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THE ESSENTIAL ASPECTS OF

FIRE SAFETY MANAGEMENT

IN HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS

PRASHANT A/L THARMARAJAN

A project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of

Master of Science (Construction Management)

Faculty of Civil Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

MAY 2007


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I would like to address my sincere appreciation to my thesis

supervisor, Prof. Dr. Muhd. Zaimi bin Abdul Majid for his guidance, advice and

invaluable assistance in achieving the success of this thesis.

I would also like to take this opportunity to extend my gratitude to the staff of

Petronas Twin Towers and Kuala Lumpur Tower, in particular to the Safety

Department staff for their cooperation and assistance while conducting this

research.

I would also like to thank my fellow colleagues of MIA7 for their assistance and

guidance throughout the duration of this thesis.

Last but not least, I would like to dedicate my heartfelt appreciation to my family

for their invaluable support towards the success of this thesis.


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ABSTRACT

Quite often if not always, it is the occupants for no mistake of their own who fall

victim to fire. Besides damage to their belongings and property, some occupants are

burned to death for not knowing what to do in the event of fire. Even though high-

rise buildings are provided with the most sophisticated fire safety features,

assurance of safety to building occupants is questionable and held in doubt. Fire

outbreaks occur as a result of human factors, such as carelessness, negligence or

simply a lack of fire safety awareness. In response to this, fire safety management

has become an integral aspect in the daily operations of high-rise buildings. This

study presents the results of the investigation on fire safety management in high-rise

buildings. The objectives of the study are to identify the aspects of fire safety

management that influences fire safety of high-rise building users; to establish the

most critical of these aspects; and to identify methods to improve fire safety of

high-rise building users. The methodology for conducting the study involved

literature review, data collection and analysis of results using the Average Index

Method. The process of data collection involved obtaining primary data from the

respondents by conducting questionnaire surveys at the selected building case

studies. From this study, it is determined that the three most critical aspects of fire

safety management are the education and training of high-rise building users in fire

safety; the implementation of fire and evacuation drill procedures; and to provide

clear signage indicating exit routes and location of fire safety equipment. The three

best methods to improve fire safety of high-rise building users are to ensure that

flammable materials are stored in a safe area; to conduct more educational and

training programs for users; and to ensure that there are clear or glow in the dark


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signage indicating exit routes and location of fire safety equipment. It is hoped that

this study will provide some useful insight on the important aspects of fire safety

management and thus, help guide high-rise building users to safeguard both their

life and property.


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ABSTRAK

Kebanyakan masa, penghuni bangunan tinggi merupakan mangsa-mangsa

kebakaran bukan atas kesalahan mereka sendiri. Selain daripada mengalami

kerosakan harta benda, mereka turut menjadi mangsa maut akibat daripada

ketidaksedaran tentang langkah-langkah yang patut diambil sekiranya berlaku

kebakaran. Walaupun bangunan-bangunan tinggi dilengkapi dengan peralatan

keselamatan kebakaran yang serba canggih, namun keselamatan para penghuni

tidak dapat dijamin sepenuhnya dan masih menjadi persoalan dan diragukan.

Kerapkali, kebakaran berpunca daripada kelalaian, kecuaian, ataupun

ketidaksedaran tentang keselamatan kebakaran. Dengan demikian, pengurusan

keselamatan kebakaran telah menjadi suatu aspek penting dalam operasi harian

bangunan tinggi. Kajian ini menggambarkan keputusan tentang penyiasatan

terhadap pengurusan keselamatan kebakaran dalam bangunan tinggi. Tujuan kajian

ini dijalankan adalah untuk mengenalpasti aspek-aspek pengurusan keselamatan

kebakaran dalam bangunan tinggi; mengenalpasti aspek-aspek yang paling kritikal;

dan mengenalpasti kaedah-kaedah untuk menaikkan taraf keselamatan kebakaran

demi kebaikan penghuni bangunan tinggi. Methodologi bagi melaksanakan kajian

ini merangkumi rujukan bahan literatur, pengumpulan data dan analisis data melalui

Kaedah Indeks Purata. Proses pengumpulan data merangkumi pengumpulan data

primer daripada responden dengan menjalankan soal selidik di tapak lokasi kajian

kes bangunan yang terpilih. Melalui kajian ini, didapati bahawa tiga aspek yang

paling kritikal tentang pengurusan keselamatan kebakaran adalah; pendidikan dan

latihan keselamatan penghuni bangunan tinggi; implementasi prosedur-prosedur

latihan kebakaran; dan penyediaan papan tanda yang jelas menunjukkan jalan


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keluar dan lokasi tempat penyimpanan peralatan kebakaran. Juga didapati bahawa

tiga kaedah yang paling baik untuk menaikkan taraf keselamatan kebakaran

penghuni adalah; menyimpan bahan-bahan mudah terbakar di tempat yang selamat;

menjalankan lebih banyak program-program latihan untuk meningkatkan kesedaran

penghuni tentang keselamatan kebakaran; dan memastikan papan tanda keluar

yang dipaparkan boleh dilihat dengan jelas dalam keadaan gelap. Diharapkan kajian

ini dapat memberikan panduan yang bermanfaat tentang aspek-aspek penting dalam

pengurusan keselamatan kebakaran dan dengan demikian, dapat menjadi pedoman

untuk para penghuni bangunan tinggi untuk menyelamatkan harta benda dan juga

nyawa manusia yang tak ternilai.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

DECLARATION ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii

ABSTRACT iv

ABSTRAK vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

LIST OF TABLES xiii

LIST OF FIGURES xv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xvii

LIST OF APPENDICES xviii

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Background 1

1.3 Problem Statement 31.4 Aim and Objectives of the Study 4

1.5 Scope of the Study 5

1.6 Research Methodology 5

1.7 Summary of Chapters 8


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2 INTRODUCTION TO FIRE RISK IN HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS

2.1 Introduction 10

2.2 The Development of High-Rise Buildings 10

2.3 Three Generations of High-Rise Buildings 122.3.1 First Generation 13

2.3.2 Second Generation 13

2.3.3 Third Generation 14

2.4 Fire Life Safety of High-Rise Buildings vs Low-Rise Buildings 15

2.5 Risk of Fire in High-Rise Buildings 16

2.6 Risk of Death Due to Fire in High-Rise Buildings 18

2.7 Common Definition of Fire Safety Terms 20

2.8 Fire Regulations 21

2.8.1 Uniform Building By-Law (UBBL) 1984 22

2.8.2 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)

Codes and Standards 22

2.8.3 Fire Services Act 1988 23

2.8.4 Hazardous Material HAZMAT Code and Guide 23

2.9 Summary 23

3 CHARACTERISTICS AND EFFECTS OF FIRE

3.1 Introduction 25

3.2 Nature of Fire 25

3.2.1 Pyrolisis 26

3.2.2 Combustion 27

3.2.3 Ignition 28

3.3 Sources of Fire Hazards in High-Rise Buildings 29

3.3.1 Hazards of Materials 29

3.3.1.1 Wood and Wood-Based Products 30

3.3.1.2 Plastics 31

3.3.1.3 Textiles 32


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3.3.1.4 Liquids 33

3.3.1.5 Gases 33

3.3.2 Sources of Oxidants 34

3.3.2.1 Oxygen in Air 34

3.3.2.2 Chemically Bound Oxygen 35

3.3.3 Sources of Heat Energy 36

3.3.3.1 Electrical Heat Energy 36

3.3.3.2 Chemical Heat Energy 37

3.3.3.3 Mechanical Heat Energy 38

3.4 Causes of Fire in High-Rise Buildings 38

3.4.1 Fire Ignition 39

3.4.2 Faulty Electricity 39

3.4.3 Smoking 40

3.4.4 Arson 40

3.4.5 Cooking 41

3.4.6 Renovations 42

3.4.6.1 Minor Renovations 42

3.4.6.2 Major Renovations or Remodeling 43

3.5 Effects of Fire and Fire Products 44

3.5.1 Effects of Fire on People 44

3.5.2 Effects of Fire on Property 46

3.5.3 Effects of Smoke 47

3.5.4 Effects of Fire Gases 48

3.5.5 Effects of Heat and Flame 49

3.6 Human Behaviour in Fire Emergencies 51

3.7 Summary 52

4 FIRE SAFETY MANAGEMENT IN HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS

4.1 Introduction 53

4.2 Fire Safety Management in High-Rise Buildings 53

4.3 Preventive Management 54


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4.3.1 Education and Training 55

4.3.1.1 Occupant Training 55

4.3.1.2 Floor Warden Training 56

4.3.1.3 Building Emergency Staff Training 56

4.3.2 Inspection of Electrical Installation 57

4.3.3 Renovation Precaution and Inspection 57

4.3.4 Pest Control Programme and Good Housekeeping Practices 58

4.3.5 Signage 58

4.3.6 Inspection, Operation and Maintenance of Fire

Safety Equipment 58

4.3.7 Fire and Evacuation Drill Procedures 59

4.4 Emergency Response Management 60

4.4.1 Building Emergency Procedure Manual 60

4.4.2 Emergency Response Team 61

4.4.3 Fire Identification and Notification 62

4.4.4 Emergency Evacuation and Relocation 62

4.5 Systems to Enhance Fire Life Safety 65

4.6 Summary 68

5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

5.1 Introduction 70

5.2 Research Methodology 71

5.3 Literature Review 72

5.4 Building Case Studies 72

5.4.1 Petronas Twin Towers 73

5.4.1 Kuala Lumpur Tower 75

5.5 Data Collections 76

5.5.1 Questionnaire Design 77

5.6 Analysis of Data 79

5.6.1 Questionnaire Measure 81

5.7 Summary 83


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7 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1 Introduction 107

7.2 Conclusions 107

7.2.1 First Objective 108

7.2.2 Second Objective 108

7.2.3 Third Objective 109

7.3 Recommendation for Further Studies 109

REFERENCES 110

Appendix A 115


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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 Summary of Fires for Apartments (NFPA) 17

2.2 Summary Fires of by Occupancy Type in 1995 18(Offices, Hospitals and Hotels) (NFPA)

2.3 Summary of High-Rise Building Fires in US by Year 19(1994 1996)

2.4 Summary of High-Rise Fires in US by Occupancy Class 20

(1994 1996) (NFPA)

3.1 International Fire Deaths in 1983 44

5.1 The Aspects of Fire Safety Management that Influences

Fire Safety of High-Rise Building Users 80

5.2 Methods to Improve Fire Safety of High-Rise Building Users 80

6.1 Usable and Rejected Questionnaire Responses 85

6.2 Race Group of the Respondents 86


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6.3 Age Group of the Respondents 88

6.4 Gender of the Respondents 89

6.5 Highest Level of Education of the Respondents 90

6.6 Current Employment Level of the Respondents 92

6.7 High-Rise Buildings Usage Frequency of the Respondents 93

6.8 High-Rise Buildings Usage Purpose of the Respondents 95


Fire Safety of High-Rise Building Users 96

6.10 The Most Critical Aspects of Fire Safety Management that

Influences Fire Safety of High-Rise Building Users 97

6.11 The Methods to Improve Fire Safety of High-Rise

Building Users 98


Fire Safety of High-Rise Building Users (Descending Order) 100

6.13 The Methods to Improve Fire Safety of High-Rise

Building Users (Descending Order) 103


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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

1.1 Research Methodology Flow Chart 7

3.1 Triangle of Fire 26

5.1 Petronas Twin Towers 73

5.2 Kuala Lumpur Tower 75

5.3 Five Ordinal Measures of Likerts Scale 79

6.1 Usable and Rejected Questionnaire Responses 85

6.2 Race Group of the Respondents 87

6.3 Age Group of the Respondents 88

6.4 Gender of the Respondents 89

6.5 Highest Level of Education of the Respondents 91

6.6 Current Employment Level of the Respondents 92


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6.7 High-Rise Buildings Usage Frequency of the Respondents 94

6.8 High-Rise Buildings Usage Purpose of the Respondents 95


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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ANSI - American National Standards Institute

BOMA - Building Owners and Managers Association

FRDM - Fire and Rescue Department Malaysia

FRR - Fire Resistance Rating

HAZMAT - Hazardous Material

NFPA - National Fire Protection Association

NIOSH - National Institute for Occupational Safety and

Health

OSHA - Occupational Safety and Health Administration

UBBL - Uniform Building By-Law


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LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A Sample of Questionnaire Survey Form 115


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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Overall, this study is focused on the aspects of Fire Safety Management that

influences fire safety of high-rise building users. Besides that, this study is also intended

to identify methods to improve fire safety of high-rise building users. In this chapter, the

basic elements of the study are presented. Basically, this chapter covers the

background, problem statement, aims and objectives, and scope of the study. The

research methodology involved in conducting this study is also briefly explained.

Lastly, a summary of all the chapters in this study are presented.

1.2 Background

Fire can be a useful tool, but it can also be a deadly nightmare. As the old

proverb states, it is a good servant but a bad master. Fire has always fascinated and


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frightened us. Without fire, civilization would be radically different. In fact, it might

not even exist. However, the cost of fires which get out of control is high, and an

average of two to three people die in fires each day in the United Kingdom.

Furthermore, according to the High Rise Fire Safety report in the city of Phoenix, every

year there are about 7000 fire outbreaks in high-rise office buildings.

Some of the most notable fires recorded in history dated back to as early as the

year 1136. The towns of London, Bath and York suffered severe fire damage. The

Great Fire of London in 1666 destroyed four-fifths of the city before finally being

brought under control. In more recent times, the First Interstate Tower fire on the 4th of

May, 1988 in Los Angeles resulted in the death of a building engineer and smoke

inhalation by many of the 40 people inside the building at the time of the fire. In

addition to this, the fire outbreak in The One Meridian Plaza on the 23 rd of February,

1991 in Philadelphia resulted in the death of three fire fighters due to smoke inhalation

and destroyed eight floors of this 38-storey high-rise building. Thus, it can be seen how

important it is to have proper fire safety management to prevent history from repeating

itself.

Human interest in fire safety probably dated back from the discovery and

employment of fire. Primitive man used heat for cooking, warming and lighting his

dwelling with the inherent risk that misuse or accident in his control of fuel might

precipitate disaster. The obvious benefits of numerous friendly uses of heat energy are

often overshadowed by the enormous destructive power of fires. Today, as in primitive

society, that risk has not been eliminated despite the apparent sophistication of modern

living. With the development of habitations, attitudes towards fire safety have also

developed. There is continuous interest in understanding the causes of such perils and

in devising means of their elimination or reduction.


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The threat of fire is always present in high-rise commercial office buildings and

can be particularly dangerous to building occupants. As stated by The Merritt Company

(1991), The most critical exposures in high-rise structures include fire, explosion, and

contamination of life-support systems such as the air and potable water supply. These

threats can be actuated accidentally or intentionally and can quickly develop into

catastrophic proportions because of the rapid propagation of fire, smoke and

contaminants. Despite the fact that fires are rare occurrences (Kruse, 1993), everyone

working in a high-rise building must be ready to act quickly in the event of an

occurrence. This is due to the fact that in a fire emergency, the first three to four

minutes are crucial. The timely handling of a fire emergency, according to sound

procedures established well before the incident ever occurs, can prevent the emergency

from becoming a catastrophe.

In conclusion, fire is a potentially life altering threat in any high-rise building

and can create an even worse situation if there is no prior preparation for such an event.

By conforming to the codes and requirements from the authorities, following sensible

preventive actions and adequately training building occupants, security personnel and

facility staff in proper response to fire emergencies, the overall threat of fire and fire

related damages can be greatly reduced.

1.3 Problem Statement

Quite often if not always, it is the occupants for no fault of their own who fall

victim to fire. Besides damage to their belongings and property, some occupants are

burned to death for not knowing what to do in the event of fire. The tragedy cannot be

compensated in monetary terms. Therefore, it is essential that the occupants of high-


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rise buildings educate themselves as to what are the necessary and compulsory

measures to be taken in case of fire. It is also the duty and legal responsibility of the

owners of high-rise buildings to provide safety measures to their occupants against fire

hazard. Irregularities or negligence on their part would lead to prosecution and liability

to pay compensation for the damage caused.

Even though high-rise buildings are provided with the most sophisticated fire

safety features, assurance of safety to building occupants is questionable and held in

doubt. More often than not, fire outbreaks occur as a result of human factors, such as

carelessness, negligence or simply a lack of fire safety awareness. Jelani Abdullah

(2001) cited fire incidents to three high-rise buildings in the city of Kuala Lumpur as

clear examples of this regard. As mentioned by Tan and Hiew (2004), all parties, being

owners, tenants, occupants, cleaners, and security, maintenance and operations

personnel are equally responsible for the safety and security in any high-rise building.

In response to this, fire safety management has become an integral aspect in the daily

operations of high-rise buildings.

As such, this research attempts to identify and establish the most critical aspects

of fire safety management that influences fire safety of high-rise building users and

subsequently, identify methods to improve fire safety of high-rise building users.

1.4 Aim and Objectives of the Study

The aim of this study is to investigate the pertinent aspects of Fire Safety

Management in high-rise buildings and to identify methods to improve fire safety of


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high-rise building users. To achieve this aim, three objectives have been delineated as

follows:

To identify the attributes of Fire Safety Management that influences fire safetyof high-rise building users;

To establish the critical attributes of Fire Safety Management that influences firesafety of high-rise building users and;

To identify methods to improve fire safety of high-rise building users.

1.5 Scope of the Study

The scope of this study has to be narrowed down or focused to simplify the

process of information gathering in order to conduct the analysis within an appropriate

time frame. The scope of the study is limited to:

Only high-rise buildings; Two building case studies only, being the Petronas Twin Towers and KL Tower;

and

The aspects of Fire Safety Management in high-rise buildings only.

1.6 Research Methodology

The research will be conducted in several stages to achieve all of the objectives

of this study. The first stage would involve identifying the objectives and scope of


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work involved. Once finalized, the second stage would be to conduct the literature

review to find out more information about fire hazards and fire safety in general, thus

achieving part of the first and third objective. This is also to ensure proper

understanding of the subject matter and to enhance knowledge level. The third stage

would involve conducting the field research from the case study chosen to fully achieve

all three objectives. One of the methods that will be used in the field research would be

to conduct professional interviews with the personnel involved in the implementation of

fire safety management in the chosen case study high-rise buildings. An interview

checklist will be prepared prior to conducting the interview to avoid missing out on any

essential questions. Besides the professional interviews, a questionnaire survey would

also be conducted in fulfillment of the objectives of the study. The questionnaire

survey would be based on a Likerts Scale of 1 (Disagree) 5 (Strongly Agree) and the

respondents would be required to give their ratings based on the questions asked. The

fourth stage of research would be to compile all the data obtained and conduct the

analysis. The last stage would be the presentation of the analyzed data and writing of

the report with conclusions and future recommendations. A flowchart of the processes

involved is shown in Figure 1.1.


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Figure 1.1 : Research Methodology Flow Chart

Select Topic of Study

Formulation of ProblemStatement

Determination of Objectives andSco e of Work

Conduct Literature Review

Critical Aspects Methods to ImproveThe Aspects

Field Data Collection

ProfessionalInterviews

QuestionnaireSurvey

Data Analysis & Results

Conclusions & Recommendations


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1.7 Summary of Chapters

This study provides some valuable insights into the aspects of Fire Safety

Management that are crucial towards fire safety of high-rise building users. The study

consists of seven chapters.

The first chapter is basically an introduction to the research, which includes the

problem statement, the aims and objectives of the study, the scope of work involved,

and the brief research methodology. Lastly, a summary of all the chapters is also

presented.

The second chapter is basically an introduction to high-rise buildings in general.

In this chapter, the definition as well as a brief history of high-rise buildings is

presented. This chapter also includes a comparison of the fire risk in high-rise buildings

against the fire risk in low-rise buildings. Besides that, some fire statistics are also

presented in this chapter. Lastly, the laws or regulations that govern fire safety are

briefly presented.

The third chapter basically covers the nature of fire. In this chapter, the nature

and behavior of fire are discussed in detail. Besides that, the sources of fire hazards in

high-rise buildings are also presented. Subsequently, the major causes of fire in high-

rise buildings are presented. This is followed by methods or materials that can be used

to protect the various types of materials used in construction of high-rise buildings such

as wood, steel and reinforced concrete. Lastly, the effects of fire or fire products on

people and property are discussed. This chapter also briefly discusses how humans

typically tend to behave in the event of fire.


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The fourth chapter covers the various aspects of Fire Safety Management in

detail. Besides this, several other systems that are commonly used to enhance fire

safety in high-rise buildings are also briefly discussed.

The fifth chapter explains the research methodology in detail. The research

methodology for this study is divided into several stages. The first stage is the

determination of the objectives and scope of work involved. Once this is completed, the

literature review is conducted to gain a better understanding and broaden knowledge

with respect to the subject matter. Next, professional interviews are conducted with the

relevant people involved in the daily operations of high-rise buildings to obtain their

opinions and feedback. Based on the literature review and information from the

interviews, the questionnaire can be developed. Subsequently, field data collection is

conducted to obtain the necessary data. Once obtained, the data is analyzed and the

inferences are derived. Lastly, the discussion and conclusion is done to conclude the

study.

In the sixth chapter, the data analysis and results obtained are discussed in detail.

Statistics are used to analyze the background of the respondents and a Likerts Scale of

five ordinal measures is used to identify the aspects of Fire Safety Management that

influences fire safety of high-rise building users, the most critical of these aspects and

the methods to improve fire safety of high-rise building users. The inferences are then

made based on the results of the analysis.

Lastly, the seventh chapter highlights the conclusions made from the study and

the recommendations for further studies.


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CHAPTER 2

INTRODUCTION TO FIRE RISK IN HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS

2.1 Introduction

This chapter is basically an introduction to high-rise buildings in general. In this

chapter, the definition as well as a brief history of high-rise buildings is presented. This

chapter also includes a comparison of the fire risk in high-rise buildings against the fire

risk in low-rise buildings. Besides that, some fire statistics are also presented in this

chapter. Lastly, the laws or regulations that govern fire safety are briefly presented.

2.2 The Development of High-Rise Buildings

Over one hundred and fifty years ago, cities looked very different from the way

they looked today. The buildings that housed people and their businesses were rarely

over the height of a flagpole. Urban landscapes tended to be flat and uniform in pattern.

The massive skyscrapers that dominate many city skylines today are largely due to three

major developments.


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Firstly, in the year 1853, an American by the name of Elisha Graves Otis,

invented the worlds first safety elevator. This new form of transportation enabled

people to travel safely upward at a much greater speed and with considerable less effort

than by walking. Secondly, in the 1870s, steel frames became readily available and led

to the replacement of the weaker combination of cast iron and wood previously used in

construction. Until then, the walls had to be very thick to carry the weight of each floor.

It usually was agreed that a 12-inch wall was needed to support the first story, and an

additional four inches was added to the thickness of the base to support each additional

storey (IREM, 1985). This made it impossible to construct high-rise buildings

economically. Whereas, steel frames were able to carry the weight of more floors, so

walls became simply cladding for the purpose of insulating and adorning the building.

This development, which included applying hollow clay tiles to the steel supports,

resulted in a fireproof steel skeleton and also permitted movable interior partitioning

which allowed office suites to be reconstructed to meet the demands of new tenants.

Lastly, the invention of air conditioning by Carrier in 1902 addressed the issue of

providing ventilation in high-rise buildings (IREM, 1985).

At the turn of the century, tall buildings began to spring up in New York City. In

1909, the 700-feet high (50 storey) Metropolitan Life Insurance Building was built and

in 1913, the 792-feet high (57 storey) Woolworth Building was constructed. In 1930

and 1931, two of the tallest buildings in the world were constructed in New York City,

being the Chrysler Building (1046-feet high, 77 storey) and the Empire State Building

(1250-feet high, 102 storey). Also, in 1931, the 55 storey Citibank Building was built.

After these buildings were erected, 40, 50, and 60 storey buildings were built all over

the United States. In 1969, the John Hancock Center (1127-feet high, 100 storey) was

built in Chicago.

From 1970 to 1990, there have been a combined total of 2273 new construction

starts of buildings eight stories or more in the major metropolitan areas of New York,


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Chicago and Los Angeles (Dodge, 1991). Two of these buildings were the 110 storey

New York World Trade Center which was completed in 1973. The South Tower was

1362-feet high and the North Tower was 1368-feet high. Today, the worlds tallest

building is none other than the Petronas Twin Towers located in Kuala Lumpur

standing 1476-feet high.

The tallest building in the world on the drawing board is Illinois Tower, a 5280-

feet high (528 storey) office building. Frank Lloyd conceived this mile-high office

building that was to have been constructed on Chicagos lakefront in 1956 (Fortune,

1992).

2.3 Three Generations of High-Rise Buildings

Since the appearance of the first high-rise buildings around 1870, there has been

a transformation in their design and construction. This has culminated in glass, steel,

and concrete structures in the International or Miesian and post-modernistic styles of

architecture prevalent today. Before proceeding further, it is appropriate to define what

is considered a high-rise building. A building is an enclosed structure that has walls,

floors, a roof and usually windows. According to The Merritt Company (1991), a high-

rise structure is considered to be one that extends higher than the maximum reach of

available fire-fighting equipment. In absolute numbers, this has been set variously

between 75 and 100 feet, or about 7 to 10 stories. The height of a building is measured

from the sidewalk level of the main entrance to the structural top of the building.


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According to the late OHagan (1977), who was the former fire commissioner

and chief of the New York City Fire Department, there have been three generations of

high-rise buildings since the 1880s. This is briefly described below.

2.3.1 First Generation (1870 to 1920)

The exterior walls of these buildings consisted of stones or brick, although

sometimes cast iron was added for decorative purposes. The columns were constructed

of cast iron which were often unprotected, while steel and wrought iron were used for

the beams, and the floors were made of wood. Often, elevator shafts were unenclosed.

The only means of escape from a floor was through a single stairway usually protected

at each level by a metal-plated wooden door. There were no standards for the

protection of steel used in the construction of these high-rise buildings.

2.3.2 Second Generation (1920 to 1940)

In this generation of buildings, the developments that occurred were mainly

improvements to the weaknesses of first generation high-rise buildings. Firstly, non-

combustible construction materials were used and this reduced the possibility of the

collapse of structural members during a fire. Next, assemblies rated for a particular fire

resistance were included in the construction. Assemblies are the barriers that separate

areas and provide a degree of fire resistance determined by the specific fire resistance

rating of the assembly itself (Craighead, 1995). Besides that, vertical shafts were also


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enclosed with protective openings and compartmentation, which is the use of walls,

floors and ceilings to create barriers against the spread of smoke and fire, was

implemented.

2.3.3 Third Generation (1940 to Present)

Buildings constructed after World War II up until today make up the most recent

generation of high-rise buildings. They are constructed of lightweight steel or

reinforced concrete frames with exterior curtain walls. However, the majority of

modern commercial high-rise buildings are steel framed. Interspersed among steel

frame high-rise buildings are those of reinforced concrete construction, or a mixture of

steel and concrete.

In the centre of these buildings, or infrequently to the side, there is an inner core

constructed of reinforced concrete. Most building services, being stairwells, elevator

shafts, air-conditioning supply shafts, power, water and gas utilities, are enclosed in this

central core. Extending out from this core are steel beams that connect to vertical

columns located in the exterior walls. This type of construction means that there is no

longer a requirement for interior vertical columns. Hence, these buildings have floor

spaces free of such obstructions.

As mentioned by Brannigan (1993), modern high-rise buildings are lighter than

the previous generations. Brannigan (1993) also goes on to mention that the

development of fluorescent lights and air conditioning helped to remove limits to the


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floor area. Thus, building populations could be enormously increased and as a result,

buildings have become substantially taller.

2.4 Fire Life Safety of High-Rise Buildings versus Low-Rise Buildings

From a fire life safety perspective, high-rise buildings differ from low-rise

buildings in several distinct ways. Firstly, the existence of multiple occupied floors one

on top of the other means that there is a greater concentration of occupants and

therefore, a greater concentration of personal and business property (Craighead, 1995).

Basically, this translates to there being a greater potential fuel load for any fire that may

occur in the building. Also, the probability of a large uncontrolled fire moving upward

is an ever-present danger in a high-rise building because it is a vertical structure.

Besides that, the fact that more individuals are assembled in a particular location

at any one time means that the likelihood of injury or death occurring is higher

(Craighead, 1995). Depending on the location of the incident, there may be a delay in

reaching the area to provide assistance. For example, a medical emergency that occurs

on the uppermost floor of a skyscraper will require considerably more travel time for

the responding medical team as compared to a similar incident occurring in a building

lobby. Furthermore, when an emergency occurs, the evacuation of occupants is

hampered by the fact that large numbers of people cannot all leave the structure at once

via elevators and emergency exit stairwells.

Another significant difference lies in the fact that access by the fire department,

from both the exterior and interior, may be restricted (IFTA, 1976). Internal access may


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be restricted to the use of stairwells and elevators that are approached through the

building lobby or lower levels such as basements. Internal access may also be

complicated by the time required for fire department personnel to reach an emergency

occurring in the upper levels of a structure.

Lastly, probably the most significant difference is the stack effect that occurs in

high-rise buildings. According to Boyce (1991), high-rise buildings often have natural

forces affecting fire and smoke movement that are not normally significant in lower

buildings. Stack effect and the impact of winds can be very significant in high-rise

buildings. Stack effect is the result of the temperature differential between two areas,

which creates a pressure differential that results in natural air movements within a

building. In high-rise buildings, this effect is increased due to the height of the

building. Many high-rise buildings have a significant stack effect, capable of moving

large volumes of heat and smoke uncontrolled through the building.

2.5 Risk of Fire in High-Rise Buildings

Direct data analysis of high-rise versus non high-rise is somewhat difficult to

determine because the exact number of structures for some occupancies does not exist.

The best data exist for apartment buildings. Census data estimate the number of

apartment housing units at anywhere between 15 million and 24 million (Hall, 1996).

In 1993, the number of housing units in high-rise buildings was 2,294,000, which

means 9.3-14.8% of all apartments were in high-rise buildings. During this period,

approximately 8.8% of all apartment fire occurred in high-rises (Hall, 1997). Since the

percentage of high-rise fires (8.8%) is lower than the percentage of high-rise apartments


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(9.3%), the risk for a fire in a high-rise apartment is somewhat lower in a high-rise

building than an apartment that is not a high-rise (See Table 2.1).

Table 2.1 : Summary of Fires for Apartments (NFPA)

OccupancyPercentage of Units

That Could BeHigh-Rises

Reported High-RiseFires

Percentage of FiresIn High-Rises

Apartments 9.3 14.8 7700 8.8

Since there are no data available that provide the exact number of high-rise

offices, hotels/motels and facilities that care for the sick, the National Fire Protection

Association has calculated the number of existing structures using estimates based upon

the total spare footage of the buildings. In 1992, there were 21,000 office occupancies,

5,000 health-care properties and an undetermined number of lodging properties with

more than 100,000 square feet of space (Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat,

1992). While it is unlikely that a high-rise building would have less than 100,000

square feet of space, it is possible to have a building with more than 100,000 square feet

that is not a high-rise. Therefore, the actual number of buildings over 100,000 square

feet that are high-rises is only some fraction of the total number of occupancies.

Because the data necessary to determine the number of high-rise office structures,

hotel/motel structures and facilities that care for the sick are not available, one cannot

accurately determine the risk for a fire starting in these structures.

In 1995, it is estimated that approximately 19.7% of the hotel/motel fires

occurred in high-rises (Hall, 1997). Approximately 9.4% of all office building fires

occurred in high-rises and 31.0% of all fires in health care facilities occurred in high-

rises (Hall, 1997) (Please refer to Table 2.2).


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Table 2.2 : Summary of Fires by Occupancy Type in 1995 (Offices, Hospitals and

Hotels) (NFPA)

Occupancy

Reported High-Rise

Fires

Percentage of Fires

In High-Rises

Offices 500 9.4

Hospitals 800 31.0

Hotels/Motels 1000 19.7

The incidence of fires in the various classifications of high-rise structures has

remained consistent over longer analysis periods. The National Fire Protection

Association estimates that from 1985-93, roughly one in every 12 reported apartment

building fires was a high-rise building (Hall, 1996). One-sixth to one-fourth of reported

hotel and motel fires have been in high-rises buildings (Council on Tall Buildings and

Urban Habitat, 1992). Roughly one of every eight reported office building fires was in

high-rise building and one-third of reported fires in facilities that care for the sick have

been in high-rise buildings (Hall, 1996). These numbers are consistent with the

percentages reported for 1995 data in Table 2.1 and Table 2.2.

2.6 Risk of Death Due to Fire in a High-Rise Buildings

The Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (1992) concluded that

although overall incident data and statistics show that the percentages of injuries and

property damage associated with fires in tall buildings are small, the small number of

tall building fires which do occur usually impact substantially on the urban

environment. Examples of this adverse impact include the permanent closure of


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businesses, lawsuits from injured parties, and business interruptions. News reports from

previous high-rise structure fires suggest that lawsuits alone can reach hundreds of

millions of dollars in losses. The fires in tall buildings have consequences which are

related to the construction features which may lead to extensive fire and smoke spread,

or to reductions in occupants ability to exit readily (Council on Tall Buildings and

Urban Habitat, 1992).

From 1989-1993, apartment fires accounted for 8.4% of civilian injuries and

6.7% of civilian deaths in high-rise buildings (Hall, 1996). From 1985-1993, fires in

high-rise hotels and motels were less than one-fourth as likely to involve a death as fires

in hotels and motels that are not high-rise (Hall, 1996). This means that whether or not

the risk of fire is somewhat higher in high-rise hotels and motels, the risk of fire deaths

is probably much lower. A summary of the reported high-rise structure fires for the

United States from 1994-1996 is presented in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3 : Summary of High-Rise Building Fires in US by Year (1994-1996)

Year FiresCivilian

Deaths

Civilian

Injuries

Property

Damage

($ Millions)

Death

Per 1000

Fires

1994 11400 51 952 $59.3 4.5

1995 10000 55 688 $44.5 5.5

1996 12100 64 790 $69.2 5.3

Total 33500 170 2430 $173.0 5.1


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The frequency of fires and deaths from the fires in high-rise occupancies varies

by the type of occupancy. Apartment occupancies nationally experience a higher

frequency of fires and a higher frequency of deaths and injuries. Descriptive statistics

of fires by the type of high-rise occupancy are displayed in Table 2.4.

Table 2.4 : Summary of High-Rise Fires in US by Occupancy Class (1994-1996)

(NFPA Data)

OccupancyReported

Fires

Civilian

Deaths

Civilian

Injuries

Property

Damage

($ Millions)

Death

Per 1000

Fires

Apartments 26200 160 1999 $100.3 6.1

Hotels and

Motels3000 8 247 $26.9 2.7

Hospitals 2600 2 95 $7.9 0.8

Office

Buildings1700 0 89 $37.9 0.0

Total 33500 170 2430 $173.0 5.1

2.7 Common Definition of Fire Safety Terms

a) High-rise building: Any building having an occupied floor located more than

75 feet above the lowest level of Fire Department vehicle access.

b) Means of escape: The routes by which persons may escape from a fire, and the

means by which these routes are kept useable. These means include fire-doors to


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prevent smoke and flame from spreading to an escape-route; signage to indicate

the direction to safety; panic furniture or other fast-release systems on escape

doors to allow free egress while maintaining internal security at normal times;

ladders or mechanical devices to allow escape from upper stories where internal

staircases are unavailable.

c) Fire warning systems: Systems provided to facilitate the alerting of occupants

of the building and others with fire safety responsibility to the existence of fire

within the premises. These include fire alarms, fire detection equipment, and

connection to remote terminals.

d) Escape lighting: Lighting designed to switch on upon interruption of the mains

electrical supply, and to illuminate the means of escape for a pre-determined

period by means of stored electricity.

e) Fire-fighting equipment: Apparatus such as fire extinguishers, hose reels, and

fire-blankets provided for use by the Fire Service personnel or for occupants of

the building for fire-fighting purposes only.

2.8 Fire Regulations

In Malaysia, the government organization that is responsible towards fire and

life safety is the Fire and Rescue Department Malaysia (FRDM). The fire safety

standards implemented are in accordance with the regulations in the Uniform Building

By-Law (UBBL) 1984, NFPA codes and standards, Fire Services Act 1988 and the

Hazardous Material (HAZMAT) code and guide.


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2.8.1 Uniform Building By-Law (UBBL) 1984

UBBL is a published document, which is used as a required safety standard and

is emphasized by the government. The FRDM strives to discharge its responsibilities in

its prevention and safety programs, and also to increase its enforcement in relation to

inspections of buildings and business licensing activities, in accordance to UBBL

especially in relation to Part 7 (Fire Requirements) and Part 8 (Fire Alarm, Fire

Detection, Fire Extinguishment and Fire Fighting Access).

2.8.2 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Codes and Standards

NFPA is an international non-profit organization which is authorized on fire,

electrical and building safety. The NFPA was established in 1896 and it serves as the

worlds leading advocate in fire prevention and is an authoritative source for

information on fire safety. The Building Code and Regional Fire Code Development

Committees provide representative input to the NFPAs codes and standards and have

helped develop about 300 codes and standards which are used in every building,

process, service, design and installation in many countries. It has earned accreditation

from the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Apart from that, NFPA 1600,

the National Standard on Disaster / Emergency Management and Business Continuity

Programs provides a total program approach to the challenge of integrating disaster

and emergency management with business continuity planning.


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2.8.3 Fire Services Act 1988

The Fire Services Act 1988 is implemented to make necessary provision for the

effective and efficient functioning of the Fire Services Department, and also for the

protection of persons and property from fire risks and other purposes connected

therewith. Generally, this Act explains the duties of the Fire Service Department and

consists of implementing fire prevention, fire safety inspection and fire hazard

abatement, investigation and prosecution.

2.8.4 Hazardous Material (HAZMAT) Code and Guide

Hazardous Material (HAZMAT) code and guide is actually conforming to

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and Occupational

Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) recommended standards.

2.9 Summary

In this chapter, the definition as well as a brief history of high-rise buildings was

presented. As mentioned, a high-rise building is defined as any building having an

occupied floor located more than 75 feet above the lowest level of Fire Department

vehicle access. This chapter also includes a comparison of the fire risk in high-rise

buildings against the fire risk in low-rise buildings. It is pertinent to establish the


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reasons as to why fire safety is of utmost importance when dealing with high-rise

buildings. Besides that, some fire statistics were also presented in this chapter. Lastly,

the laws or regulations that govern fire safety were briefly presented.


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CHAPTER 3

CHARACTERISTICS AND EFFECTS OF FIRE

3.1 Introduction

Basically, this chapter covers the nature and behavior of fires in detail. Besides

that, the sources of fire hazards in high-rise buildings are also presented. Subsequently,

the major causes of fire in high-rise buildings are presented. Lastly, the effects of fire

or fire products on people and property are discussed. This chapter also briefly

discusses how humans typically tend to behave in the event of fire.

3.2 Nature of Fire

One generally accepted definition of fire is a process involving rapid oxidation

at elevated temperatures accompanied by the evolution of heated gaseous products of

combustion, and the emission of visible and invisible radiation (Abdullah, 2001). The

combustion process is a chemical reaction between the oxidation of a fuel in the


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presence of oxygen with the emission of heat and light. The concept of fire can be

symbolized by the Triangle of Fire, which is represented by fuel, heat, and oxygen (See

Figure 3.1) (Drysdale, 1985). If the fire is in a fire grate or furnace, this process can be

referred to as a controlled fire, and if it is a building on fire, this process is referred to as

an uncontrolled fire. The removal of any one of these factors usually will result in the

fire being extinguished.

Figure 3.1 : Triangle of Fire

3.2.1 Pyrolisis

Fire is combustion and oxidation process when a fuel material undergoes

pyrolysis (Drysdale, 1985). It is in effect a chemical process when oxygen reacts with

the materials fuel components to liberate stored energy into thermal energy with high

temperatures. Fuels that predominantly consist of carbon and hydrogen elements,

however, may contain small amounts of sulphur, lead, zinc, etc., and non-combustibles

like mineral matter (ash), water and inert gases.


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With the exception of hydrogen itself, all common fuels are organic compounds,

whose energy are ultimately sourced from the sun through the process of photosynthesis

in green plants. The atmosphere contains 21% of oxygen, 78% nitrogen and 1% of

other elements. All of these would enter the combustion process where in the case of

oxygen, only the amount required for the combustion process is utilized while the

excess of it exits in its original oxygen (O2) state. Nitrogen, that requires very high

temperatures for oxidation, is inert as far as the combustion process is concerned.

Nevertheless, it acts as a moderator or cooling agent in that it absorbs some of the heat

of combustion thus assisting in limiting the maximum temperature reached (Abdullah,

2001).

A stoichiometric mixture of air and fuel is one that contains sufficient air

(oxygen) for complete fuel combustion. A weak mixture is one that has excess of air

(oxygen) and hence favourable for combustion. A rich mixture (excess of fuel) is that

of one having deficiency of air (oxygen) and thus considered unfavourable for complete

combustion.

3.2.2 Combustion

Complete combustion occurs when the conditions are favourable. The products

of complete combustion are carbon dioxide in gaseous form, water in vapour form and

heat energy (Drysdale, 1985). However, small quantities of carbon monoxide and

partial flume gas components may form. The amount of energy released in the burning

of a substance is called its heat of combustion or combustion enthalpy.


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Incomplete combustion occurs when the fuel element is not completely oxidized

in the combustion process. Fire would occur in a less vigorous and smoldering state

emitting thick smoke containing toxic gases and contaminants. Factors that give rise to

incomplete combustion on a burning fuel material are as follows (Abdullah, 2001):

a) Insufficient air to the fuel material (causing local fuel-rich and fuel-lean zones);b) Insufficient air supply to the flame (providing less than the required quantity of

oxygen).

c) Insufficient reactant residence time in the flame ( preventing completion ofcombustion reactions);

d) Flame impingement on a cold surface (quenching combustion reactions); ande) Too low flame temperature (slowing combustion reactions).

When there is incomplete combustion to a burning fuel material, the formation

and subsequent release of partially oxidized compounds such as carbon monoxide,

aldehydes and ketones occurs (Abdullah, 2001). Should such adverse toxic smoke

situation predominate in building fires, this would be the main contributing factor to the

ill-favoured consequence of high occupant-fatality rate not to mention the lifelong

agony and suffering of the survivors.

3.2.3 Ignition

There should be sufficient heat to set a fuel material into combustion and this is

called ignition. Ignition occurs in any one or combination of the following forms

(Abdullah, 2001):


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a) Induced Form (as in internal combustion engines or lighting a fire);b) Spontaneous Form (when the fuel material ignites itself through electric sparks,

friction, grinding or rubbing effect, magnified sunlight, etc.);

c) Contact Form (through flame contact); andd) Pilot Form (transmission of heat radiation through a stream of hot gases,

volatiles and flying brands).

3.3 Sources of Fire Hazards in High-Rise Buildings

Sources of fire hazards can be classified based on the triangle of fire, namely

from materials, oxidants and heat energy (Tuhtar, 1989). Each of these elements is

described below.

3.3.1 Hazards of Materials

Hazards of materials can be further classified into wood and wood-based

products, plastics, textiles, liquids and gases. These are further described below.


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3.3.1.1 Wood and Wood-Based Products

Wood and numerous wood-based products such as paper, cellulose-based

fibrous materials and many others, are indeed ubiquitous. They are invariably involved

in almost all kinds of fires. Therefore, understanding of their fire characteristics is

important for fire protection.

The chemical content of dry wood and wood-based products is relatively simple.

Carbon (50%), oxygen (40%) and hydrogen (6%) are the most abundant elements with

nitrogen and mineral ash making up the remainder. However, these few elements are

combined to form a large number of substances, of which cellulose (50%), lignin (26%)

and extractables (1%) are the major components. Wood also contains water, either as

moisture or absorbed water in wood cells. Whereas moisture is readily removed on

heating wood and wood products above 380 K, absorbed water remains even after

prolonged heating (Emmons and Atrega, 1982). Apparently, dry wood may still contain

considerable amounts of water (5 6%) (Tuhtar, 1989).

Wood and wood-based products are combustible. They can burn in different

modes such as smoldering, charring, ignition followed by flames, or burning with a lot

of smoke (Tuhtar, 1989). Smoke produced from burning wood has a characteristic

recognizable odour. In comparison with other solids, the toxicity of smoke produced

from wood burning is not pronounced. Except for carbon monoxide, other toxic gases

are either absent or only present in traces.


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3.3.1.2 Plastics

Plastics are used practically everywhere, namely in building construction,

homes, offices, shops, schools, hospitals, etc. A lot of equipment and applications,

furniture, wall coverings, curtains, textiles and many other products either are made

completely of plastic, or contain some plastic parts.

All plastics, regardless of chemical characteristics, being organic compounds are

combustible. Various flame-retardants can considerably reduce flammability but cannot

completely stop combustion. Ignition temperatures of plastics are somewhat higher in

comparison with wood and wood-based products. However, the rates of flame spread

are generally much higher than wood (Tuhtar, 1989).

The burning of plastics rapidly produces smoke which is usually dense, contains

a lot of soot and has a dark colour. It has been found in many cases that the inhibition

of flammability of plastics by flame-retardants increases smoke production (Tuhtar,

1989). Thermoplastics soften on heating before reaching ignition temperature and

harden on cooling. At higher temperatures, thermoplastics melt and flow. This

characteristic of plastics is potentially hazardous since the flaming liquid may drip and

thus spread the fire.

Another hazard is that during the burning process, some plastics release

corrosive and toxic gases such as HCL, HF, HBr, HCN and NH3 (Smith, 1985). The

conditions which enhance the emission of such gases during a fire are low ventilation

and lengthy fire growth which increases fire temperatures to the point of an easy break

of the polymer matrix and the release of simple gaseous constituents.


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3.3.1.3 Textiles

The widespread use of textiles in daily life, coupled with the fact that nearly all

textiles are combustible, explain the leading role of textile fires in fire deaths. More

than 50% of fatal incidents involve a fabric (Krasny and Sello, 1986). As to the type of

fabric first ignited, artificial fibres, cotton and rayon comprise the largest percentage

(41%), whereas wool and wool mixtures are very rarely first ignited (1%). This marked

difference is due to the differing ignition temperatures. While cotton and most artificial

fibres ignite at relatively low temperatures (520 670 K), the ignition temperature for

natural protein-based fabrics such as wool, silk and cashmere is between 840 and 880 K

(Tuhtar, 1989).

The fire characteristics of textiles depend on the nature and proportion of

individual fibres, on their weight and the method of blending. Textiles based on

cellulosic fibres such as cotton and jute behaves differently in fires compared to protein

fibres. The latter ones do not burn readily, shrink at temperatures approaching their

decomposition temperature and burn more slowly. Common artificial fibres such as

nylon and rayon burn similarly to protein-based natural fibres. Thus, they are relatively

safer compared to fabrics containing cellulose. However, when exposed to heat,

artificial fibres often melt and stick to the skin. Therefore, they should not be employed

for protective clothing.

Synthetic fabrics can be hazardous in some special atmospheres, such as

oxygen-enriched atmospheres or atmospheres containing flammable gases and vapours

because of the accumulation of static electricity (Tuhtar, 1989). The discharge of this

electricity to the ground or other objects may produce a spark of sufficient energy to

ignite a flammable gas. In such situations, electrically conductive fabrics should be

employed.


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3.3.1.4 Liquids

Flammable and combustible liquids are among the most fire hazardous

materials. Fire statistics record that fires involving a liquid are the most frequent ones.

Flammable and combustible liquids are the most hazardous in all instances when the

liquid is exposed to air, such as in spillages (Tuhtar, 1989). The fire and explosion

characteristics of a liquid can be described using a number of parameters. Some of

them are applicable to solid and gaseous materials as well. Thus, most of the hazards

are similar to the ones already described earlier.

3.3.1.5 Gases

For fire protection purposes a gas may be defined as any substance which exists

in a gaseous state at normal temperature and pressure. Since at these conditions many

substances may exist as either liquids or gases, depending on the partial pressures of

their vapours, it is generally accepted that all those liquids which exert a relatively high

vapour pressure may be regarded as gases (Baker, 1973).

In most situations, gases are used in large volumes. Since gases are much lighter

than liquids and solids, the only practical means of having a reasonable quantity of gas

on hand is either by gas compression in containers or by filling the containers with

liquefied gas. Both these forms of gas-packing present hazards. Fire hazards of gases

are very similar to those of liquids. This is not surprising since in fire hazards of liquids

it is the vapour of a particular liquid which is hazardous, rather than the liquid phase


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itself. Thus, most of the hazards are also similar to the ones already described

previously.

In addition to the fire characteristics, many gases are hazardous on account of

other properties. The hazard stems from properties such as toxicity, reactivity and

chemical inertness (Tuhtar, 1989). However, the basic hazard of all gases and vapours,

regardless of their chemical composition, is related to the change of gas pressure with

changing temperature. From classical gas laws, the doubling of temperature leads to a

doubling of gas pressure. Hence, gas containers would normally be ruptured in the

event of a fire.

3.3.2 Sources of Oxidants

The second factor necessary for combustion to occur is the presence of an

oxidant. This can be either in the form of free oxygen in the air or chemically bound

oxygen present in reduction agents (Tuhtar, 1989). These are further described below.

3.3.2.1 Oxygen in Air

It is obvious that a fire can occur only if an oxidant is present together with a

combustible material, since only then, and in the presence of an ignition source, will the

reductant be oxidized to the final combustion products (Tuhtar, 1989). By far the most


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common oxidant is the oxygen in air itself. Oxygen in air comes in the form of

molecular oxygen O2. It is a very reactive chemical species which is capable of

oxidizing almost all other elements producing oxides as the final reaction products.

Other forms of oxygen, such as atomic oxygen O or ozone O3 are even more reactive.

However, they are normally present in air only in negligible concentrations, leaving the

molecular oxygen as the predominant oxygen species. Compared to common oxidation

reactions in which a material is slowly transformed to its oxidized form, fires can be

regarded as oxidation reactions occurring very quickly.

3.3.2.2 Chemically Bound Oxygen

Oxygen needed for the oxidation of the reductant may also come from some

compounds in which it is chemically bound in the form of various groups, such as

peroxide O22-, perchlorate ClO4

-, nitrate NO3-, nitrite NO2

-, permanganate MnO4-, etc

(Tuhtar, 1989). Most compounds containing these groups are not combustible

themselves, yet they are considered hazardous because they can liberate oxygen needed

for combustion. In this way, the intensity of burning is increased since pockets of

oxygen-enriched atmospheres are formed in the immediate vicinity of the decomposed

compound. The release of oxygen from oxidants involved in a fire is accompanied by

the evolution of heat. When water is employed for extinguishing such fires, steam

explosions are possible, further augmenting the hazard of oxidants. Compounds

containing bounded oxygen are widely used in many applications such as salt baths,

bleaching powders and fertilizers.


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3.3.3 Sources of Heat Energy

The third factor necessary for the initiation of the reaction between a fuel and an

oxidant is a source of heat energy. Only in some exceptionally rare circumstances will

the sole contact between the fuel and oxygen lead to a spontaneous combustion. In the

great majority of cases, an outside source of heat energy is necessary for the initiation of

the combustion. The source of heat energy often behaves as a catalyst, especially in the

piloted ignition. Its presence is necessary for the promotion of the combustion reaction,

but only up to the point where the reaction becomes self-sustaining.

There are several distinct means of generating heat energy in the quantities and

duration required for the initiation of fire. They may conveniently be divided into three

broad categories, namely electrical, chemical and mechanical sources of heat energy

(Tuhtar, 1989). Each of these is further described below.

3.3.3.1 Electrical Heat Energy

Electricity is repeatedly quoted as a major cause of many fires. Fire statistics

regularly show electricity to be responsible for between 20% and 40% of all fires of

known origin (Tuhtar, 1989). Although formally it is true that electrical heat energy

does cause a significant number of fires, it is also undisputable that fires will seldom be

initiated by the electricity if the electrical installations and equipments are made, used

and maintained in accordance with the corresponding codes and standards.


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Electrical heat energy is always generated when an electric conductor carries a

current (Parker and Long, 1972). From classical physics, it is known that the greater the

current and resistance, and the longer the current flows through the conductor, the

greater the heat energy liberated. For safe use of electrical conductors, electrical codes

specify the maximum current which will not overheat them. The resistance of

conductors is determined by the kind of material employed. Materials which are good

conductors, such as copper, silver and aluminium are preferred and generally used.

Finally, the time the current takes to pass through the conductor is determined by the

intended use of electrical appliances, unless the appliance is left on unintentionally,

causing an accidental fire.

3.3.3.2 Chemical Heat Energy

Heat energy necessary for the initiation of fires may be produced by several

types of chemical reactions. Among them of primary concern to fire protection are

combustion reactions. These reactions when brought to a completion release a

considerable amount of heat known as the heat of combustion (Parker and Long, 1972).

Examples of common sources of heat energy formed by combustion reactions are open

flames, a lighted cigarette, an acetylene torch used for cutting and welding, a hot fuel-

fired boiler, a drier or a furnace surface. Other types of chemical reactions which

release heat are spontaneous heating (self-heating) and spontaneous ignition (self-

ignition).


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3.3.3.3 Mechanical Heat Energy

It is well known that some forms of mechanical energy can be converted to heat

energy (Parker and Long, 1972). The greater the mechanical work, the greater the

amount of heat released. The mechanical heat energy, formed as result of mechanical

failure or malfunction of equipment, is the source of ignition for a significant number of

fires (5 10%) (Tuhtar, 1989). Furthermore, when two moving solids are in contact,

the resistance to relative motion is manifested in the form of heat due to friction. If heat

due to friction is not dissipated as rapidly as it is formed, there will be overheating

which may ignite the combustible material.

3.4 Causes of Fire in High-Rise Buildings

In principle, a building is considered safe when equipped with adequate fire

features, designed and engineered to perform such functions without fail. This is only

true provided that the fire protection system installed is serviced and maintained

regularly and in good working order and condition at all material times. However, it is

ideal to prevent fire from occurring in any way possible. This could be achieved

through proper control measures and strict adherence to fire safety rules and

regulations. Building Managers, Tenants, Occupants and Contractors all play a role in

preventing building fires.

In the history of building fires, the causes of fire outbreak are usually due to fire

ignition, faulty electricity, smoking, arson, cooking or renovations (Abdullah, 2001). A

brief description of each of these causes is given below:


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3.4.1 Fire Ignition

As ignition is the principle component in the Triangle of Fire and the

introductory element in building fires, its occurrence should be prevented to the fullest

extent. Ignition can be caused by many factors, as previously described.

3.4.2 Faulty Electricity

Spontaneous ignition comes about from faulty electricity. As such, electrical

fixtures, fittings and installations should be periodically inspected, checked and tested.

Only approved electrical items should be used and strictly, electrical installation works

should only be carried out by licensed contractors (Craighead, 1995). The malpractice

of over fusing and by-passing of circuit breakers that has been one of the major causes

of building fires should therefore be strictly prohibited.

An example in this case is the Joelana Building fire that claimed the lives of one

hundred and seventy-nine building occupants. A window air-conditioning unit caught

fire from short-circuiting due to bypassing of the circuit breaker. In the Las Vegas

MGM Grand Hotel fire that killed eighty-five people, the fire was caused by electrical

short-circuiting at the ground floor restaurant due to earth fault (Abdullah, 2001).


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3.4.3 Smoking

As far as possible, smoking should be restricted as it can cause fire (McGuire,

1983). Lighting of fires in building premises, even for religious purposes should be

disallowed. In the first place, burning of incense materials would pollute the space air

and secondly, a great degree of carelessness and recklessness of people exist in this

respect. Placing of trash bins along corridors and lobbies might result in smokers

discarding lighted cigarette butts into them resulting in the burning of combustible

materials inside. In the Westchase Hilton Hotel fire that caused the deaths of twelve

people, the cause of fire was due to smoking material igniting furniture (Abdullah,

2001).

3.4.4 Arson

Many building fires were arson-initiated where in certain cases, purported

unfortunate victims were eventually proven to be the culprits themselves with

fraudulent intentions in seeking redress. Hence the multitude of problems that might be

encountered in preventing the misdeeds of such perverted and furtive subversive

elements reputed for their clandestine nature and characteristics. However, to a

considerable extent these could be prevented by strict security control and frequent

patrols by security personnel. Occupants can also contribute a great deal by keeping

vigil and reporting on any suspicious characters and untoward happenings in the

building (Craighead, 1995).


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Arson-initiated fires have claimed many lives in the history of tall building fires.

In the Dupont Plaza Hotel and Casino fire that claimed the lives of ninety-seven people,

fire was arson-initiated when new furniture stored in the ballroom was burnt by

arsonists. The Pioneer International Hotel fire in which twenty-eight people were killed

was believed to be arson-initiated (Abdullah, 2001).

3.4.5 Cooking

Restaurants should be equipped with proper kitchen exhaust systems including

provision for fire suppression. Exhaust ducts should be enclosed in fire-rated enclosures

and filters should be regularly cleaned. Kitchen air-conditioning and ventilation system

should not be connected to the central air-conditioning system as greasy matter will be

lodged in supply and return air ducts, ceiling void and all over the premises served by

the floors air-conditioning system.

Precautionary measures should be taken in keeping fuel away from ignition

sources and these could be achieved by proper storage and strict controls on the

movement of highly flammable materials (Craighead, 1995). Refuse and spent building

materials should be disposed in a legal manner and not be burned in the building

compound or premises under any circumstances.

Liquid petroleum gas should be stored in safe places outside the building proper

and conveyed by proper conduits to the restaurants. Cooking of any kind using gaseous,

liquid or solid fuel matter should not be allowed in pantries save for boiling water using

electric kettles. In the history of tall building fires, restaurant fires can lead to disastrous

consequences. In the case of the Tae Yon Kak Hotel fire in South Korea that killed one


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hundred and sixty-three people, fire was caused by liquid petroleum gas fire in a coffee

shop at the 2nd

floor (Abdullah, 2001).

3.4.6 Renovations

Renovations are either minor or major (remodeling) and have to be closely

supervised and monitored as there have been numerous cases of outbreak of fire in

high-rise buildings not only during renovations, but also due to illegal haphazard

renovations (Tan and Hiew, 2004). In view of safety, comfort and well being of

building occupants, renovations should not be carried out during occupancy time.

3.4.6.1 Minor Renovations

These are in the form of furniture layout, minor electrical work, lighting, and

painting, carpet laying, half-length partitions that are removable for future

rearrangements. Minor renovations should not involve in any changes to original

building designs. Nevertheless, such works must be carried out in accordance with

building rules and regulations (Tan and Hiew, 2004).


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3.4.6.2 Major Renovations or Remodeling

These are total renovations where full-length repartitioning is involved. Tenants

in occupying a whole floor often remove smoke compartments, obliterating corridors

and openings are made to firewalls. Sprinklers, air-conditioning terminals, return air

vents and lighting are repositioned in the process.

Often such changes are made without due regard to fire safety. In repartitions to

restaurants, massage parlours or health centers, hairdressing saloons, MTV, KTV or

Karaoke, independent cubicles are made for privacy. Very often, cheap and inferior

materials like plywood are used for partitioning works. Such materials have low FRR,

greater risks to flammability and flashover propensities.

Usually, the remodeled premises have higher fire risks than the original building

design. In such cases, additional fire safety features should be incorporated into the fire

protection design of these premises (Tan and Hiew, 2004). However, these are ignored

in most cases.


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3.5 Effects of Fire and Fire Products

3.5.1 Effects of Fire on People

Each year throughout the world, fires and explosions take a heavy human toll.

Thousands of people are killed, and many more are injured, often permanently. Recent

fire statistics for 12 countries (Tuhtar, 1989) reveal that on average the number of fire

deaths per 100 000 of population varies between 0.54 (for Switzerland) and 2.50 (for

US) (See Table 3.1).

Table 3.1 : International Fire Deaths in 1983

CountryDeaths per 100

Population

Switzerland 0.54

Netherlands 0.59

Austria 0.96Yugoslavia 1.15

Spain 1.20

New Zealand 1.25

Denmark 1.37

Norway 1.45

Japan 1.56

Sweden 1.68

France 1.70

Finland 1.92

United Kingdom 2.02

United States 2.50


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The worlds leading rates are firmly held by the USA and Canada in that order

since these two countries annually experience by far the largest number of fires (Cote,

1986). A generally apathetic attitude to fire prevention in these two countries and an

inferior fire protection organization in comparison with European countries, coupled

with the considerable economic impact of fire protection seem to intensify such a high

fire death rate. The chances of being killed by fire have been estimated to be 1:60 000

per year (Rasbash, 1984).

The lowest fire death rate is in the 15-35 age group, as this group is able to

evacuate more rapidly in the event of fire (Gormsen et al., 1984). Younger people

(children up to five) and older people (over 65) are the most likely victims, as fire

deaths of these groups are disproportionably higher, since they spend most of their time

at home. Consequently, most fatal fires occur in residences. Although one-and two-

family dwellings and mobile homes account for 64.2% of all residential-type

occupancies, fire risks in high-rise buildings are the most severe, and often produce

multiple deaths. It has been found that one in every 100 fires in residential occupancies

causes death. Deaths in sprinkler-protected buildings are strikingly lower, which shows

that the main function of sprinklers the protection of lives is amply proven

(Hagglund, 1983).

There have been numerous attempts to correlate fire deaths with a number of

different factors. Thus, especially high positive correlation is found with alcohol

consumption, and smoking (Gormsen et al., 1984). Smoking has been blamed as the

principal cause of multiple-death fires in the USA. Other statistically significant

correlations have been found with cold climates (a positive correlation) and the number

on fire fighters per unit of population (a negative correlation) (Banks and Montgomery,

1983).


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Fire fighting is a dangerous profession. Thus, each year a large number of fire

fighters die in the line of duty. The leading cause of deaths is not smoke intoxication or

burns, but heart-related diseases brought about by high stress. Especially vulnerable are

older firemen for whom heart attacks are the leading cause of death. Physiological

changes in fire fighters due to the weight of personal equipment under hot

environmental conditions are reflected in increased heart rhythm, increased

concentration of noradrenaline and increased sweating. These conditions increase air

consumption and energy expenditure during fire operation (Tuhtar, 1989).

Fires also cause a great number of injuries. Fire injuries are defined as the

effects of fires on people who then require medical attention and treatment. Fire

injuries exceed the number of deaths many times (Tuhtar, 1989). Injured people always

experience pain and often need long hospitalization, further enhancing overall fire costs

and effects.

3.5.2 Effects of Fire on Property

In addition to human losses, fires cause tremendous wastage of property.

Property losses in industrialized countries vary between 1.0 and 1.5% of gross national

product (Rasbash, 1984). About one fifth of this value comprises direct property losses,

while the remainder is made up of the costs of conducting fire prevention, of

maintaining fire departments, of conducting the fire insurance business and of the

necessary organizational measures (Rasbash, 1984).


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Indirect losses from fires are hard to assess. They often cannot be measured in

monetary terms, such as loss of credit standing, loss of trained personnel, loss of

customer confidence, etc. The World Fire Statistics Centre lists seven key parameters

which indicate fire losses, and calls for a uniform reporting of fire losses using these

parameters as a base.

A large percentage (ca. 70%) of total fire losses occur in high-valued industrial

and commercial properties, with most fires occurring in storage occupancies. In an

analysis of the role of fire defense within UK industry it has been estimated that fire

losses in industry amount to 6000 per minute if fires are not extinguished (Durrant,

1985).

3.5.3 Effects of Smoke

Smoke in fires appears as a result of non-stoichiometric combustion of fuels. In

addition to the final oxidation products, CO2 and H2O, combustion products contain a

number of gases and partially oxidized and reduced compounds, such as methane

(CH4), methanol (CH3OH), formaldehyde (HCHO), formic acid (HCOOH), acetic acid

(CH3COOH), as well as droplets of flammable tars, condensed vapors and very fine

solid particles (Hurst and Jones, 1985). The presence of these products produces a

visible appearance of combustion products known as smoke. Smoke in fires is evolved

practically at all temperatures. The physical conditions of combustion, such as the

combustion rate, the combustion mode and the temperature, have more influence on the

smoke composition than does the kind of burning material (Tuhtar, 1989). The

characteristics of smoke that are most dangerous to people are it toxicity, colour and

density.


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Fire statistics and research reveal that most fire deaths are caused by smoke

inhalation (Gormsen et al., 1984). Modern materials in fires release more toxic

compounds per unit weight than do the traditional ones, and although the smoke

composition has remained fairly constant, the rate of fire spread and the emission of

smoke have increased. These two factors are the leading causes of the increased death

rate in fires. Inhaled smoke causes irritation and damage to the respiratory system,

while smoke in air affects the eyes, inducing tears, and in more serious cases even

injury to the eyes.

Smoke color varies, depending on the material being burned, from light blue in

the case of good combustion to heavy black during the combustion of some high

molecular weight hydrocarbons. Dark-colored smoke significantly reduces visibility,

obscuring exit signs, and induces panic in people in fires (Benjamin, 1984). Another

important smoke characteristic from a safety point of view is its density. It is well

known that dense, copious smoke obscures visibility and threatens the lives of both the

people being rescued and the fire fighters. The visibility reduction depends not only on

the composition and concentration of smoke but also on the radius of the smoke

particles, on the nature of the light, as well as on the psychophysical state of the

observer (Tuhtar, 1989).

3.5.4 Effects of Fire Gases

The principal effect of fire gases is in their toxicity when inhaled, sometimes

even in very low concentrations. The toxicity is enhanced since the inhaled gases are

generally at a high temperature and often oxygen deficient. However, in case of death it

is very difficult to pinpoint a single gas that is presumably responsible for the tragic


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