PRE-AMERICAN REVOLUTION Antiquity to 1763 Sea Power & Maritime Affairs
Answer 3 Questions1. Why do navies exist?2. Where did they begin?3. How did they set the pretext for
the US navy?
Today’s ObjectivesLesson 1
Why do navies exist?1. Protect commercial
interests– Anti-piracy
2. Deny competing commercial interests– Rival industries and
states
3. Assist armies during conquest– Transport– Supply – Communications
How did navies begin?
Expansion of economic interests
Protection of sea commerce
Military conquest
Growth of SocietiesEnter Here
Where did navies begin?
Mediterranean States “Age of Galley Warfare”
Crete 2,500-1,200 BC
Phoenicians 2,000 – 300 BC
Greeks 700 – 200 BC
Rome 200 BC – 500 AD
Byzantine Empire 500 – 1450 AD
Turkish Empire 1450 – 1650 AD
AsiaNot
covered in this course
MedFocus of
this course
“Age of Galley Warfare”
What was it?1. Longest era of naval warfare2. Rowed ship v. Rowed ship
1. Ship used as a battering ram2. Boarding & fighting3. Projectiles (missiles)
When was it?– Antiquity – 1650 AD
• Battle of Lepanto• “Age of Sail Warfare” replaced it
TechnologyRound Ship
What was it?• “Long Ship”• Fighting vessel in antiquity
Good for fighting? Why?• (A) Fast• (A) Sails & Rowers• (A) Many rowers &
marines• (A) Outfit for battle (ram)• (D) Unstable on rough
seas• (D) Poorly provisioned
What was it?• Commercial vessel in antiquity
Good for fighting? Why? • (D) Slow• (D) Few sailors• (D) No protection• (A) Stable on rough seas• (A) Well provisioned (large hull)
Galley
Trireme
Changed naval strategy and tactics– 150 rowers - 40 marines– Faster (7-8 kts) - More
maneuverable– Ramming & boarding tactics
(grapnels then corvus)
Trireme
Tactics
Line Abreast & Boarding– Use grapnels to tie boats together in a
giant “island”– Board and fight hand-to-hand
Ramming Projectiles
– Arrows– Greek fire– Cannon
Greek Fire
Ancient Version of a flamethrower– Ignited evaporated oil– Deadly with wooden ships– First Mention: 500 B.C.– More common use by 800 A.D. (Byzantium)
Videos
Age of Galley Battle Ben Hur
Greeks 700-200 BC
First to employ well orchestrated maneuvering and ramming tactics. Replaced the old boarding tactics.
Battle of Salamis 480 BC
Greeks: 500 ships
Pitted Greek Tactics (ramming) vs. Persian Tactics (grapnels/boarding)
Greek technology & tactics defeated Persians. Proved several concepts:
1. Ships are vital for supply
2. Ships are vital for communications
3. Small navies with fast ships and effective tactics can defeat larger navies.
****Gave rise to Greek dominance of the eastern Mediterranean.
Persians: 1,400 Persians ships / 175,000 sailors & marines / 180,000 soldiers
3rd Persian attempt to conquer Greece
Romans 200 BC – 500 AD
Roman Navy v. Carthage Navy 1. Roman advantage is hand-to-hand skill
2. Revert to grapnel, corvus, and boarding tactics
Prove: Old tactics can be effective if appropriately used
Battle of Actium (31 AD)1. Octavius v. Mark Anthony (and Cleopatria)---comparable size fleets
2. Octavias uses fire missiles to burn Anthony’s fleet
3. Decisive victory from creativity
Byzantine Empire 500–1450 AD
West slips into the “Dark Ages,” Byzantine takes over the Med. Dominant power for nearly 1000 years. Challenged by Islam and then Ottoman Empire.
Islam 400-700 AD
1. Rise of Islam
2. Fall of Islam in 732 AD following defeats in Constantinople and Gaul
Vikings 800 – 1050 AD
1. High seas required Broader Ships
2. Broader Ships = Less Draft + Easier Landings for Invasion
First Naval Cannon
Gunpowder & naval cannon– Imported from China and far east
Introduced in Byzantium in 1260 Limitations:
– Short distance, inaccurate, long reload time, little skill
Purpose: clearing decks prior to boarding
Battle of Lepanto 1571 AD
Famous for 2 reasons1. First great galley battle since Actium (31 AD)2. Last battle in the age of galley warfare
Battle1. Ottomans vs. anti-Muslim Holy League2. Coast of western Greece3. Mostly galley ships (oars)3. Line abreast tactics
Famous for 2 reasons1. First great galley battle since Actium (31 AD)2. Last battle in the age of galley warfare
Battle1. Ottomans vs. anti-Muslim Holy League2. Coast of western Greece3. Mostly galley ships (oars)3. Line abreast tactics
Battle of Lepanto 1571 AD
Battle of Lepanto 1571 AD
Outcome 1. Ottomans defeated (fall of empire)
2. Christian countries regained naval supremacy in the Med.3. Age of oar-propelled warships ends4. Rise of the Age of Sail and European conquest.
Key Themes
1. Technology, strategy, tactics 2. Rise of Europe
– Renaissance– Colonial expansion
3. Emergence of powerful empires– Portugal, Spain, France, Netherlands, GB– Strong navy was key factor
4. Evolution of British naval dominance
Answer 3 Questions
1. Why did sail-warfare replace galley-warfare?2. How did technology change?3. How did naval tactics change?
Today’s ObjectivesLesson 1
Why Age of Sail?
Expansion of economic interests
Protection of sea commerce
Military conquest
Growth of SocietiesEnter Here
Why not earlier?
1. Misunderstanding of geography2. Ship design limitations3. Medieval Kings could not afford ocean
exploration or navies– Called on merchants when needed– Broad-beamed, singled-masted ships– Mostly grapneling and brutal battles
What sparked it?
1. Silk & spice route to India– Venetian and Muslims control it
• All trade to east had to go through Middle East
– Question: Is there another route?• Water route?
What sparked it?
1. Silk & spice route to India– Venetian and Muslims control it
• All trade must transit Middle East• Tariffs get expensive
– Question: Another route? Water route?
What sparked it?
1. Silk & spice route to India– Venetian and Muslims control it
• All trade must transit Middle East• Tariffs get expensive
– Question: Another route? Water route?
2. Idea: Is the world Round?– Scholarly belief since antiquity
• Eratosthenes diameter at 21,000 NM (pretty accurate) in 300 B.C.
– Problem: 12,000 miles to India (via sailing west)• No ship could provision for such a long voyage
– Solution: Can we get around Africa?
Cape of Good Hope 1488
**Portuguese were first– King Henry (“the Navigator”)
and King John II were big supporters of sea trade
– Commissioned Dias to try
Bartolomeau Dias– 1487 – 1488– Called: “Cape of Storms”– Later named: “Cape of Good
Hope”– **Long but Possible
India 1498
Vasco de Gama2 voyages to India
– 1st: 1/2 crew dies of scurvy– 2nd: Acts of cruelty to Indians
India 1498
Vasco de Gama2 voyages to India
– 1st: 1/2 crew dies of scurvy– 2nd: Acts of cruelty
Americas 1492
Spain was second– Christopher Columbus– Part “fool”
• Said it was only 2,500 miles to India• John II of Portugal: “No”• Venice, Genoa, England: “No”• Elizabeth I of Spain: “OK..whatever”
– First Voyage:• 5 Weeks• Bahamas (“West Indies”)• Returned:
– Hero / Syphilis
– Three more Voyages
Spain was second– Christopher Columbus– Part “fool”
• Said it was only 2,500 miles to India• John II of Portugal: “No”• Venice, Genoa, England: “No”• Elizabeth I of Spain: “OK..whatever”
– First Voyage:• 5 Weeks• Bahamas (“West Indies”)• Returned:
– Hero / Syphilis
– Three more Voyages
Americas 1492
Other Exploration
Treaty: Spain & Portugal– 1512 : Portuguese in China– 1522 : Ferdinand Magellan– Brits, Dutch and French defy agreement
Results– Italian states and Ottoman Empire
diminish in trade significance– Spain, Portugal, France, Netherlands and
Britain become preeminent world states.
Colonial Expansion 1400-1900
Competition– Trade– Riches– Colonial land
Needed navy for:– Protection from
pirates– Protection from
other states– Military expansion
Ocean Empires– France– Spain– Portugal– Netherlands
(Dutch)– British
Video
Master and Commander
Galley v. SailChanges in ship design?
– Ocean-worthy vessels– Sails / Masts– Hull Design– Guns (broadside)
Changes in tactics?– Longer Guns– “Weather Gauge”– The “Line”– Boarding
Scientific Changes– Compass– Speed estimations– Cartography– Cannon improvement– Artillery improvement
Compass, Speed & Cartography
Compass– Invented in China (247 BC)– Used in navigation by the 11th Century– “Dry Compass” - developed in Europe in the 13th century
Speed– “Log line” – 15th Century– First measurement of Nautical mile
Cartography– Discoveries led to improved cartography– Major updates to Ptolemy's maps– 1529 – Diogo Ribiero – First World Map– Longitude, 1750: John Harrison
Compass, Speed & Cartography
Results
1. New Navigation: Dead reckoning2. More confident navigation3. More ambitious explorers4. Hungry rulers and nations
Ocean-Worthy ShipsGalleys Carracks, Caravels & GalleonsTrireme
Design Changes in 1600s
Forecastles & Aftercastles(Anti-Piracy)
3 or more “square-rigged” masts
Deeper Draft(Stability)
Crows Nests
Fighting Perches
Guns lowered onto broadsides- For stability- Better guns- Multiple levels- Gun ports- Hit low on
waterline & splinter ships
Design Changes in the 1700s
Gun Changes More, bigger, longer-range Advances in metallurgy Rifling cannon (more accurate) New Tactic: “Off Fighting”
– Keep enemy at guns’ distance
Ship Design Changes Speed & Mobility More sail Forecastle & aftercastle reduced
– (Too much weight) Length increased
Culverine
Tactical Changes
“Off-Fighting” over Boarding “Weather Gauge” “The Line”
– Single-file ships– 74-guns or more
Ship-of-the-LineHMS VictoryOldest naval ship still in commissionWhat is oldest commissioned ship afloat?
Line-of-Battle Tactics
Early Tactics: “Bunching” New Tactics: “Line”
– Uncooperative navy captains
– GB assigns Army Generals to ships to enforce discipline
• “Generals-at-Sea”• Sailing and Fighting
Instructions of 1653
– “Line of Battle”
Line-of-Battle Tactics
Good: Full broadsides
Bad: Small Ships = Weak Links
Standard: 74-guns – “Ship fit to lie in the line”
• Must have at least 74 guns• Named: “Ship-of-the-Line”
– Smaller ships relegated to scouting, attacking and defending commerce, and communication (not the line)
Terms
Establishes ADM ranks– Fleet ADM = Flag ship– RADM Upper Half– RADM Lower Half
“Rating” – term used to classify ships according to the guns it carried.– British system– 1st Rate through 6th Rate
Why so many personnel?
Required Handle sails Handle guns
– 32-pound cannon required 12 men
Firing Rates Average Crew: Once very 2-3 minutes
– Exhaustion Well Trained Crew: Once a minute
– British won because they were the best
Who Won?
Formalists Battle experience “Melee-ists” were forced into
retirement Permanent Fighting Instructions
– Article 25: must use formalist tactics– Formalist tactics became convention
Pros vs. Cons for Line Tactics
Full broadsides Systematic Predictable
For an ADM, ships in a line were Controllable
Predictable Stalemate
Pros Cons
Pros vs. Cons of Sail Warships
More stable Greater distance More sustainable More firepower Favored advanced
nations– Technologically advanced – Tactically advanced– Sophisticated training
Restricted in maneuvering
Slower Expensive Supply issues Training requirements Communications
difficulties– Semaphore developed
Pros Cons
Pros vs. Cons for Age of Sail
Sustainability Global horizons Profitable Off-Fighting Structure Education & Training
Expensive Slower Less maneuverable Conditions onboard Disease
Pros Cons
**Established sea power as critical to national interests***
European Sea Power in 1500s
Super-powers: Spain & France Sub-powers: Portugal,
Netherlands, England
England plays smaller role in European sea power and politics.
What sparked their rapid naval growth?
European Sea Power in 1500s Henry VII breaks with
Catholic church Threat: Spanish & French
invasion Decision: strong navy is
surest guarantee of defense1. Increased coastal defenses2. Strengthened Royal Navy3. Founded Portsmouth Naval Yard4. Invested in naval development
HMS Mary Rose First broadside ship 1st “off-fighting”
– 1545
Led to: Increased competition for sea power Rise of formal navies
Ramifications of Catholic Break
Fuels Catholic-Protestant tensions in Europe
Series of religious wars Spanish Armada (1588) Anglo-Dutch Wars Wars of Succession
European Sea Power 1500s
– Spain & France undisputed superpowers– Henry VII & Elizabeth I– Spanish Armada
1600s– Anglo-Dutch Wars (3)– Wars of British Succession– Other succession wars
1700s– French & Indian War– Seven Years War
1800s
Queen Elizabeth v. Phillip II
Elizabeth I English Queen / 1568-1603 Excommunicated / 1570 Mary Stuart / 1587 Build Navy to propel
eventual invasion Alliance with France
Phillip II Spanish King / 1554-1598 Hated Islam & Protestants Goal: Overthrow Elizabeth I Hired assassins Send Armada to invade
John Hawkins
Merchant & Slave Trader Elizabeth I appoints him
Chief Sea Commander of England
Two Influences:– Successful Pirate– Accelerated development
of ships with guns
Francis Drake
Most famous “Privateer” Golden Hind raided
Spanish ships across world
Returned with fortune Knighted on his own
ship Pivotal leader in English
Navy
Francis Drake
Most famous “Privateer” Golden Hind raided
Spanish ships across world
Returned with fortune Knighted on his own ship Pivotal leader in Navy
Cause
European Politics1. Dynastic wars2. British privateers3. Spanish ship seizures4. Execution of Mary, Queen
of Scots5. Spanish assassination
attempts on Elizabeth I
CatholicOld
130 Ships 27,000 menLonger Guns“Grapple &
Board”
ProtestantNew
197 Ships16,000 men
ManeuverableOff-Fight*Drake
*More Experience*Weather Gauge
*Resupply
Outcome
Storm devastates Spanish Fleet – Began Spanish decline
England became formidable sea power Proved effectiveness of guns
**Anglo-Spanish conflict ended with James I (Catholic) restored to throne (1603)
Cause
James I replaced Elizabeth I Peace with Spain Abandoned Holland Bad blood
Holland & England natural competitors– East & West Indies– America– Navigation Act of 1651 – (Oliver Cromwell)
Competition erupts in war
• Cromwell• Reinvents Navy• Generals at Sea• Formal Doctrine• Fighting
Instructions of 1653
Anglo-Dutch Wars 1652-1684
English trounce Dutch twice
Prove merit of “the line” and formal tactics
Blockade Holland into submission
1st War
• Formal vs. Melee Tactics
• Dutch again submit
• Charles II ports and dismisses Navy
• Dutch counter-attack
English make terms:– No Navigation
Act– West Indies for
England– New
Amsterdam & Hudson Valley
2nd War
3rd War• Joint Anglo-French
attack• Dutch flood country• Two indecisive
battles at sea• French Navy
“weak”• Angry England
makes peace with Dutch
• Mary to WilliamEngland’s Benefit:
- Dutch are tired- Take over trade
3rd War
1. Testing ground for melee vs. formal tactics.
2. England defeats the Dutch (twice)3. Dutch relinquish some naval strength and
commerce. England fills the vacuum.
Outcome
England is second “Kid On Block” (France)– Big Fleet– Experienced Fleet– Formal tactics– Formal training
*** Nothing could stop them! Except…
Cause
James II Angry Parliament “William and Mary” of Holland “Bloodless Revolution” James flees to France
Result English & Dutch navies strong
and united James works with Louis XIV to
get back crown Anglo-French Conflict
Forces at Play
French Advantage Largest fleet in
world
French Disadvantage Brest & Toulon Large border Large Army / Land
Battle
English/Dutch Advantage• Experience• Unified Fleet
English/Dutch Disadvantage• Smaller than combined
French fleet
Forces at Play
French Advantage Largest fleet in
world
French Disadvantage Brest & Toulon Large boarder Large Army / Land
Battle
English/Dutch Advantage• Experience• Unified Fleet
English/Dutch Disadvantage• Smaller than combined
French fleet
BattlesBeachy Head (1690) English/Dutch
“melee” French double-over
and defeat
Score: Formalists: +1 Melee: 0
Barfleur (1692) French “melee” Stretch out English/Dutch
break line and win
Score: Formalists: +2 Melee: 0
Outcome
Indecisive France on verge of bankruptcy
– Gives up on fleet in favor of Army Louis XIV recognizes William and Mary
as rules of England
Impact on Tactics: Formalism becomes dogma
War of Spanish Succession 1703-1713
Spain Weak : English/Dutch take Gibraltar– Battle of Malaga: Indecisive “formalist” tactics– ADM Rooke : “Permanent Fighting Instructions”– Prevents unification of French Fleets
Battle of Minorca– Strengthens English hold of Straight of
Gibraltar– Blockade of Toulon fleet allows conquest in
Americas
Peace 1713-1740
Wars of succession are another testing ground for tactics
Outcome– England establishes “Permanent Fighting
Instructions”—mandating Formalism• ADM Byng executed during Seven Years War
for failure to fulfill execute “Permanent Fighting Instructions”
– “Melee-ists” forced out of service
War of Austrian Succession 1740-1748
ADM Thomas Mathews (Melee) v. Richard Lestock (Formalist)
Mathew’s fleet severely damaged Lestock arrested for not aiding Lestock ultimately acquitted, Mathews dismissed
from service Article 25 : “Chase”
Outcome: “Line” is King ADM Byng sat on Courts Martial
Major Players
British Prussians American Colonies Portugese
Grand Coalition French Austrians Russians Spain Sweden French Frontiersmen Native Americans
Bottom Line: It was a world war
War in the Americas : 1754
Start of War– Ohio Valley– Colonel George Washington– Fort Necessity
Escalation– Gen Edward Braddock– Surrender of major forces at
Great Meadows– Need for immediate
reinforcement
War in Europe
Battle for Minorca French amphibious operation Take back Minorca & Gibraltar British dispatch ADM Byng Ensuing battle devolved in
confusion
Results French win Byng executed for failing to
follow formalist tactics British losing in America and
Med
William Pitt “the Elder”
British Secretary of State for War Big Goal:
– Expand British Empire
Naval Visionary:1. Subsidized Prussian armies2. Use fleet to:
a. Raid enemy coastsb. Blockade enemy fleetsc. Convoy & support to overseas
colonies
Raid Enemy Coasts
“Conjunct Operations” Raid & Withdraw Destroyed costal garrisons Destroyed privateers Draw soldiers away from
front lines
Blockade Enemy Fleets
French made plans to invade England Needed to combine fleets
Problem: Brits blockaded Gibraltar
Result:1. Battle of Lagos2. Battle of Quiberon Bay
• In both cases: Outnumbered French Fleet driven onto shoals and destroyed.
• Fuels Mahan’s beliefs in concentrated fleets
Battle of Lagos 1759
British Ships-of-Line called into port
French seized opportunity 12 Ships-of-Line tried to
escape under cover of darkness
British Frigates see them 15 British Ships-of-Line
chase Run them into Lagos Bay French ships destroyed or
run aground
Battle of Quiberon Bay 1759
Similar Story French driven into bay Run up on shoals Jettison guns Still destroyed on shoals and in river
Convoy & Support to Colonies
British Navy in America– Blockade St. Laurence by taking Louisburg– Take Quebec
• Joint Army/Navy operation
– Sea control chokes off French forces
Battle of Quebec 1759
Navy-Army Cooperation– Amphibious Ops
Three directions
Result Artery blocked Conquest of Canada
Other OperationsWest Indies Brits had nearly
unfettered control of seas
Took islands at will and profited from resources– More amphibious ops
Pirated gold ships headed for Spain
Ceded back at conclusion
Africa / Asia Brits took several
French colonies around the western coast
Took French colonies in India and Spanish colony of Philippines
Peace of Paris 1763
Prussia on verge of collapse when: Russia withdrew Sweden withdrew France & Austria sued for peace
Major Outcome Truce, not treaty England gave back much England gained more: Canada, Mississippi,
Florida, number of smaller posts
*** High-Water Mark of English Seapower ***
Stage is set for American Revolution
Technology Sailing ships with guns, Ship-of-the-line, Frigates, long guns, carronades
Strategy Guerre de escadre, guerre de course, blockades, raids, etc.
Tactics Off-fighting, formalist “line-of-battle,” weather gauge
Sea Power (1) England; (2) France; (3) Spanish; (4) Dutch;
International Politics(England) v. (France & Spain)
America still highly contested.
National Politics British turn to internal affairs.