular people who were considered wise, and ask them to were considered wise, and ask them to justify their beliefs. They would provide justify their beliefs. They would provide him with various attempts at justification, him with various attempts at justification, but Socrates would not accept their but Socrates would not accept their words without further probing for words without further probing for reasonable justification.reasonable justification.

Aristotle (384-322 B.C)Aristotle (384-322 B.C) An aristocratic physician’s son. An aristocratic physician’s son. Taught by PlatoTaught by Plato Tutored Alexander the GreatTutored Alexander the Great First comprehensive system of Western First comprehensive system of Western

philosophy, encompassing morality and philosophy, encompassing morality and aesthetics, logic, science, politics and aesthetics, logic, science, politics and metaphysics. metaphysics.

““Plato is dear to me, but dearer still is the Plato is dear to me, but dearer still is the truth.”truth.”

Aristotle on WisdomAristotle on Wisdom Scientifically inclined in his study of the Scientifically inclined in his study of the

nature of things. nature of things. Highest good of human existence is to Highest good of human existence is to

implement rationality as rational beings. implement rationality as rational beings. Wisdom: Being able to rationalize about Wisdom: Being able to rationalize about

things in the world, regarding practical things in the world, regarding practical actions and finding happiness through actions and finding happiness through virtue.virtue.

Aristotle Aristotle described how wonder fit into the Aristotle described how wonder fit into the

philosophical method: “For it is owing to their philosophical method: “For it is owing to their wonder that men both now begin and at first wonder that men both now begin and at first began to philosophize; they wondered originally at began to philosophize; they wondered originally at the obvious difficulties, then advanced little by little the obvious difficulties, then advanced little by little and stated difficulties about the greater matters and stated difficulties about the greater matters (e.g., about the phenomena of the moon and (e.g., about the phenomena of the moon and those of the sun and of the stars, and about the those of the sun and of the stars, and about the genesis of the universe)” (genesis of the universe)” (MetaphysicsMetaphysics, Book I)., Book I).

AristotleAristotle Was first to formalize logic. Was first to formalize logic. Devised analysis / evaluations of Devised analysis / evaluations of

arguments. arguments. syllogistic logic: primary constituents of syllogistic logic: primary constituents of

arguments are terms, which are judged arguments are terms, which are judged as better or worse by their arrangement. as better or worse by their arrangement.

His works His works On Sophistical RefutationsOn Sophistical Refutations and and Prior AnalyticsPrior Analytics address this address this

Plato vs. AristotlePlato vs. Aristotle Plato - Plato - Doctrine of “The Forms”Doctrine of “The Forms” There is objective reality, found in his There is objective reality, found in his

theory of the Forms. theory of the Forms. Knowing the Forms is the highest form of Knowing the Forms is the highest form of

knowledge because they exist in the knowledge because they exist in the most "real" way possible. most "real" way possible.

Plato vs. AristotlePlato vs. Aristotle Aristotle believed in what Plato saw as a Aristotle believed in what Plato saw as a

subjective reality. subjective reality. Forms are essences of things and these Forms are essences of things and these

are the most objective reality.are the most objective reality. He rejects the idea that we can know He rejects the idea that we can know

anything (perfectly and objectively) that anything (perfectly and objectively) that we don't know by experience, and we we don't know by experience, and we cannot experience the essencescannot experience the essences. .