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Copyright Barbara Senior, Organisational Change Lecturers’ Guide 2002

1Organisational ChangeChapter 8

Soft Systems Model for Change


2

Overview

This chapter challenges the notion of rationality as applied to organisational change in the context of soft complexity.

Lewin’s three-phase model of change is described as a simplified representation of a more detailed description of organisational development as an approach to change.

Some limitations of organisational development as a change philosophy and as a change approach are discussed.


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Objectives To:

recognise that some change situations (problems/opportunities), by nature of their complexity and particular characteristics, require soft rather than hard systems approaches to change;

consider the philosophy, value orientation and theoretical underpinnings of Organisation Development (OD) as a generalised example of soft systems models for change;

outline and describe the processes and practices which comprise most OD approaches to designing and implementing organisational change;

discuss the limitations of OD approaches to managing change.


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Why Mess Management Is Needed - 1

Various factors such as power bases, organisational culture, leadership styles, and changes in the organisation’s environment, can in many cases make organisational change a lot more technically complex and emotionally charged (therefore messy) than the Hard Systems Model of Change can adequately deal with.


5• People act in accordance with their

own view of what is rational for them.

• They are not puppets, dummies, cogs, cattle.



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The Hard Systems model of change is not likely to be effective:

where the nature of the presenting problems is defined differently by different people (stakeholders) in the situation.

and where quantitative criteria cannot readily be agreed upon.

and where systems are complex. and where a pluralist ideology of

relationships prevails.


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So how can managers deal with messes?


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The Art and Science of MessManagement - 1

Ackoff (1993:47) suggests there are 3 ‘kinds of things’ which can be done about messes. The first two are:

• Resolve them• Select a hunch that yields a “good enough”

outcome - one that satisfices (satisfies and suffices). Patch and mend, survival-oriented.

• Solve them• Select quantitative approaches based on research

and rational-logical methods of analysis. Focuses on the trees rather than on the wood; atomistic.

Ackoff, R.L. (1993). The art and science of mess management, in Mabey, C. and Mayon-White, B. (eds) Managing Change. London, P.C.P.


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The Art and Science of Mess Management - 2

The third of Ackoff’s (1993: 47) ways of tackling messes is:

•Dissolve them - idealising• Change the nature of the problem context

(or system involved) so as to remove the problem.

• Development oriented – eager to improve quality of life for self and others.

• Resigning systems at various levels of the organisation to dissolve the problem

• This is what the soft systems approach tries to do.



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• Change is only effective when people’s feelings, needs, perceptions, ways of doing things & hopes are addressed. AND

• messy situations require managers to dissolve existing problems, by challenging underlying purposes and assumptions.



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For the manager who wishes to dissolve problems, Buchanan and Boddy (1992) suggest:

• ‘backstaging’, not just ‘public performance’

• ‘political skills’ behind the scenes• ‘intervening in political and cultural

systems’• ‘managing meaning’ – ‘selling the

change’



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Differences Between Hard & Soft Change Approaches

HARD Clear goals and objectives Quantifiable data Control mechanisms are

clear Power is clear, known to

work Unitary view of

organisation Evolved first to meet

needs of modern engineering and industrial systems

Aims to solve problems Analyst detached from

situation

SOFT Organisations as social

entities Goals need negotiation Different perspectives Power diffuse and

frequently unknown Consensus view/conflict

view of organisation Evolved later (1960s) in

response to difficulties in using hard approaches

Aims to appreciate and improve problems

Analyst part of the situation


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Organisation Development - 1

‘Organization development (OD) is a long term effort, led and supported by top management, to improve an organization’s visioning, empowerment, learning, and problem-solving processes, through an ongoing, collaborative management of the organization culture - with special emphasis on the culture of intact work teams and other team configurations - utilizing the consultant-facilitator role and the theory and technology of applied behavioural science, including action research.’

(French, W.L. and Bell, C.H, (1995). Organization Development: Behavioural Science Interventions for Organization Improvement, Fifth edition, Prentice-Hall, p.28.).


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Organisation Development - 2

‘Organization development is an ongoing process of change aimed at resolving issues within an organization through the effective diagnosis and management of the organization’s culture. This development process uses behavioral and social science techniques and methodologies through a consultant facilitator and employs action-research as one of the main mechanism for instigating change in organizational groups.’

(McCalman, J & Paton, R (1992). Change Management Guide to Effective Implementation, London, P.C.P. p 131).


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Basic Assumptions of OD as a Model for Change - 1

It emphasises goals and processes with emphasis on processes

It deals with change over medium and long-term

It is about people and recognises their worth

It involves the organisation as a whole as well as its parts

It emphasises the concept of a change agent/facilitator


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Basic Assumptions of OD as a Model for Change - 2

It uses action research as a means of intervention

It is participative, drawing on theory and practices of the behavioural sciences

It subscribes to a humanistic philosophy of openness

It is a process of facilitation at the individual, group and organisational level

It has top-management support and involvement


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Learning Organisation - 1 More recently, the concept of a learning

organisation has been blended in with OD.

Central ideas of the LO:– A process approach to change in which

everything, including existing goals and the goal setting processes, is subject to challenge.

– Double-loop learning.– Change is continuous.– Development of the organisation is treated

as being central to its well-being.


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Learning Organisation - 2

More central ideas of the LO:– Shared visioning

– Proactive learning

– Continuous experimentation & risk taking

– Leaders as facilitators and learning leaders

– Team learning


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Source: Mintzberg, H. (1973), The Nature of Managerial Work, Harper & Row.

Why Organisation Development Is So Important - 1

The volume of change in many organisations is

massive

The economic scene places demands on managers

while they are reluctant to change from tried and

tested methods

The role of management is changing and new models

are needed

Change management takes time

Some changes challenge basic assumptions, for

example, the role of supervisory staff


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Source: Mintzberg, H. (1973), The Nature of Managerial Work, Harper & Row.

Why Organisation Development Is So Important - 2

The need for control remains - the skill is remaining

in control when so much change is going on.

More comprehensive strategic pictures are needed

which integrate different changes in the

organisation and alleviate confusion.

Organisation design and re-design are as important

and necessary as product, process or system

design and are the responsibility of management

and people in organisations, not just specialists.


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Lewin’s Three Step Process to Changing Behaviour

UNFREEZING

Resistance to change lessened, need for change created(Equilibrium disturbed)

MOVING

From old behaviourto the new(Changes)

REFREEZING

Change made permanent


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Unfreezing

‘Shaking up’ Disconfirmation of old ways of doing

things Questioning & challenging of

established wisdom


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Moving

Making the actual changes to move to the new state of existence.

Includes the development of new strategies, structures, systems & responsibilities and the shedding of old ones.


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Refreezing

Stabilizing, institutionalising the changes.

Making sure the organisation doesn't go backwards to the old state.

Reinforcement of the changes through symbols, such as changed logos, dress, building design, structures.


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Refreezing???

Re-freezing may not be appropriate in an era of continuous change, so maybe this stage involves something more like stabilising.


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Effective Management of Change

‘An effective manager...: anticipates the need for change as opposed to reacting after the event to the emergency; diagnoses the nature of change that is required and carefully considers a number of alternatives that might improve organisational functioning, as opposed to taking the fastest way to escape the problem; and manages the change process over a period of time so that it is effective and accepted as opposed to lurching from one crisis to another.’

(Pugh, D. (1993). Understanding and managing change. In Maybey, C. and Mayon-White,

B. (Eds.) Managing Change, Second edition. London, P.C.P.).


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The OD Model for Change - 1

A number of elements distinguish this approach from the hard systems model of change discussed in Chapter 7.

Change is not a ‘one-off’ event, but is rather an iterative, cyclical process which is continuous as part of everyday organisational life.

Components of the model are diagnosis, data gathering, feedback to the client group, data discussion and work by the client group, action planning and action.


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The OD Model for Change - 2

These components may form cycles of activity within each stage of the OD process.

The OD approach to change is firmly embedded in the assumption that all who are or who might be involved in any change should be part of the decision-making process to decide what that change might be and to bring it about.

It is not a project planned and implemented by senior managers with the assumption that other workers in the organisation will automatically go along with it.


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Action Research - 1 Action research is central to EACH

STAGE of the OD process. It is a collaborative effort between the

leaders and facilitators of any change and those who have to enact it.

It involves data gathering, feedback of data to the client group, data discussion, action planning, and action.

Therefore, action research is, as its name suggests, a combination of research and action.


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Action Research - 2 Action research involves collecting data

relevant to the situation of interest, feeding back the results to those who must take action, collaboratively discussing the data to formulate an action plan, and finally, taking the necessary action.


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The OD model for changePRESENT STATE

(1a)Diagnose current

situation

FUTURE STATEFUTURE STATE

(1b)(1b)

Develop a Develop a visionvision

for changefor change

FUTURE STATEFUTURE STATE

(1b)(1b)

Develop a Develop a visionvision

for changefor change

(5)(5)Assess andAssess and

reinforcereinforcechangechange

((2)2)

Gain Gain commitmentcommitmentto the visionto the vision

(3)(3)Develop anDevelop anaction planaction plan

(4)(4)ImplementImplement

changechange

JOURNEY TO THE FUTUREJOURNEY TO THE FUTURE


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Stage 1 - Understanding Present & Future States

At stages 1a and 1b the issues, problems and opportunities are to be fully explored and the (generally) multiple perspectives of people in the change situation should be understood.

Diagnosing the current situation should not be rushed through without sufficient consideration of the underlying issues as well as the presenting ones.


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Stage 2 - Gaining Commitment to the Vision

Once the vision for change has taken shape (stage 1b), commitment to it has to be gained.

Consequently, sharing the vision with all concerned is important, which might mean a review, again, of the vision for change.

It is vital to ‘listen to the organisation - people's responses in words and deeds to the vision proposal.


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Stage 3: Develop an Action Plan (1)

Stage 3 is complex and requires much consultation and gaining the participation of those who must enact the change.

Possible resistance to change must be addressed.


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Pugh’s Principles of Change -1

Principle 1:–Organisations are organisms

– adequacy of planning

– adequacy of persuasion

– adequacy of ‘digestion’


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Pugh’s Principles of Change - 2 Principle 2: Organisations are

occupational and political systems

–account taken of occupational impact

–account taken of political impact


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Pugh’s Principles of Change - 3 Principle 3: All members of an

organisation operate simultaneously in all three systems - the rational, the occupational, the political

–appropriateness of starting site–appropriateness of methods used


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Stage 3: Develop an Action Plan (2) The role of the change agent is important in the

whole of stage 3. Debates occur as to whether the use of an internal or external change agent is preferable.

Buchanan and Boddy (1992) have written about CHANGE AGENTS’ competencies.– Sensitive, clear, flexible goal setting.– Team building, networking, handling ambiguity.– Communicating, dealing with people and

meetings,enthusing, motivating.– Selling, negotiating.– Dealing with the politics, influencing, the broader

view.


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CHANGE AGENTS help the organisation to:

Define the problem. Examine and diagnose the problem. Come up with alternative solutions. Direct implementation of solutions. Crystallise the learning.


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‘Responsibility charting’ helps in the assessment of the alternative behaviours for those involved in the series of actions for change.

It involves identifying and assigning the specific people involved in each action or decision.– who is responsible (one person).

– who are the approval givers (not too many).

– who are the supporters, resource providers (vital).

– who should be be informed.


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ActorsActions

A B C D E F G

1 R A A I I S

2 S R A I I I

3 S R A S

4 S I A R I

5 S A R A

6 I A R S

R= responsibleA = approval giver, can vetoS = must support; provide resourcesI = to be informed

A Responsibility Chart


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Possible stakeholders who are starting points for change:

Top management. Groups who are ‘management-ready’, i.e.

ready for change.– Includes ‘hurting systems. Those in pain.

New teams or systems. Change agents. Staff members who will

facilitate subsequent change. Temporary change implementation project

teams.


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Stage 3: Develop an Action Plan (6) Pugh’s (1986) OD matrix on p. 323 is

very useful in deciding where, in an organisation, change efforts should start and be planned.

– start with desired behaviour that needs to change.

– move to organising the system, structure, info. flows, etc. that may need to change.

– move to organise the contextual setting that may also need to change.


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The Pugh OD MatrixProblems

Behaviour Structureetc.

Context

Org level Poor orgclimate

Wrongstructure

Wrongstrategy

Inter-group

Lack ofcooperation

Poor co-ordination

Distance

Grouplevel

Poor teamspirit

Uncleargroup task

Poorresources

Individuallevel

Dissatisfiedperson

Poorlydefined job

Poorapplicationof HRM


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The Pugh OD MatrixRemedies

Behaviour Structureetc.

Context

Org level Surveyfeedback

Changestructure

Changestrategy

Inter-group

Rolenegotiation

Improveliaison

Bringgroupscloser

Grouplevel

Teambuilding

Redesignworksystem

Changetechnologyor staffing

Individuallevel

Counselling Jobenrichment

ImproveHRM


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Stage 3: Develop an Action Plan (7)Decide what needs to change:

– behaviour– systems/structure,– or contexts

Action plan must be: relevant specific integrated in the right time frame adaptable


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Stage 4 Implement the Change

Stages 4 (and 5) of the OD process ‘Implementing and assessing and reinforcing the change’ can make use of a range of techniques, some of them identified on the Pugh OD matrix.


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Implement the Change (2) - Facilitated Activities 1

Survey feedback. Employee opinion survey.

Organisational mirroring. Focal group gets feedback from other groups about how it is perceived and regarded. Reciprocal. ‘Fishbowl technique’.

Inter-group confrontation. Each group lists its complaints about the other as well as what it thinks the other group has as a complaint against itself.


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Role negotiation. Focus on each other’s behaviours and negotiate an increase, decrease or status quo.

Process consultation. The consultant engages in feedback,coaching, counselling, and helps individuals and groups finds their own solutions.


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Team Building - focus on the team processes, culture and responsibilities.

Life and career planning - ‘Life line’ drawing, connecting past, present & future. Write your own obituary.

Plus various other methods for designing structures and contexts.


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Implement the Change (4)

Go for a series of SHORT-TERM WINS, visible outcomes (short term goals) that:– show that sacrifices are worthwhile– reward change agents– help fine tune the visions and strategies– counterbalance the cynics– keep bosses happy– build momentum


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Stage 5: Assessing and Reinforcing Change

‘Hard’ change is relatively easy to assess– Set hard objectives and quantifiable

performance measures

‘Soft’ change is more difficult to assess


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Assessing the ‘Soft’ Elements of Change

Survey or cultural audit.

Interviews with individuals or focus groups.

Examination of turnover and absenteeism rates.

Analysis (through observation or questionnaire) of group performance.

“Picturing” the organisation - ask staff to portray the org in pictures, not words.


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Reinforcing and Consolidating Change

Design appraisal, career and reward systems

which help reinforce desired behaviours.

Orientate staff training and development to

the new vision and the new situation.

Hold people accountable for maintaining the

vision and continuing to implement the

change.


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Iteration At all these stages, as Figure 8.2 on p.

312 shows, the requirement of iteration back to previous stages and then forwards again with modified plans and actions is crucial to the way the OD process operates.


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An Assessment of the OD Model for Change (1)

Three of the criticisms that have been aimed at this model for change are:

1. OD does not always face up to the harsh ‘realities’ of change. (‘Rather than unfreezing, people need to be shaken up’.)

2. OD is limited when change situations are ‘constrained’. (Diagnosis and vision already set).

3.OD does not always fit with the policies and practices of bureaucracy, political systems


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A fourth criticism of the soft systems model for change is

4. The claim that OD cannot be applied in the same way across all cultures.Supposedly it is not suited to high Power Distance, high

Uncertainty Avoidance, and high Masculinity cultures.


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Given these criticisms, care has to be taken that the OD process is modified to suit different circumstances.

It must also be recognised that, in times of crisis, managers may have to act very fast and...– it may not be possible to put into practice the full

consultation and participation that is built into the OD process.

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Documents

organisational change

change philosophy

change situations

hard systems model of

change y outline

phase model of change

organisational culture

organisational changechapter