TSL 3105 Teaching of Listening and Speaking Skills in the
Primary ESL classroomTOPIC 4ASSESSING LISTENING AND SPEAKING
SKILLS
4.1 SYNOPSISTopic 4 introduces you to the Assessment of
Listening and Speaking Skills. It provides an overview of the
important principles that a teacher has to bear in mind when
assesing listening and speaking skills. You will also be introduced
to the differences between teaching and testing, and develop the
ability to distinguish the differences between accuracy and fluency
based tests of listening and speaking. It also aims to help you
develop a better and clearer understanding of the assessment
strategies related to the testing of listening and speaking skills
that we most often pay little heed to. The conventions of spoken
language and the factors that affect listening and speaking skills
are also included in this section. You will also be introduced to
the importance of giving effective feedback and support to improve
overall performance of the students.
4.2 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of Topic 4, you will be able
to: Identify and deliberate on issues related to assessing
listening and speaking Differentiate between teaching and testing
Distinguish the difference between accuracy and fluency based tests
of listening and speaking Develop a clearer and better
understanding of assessment strategies related to the testing of
listening and speaking skill most notably the communicative testing
listening and speaking Develop a better understanding on giving
effective and construtive feedback and support to improve
performance
4.3 Issues in Assessing Listening and Speaking Comment on the
following statement:
The best teacher is the teacher who devises classroom methods
and techniques that derive from a comprehensive knowledge of the
total process of language learning, of what is happening within the
learner and within the teacher and in the interaction between the
two. All of this knowledge, however, remains somewhat abstract in
the mind of the teacher unless it can be empirically tested in the
real world.H.D. Brown (1987:218)
a. Answer True or False: Tests involve students and teachers
only. Tests are carried out on a weekly, monthly and yearly basis.
A test is a form of measurement. All tests are formal. Questions
asked by the teacher about what has been learnt in a lesson can be
considered a test.
Revision: Four basic criteria to devise, use or adapt tests of
listening and speaking Validity Reliability Practicality Washback
Effect/ Instructional Impact
Validity We must make sure that we are testing what we are
teaching and what the students want to be learning. Only then is
the test fair and appropriate A test that measures what it is
intended to measure is called a valid test We need to determine in
advance what we want to measure (test) We must then design items,
tasks, or prompts for the test that measure what we want to measure
For example: A student who has not been taught prepositions is
tested on prepositions --> the test can be viewed as lacking in
validity because it tests what the student has not learnt
Reliability We have to be sure that a test or an assessment
procedure is reliable. Reliability is concerned with consistency
For example: if you tape record your students speaking in English
and ask another teacher to evaluate the students speech using a
ten-point scale, your evaluation and the other teachers evaluation
should not differ greatly Rater reliability Intra (the rater
himself) and Inter-rater (between raters) Can you think of some
factors that affect intra-rater and inter-rater reliability? What
can you do to minimise the variability (differences) that
exist?
Practicality Practicality refers to the fact that a test or
other assessment procedure can only be useful if it does not make
unreasonable demands on resources, including time, money and
personnel For example: Interviewing each student for thirty minutes
(very thorough way to assess but what if you have 100
students?)
Washback Effect/ Instructional Impact The effect a test has on
teaching and learning Does the test encourage people to prepare for
speaking tasks, or does it cause them to study grammar rules or
obscure vocabulary items? Washback can be positive or negative
Positive promotes the development of the skills or knowledge to be
learned Negative hinders the development of the skills or knowledge
to be learnt For example: Listening and speaking skills are
neglected in schools mainly because the two skills are not tested
at the national level and more importantly, the grades or marks for
the testing of listening and speaking skills are not included in
the overall results. Teachers therefore view the teaching of
listening and speaking as an unnecessary thing in schools. Hence,
the over emphasis on the reading and writing skills and a neglect
of the listening and speaking skills in schools (Negative washback
effect). Can you think of some other instances of positive and
negative washback effects of tests on the teaching and learning
process in schools?
b. What is a test? A yardstick a teacher uses to measure the
performance of a student (Nesamalar et. al., 2005) A method of
measuring a persons ability or knowledge in a given area (H.D.
Brown, 1987) We test every day in virtually every cognitive effort
we make when we read a book, listen to the news, or prepare a meal,
we are testing hypotheses and making judgments We will now
deconstruct the definition of a test by H.D. Brown, 1987 to develop
a better understanding of what a test really is:
A method of measuring a persons ability or knowledge in a given
area
A Test is a method There is a set of techniques, procedures,
test items The method generally requires some performance or
activity on the part of either the testee or the tester, or both
The method may be intuitive and informal or explicit and
structured
A Test is a method of measuring A test has the purpose of
measuring Formal and informal tests nature of the quantification of
data Informal tests intuitive and difficult to quantify; judgment
rendered in global terms (good, poor, fair etc.) Formal tests
quantification is important: using carefully planned techniques of
assessment; for comparison within individual or across
individuals
A Testmeasuring a persons ability or knowledge Need to
understand who the testees are? Their previous experience Their
entry behaviour Is the test appropriate for the testee? How are
scores to be interpreted for individuals?
A Test measuring a persons ability or knowledge Competence A
test samples performance but infers certain competence A driving
test for a drivers licence a sample of performance to infer general
competence to drive a car A language test samples language
behaviour to infer general ability in a language
A Testability or knowledge in a given area Proficiency test
actual performance involves only a sampling of skills, that area is
overall proficiency in a language A pronunciation test might test
only a particular sound/ a phonemic minimal pair
4.4 Teaching versus Testing Tests serve many of the needs of
teaching To monitor progress as we teach Topic tests used to assess
how well a student has mastered what has been taught To find out
specifically what areas pose difficulties for students diagnostic
tests Testing and teaching are very closely interrelated but do not
have the same focus Tests assess the products of learning (students
previous learning) Teaching materials, methodology and the
classroom enable students to succeed in the process of learning
(prepares students for current and future learning) Primary
function of teacher to ensure learning takes place; tests are one
of the tools to help him do this job well; A test is only a sample
of what the student is supposed to know a test is supposed to pick
out the most important aspects of the skill(s) that have been
taught A test is also often used as a guide as to what would be the
most important things to teach a test influences what is taught
(backwash effect) A test often leaves out certain important skills
because of practical constraints UPSR & PMR no Listening and
Speaking component; therefore teachers do not pay sufficient
attention to these important skills What is taught should be
decided by reference to how important the skills are to a childs
present or future life Teachers should not just teach students only
those things that will help them pass exams Some teachers use the
exam formats for teaching purposes this is WRONG!! A test usually
seeks the most economical way of finding out what the student
already knows; leaves out many things that are important Using MCQs
for speaking tests (not suitable) Teaching should keep in mind the
real reasons for learning and the real circumstances in which the
language or skill would be usedDiscrete Point vs Integrative
Testing Discrete point tests based on the assumption that language
can be broken down into component parts and tested adequately
(listening, speaking, reading, writing, phonology/ graphology,
morphology, lexicon, syntax) Discrete point approach met with
criticism in the integrative sociolinguistic era where the emphasis
is on communication, authenticity, and context. John Oller (1976,
1979) argued that language competence is a unified set of
interacting abilities which cannot be separated apart and tested
adequately Communicative competence is so global and requires
integration that it cannot be captured in additive tests of grammar
and reading and vocabulary and other discrete points of language If
discrete items take language skill apart, integrative tests put it
back together. Whereas discrete items attempt to test knowledge of
language one bit at a time, integrative tests attempt to assess a
learners capacity to use many bits all at the same time (Oller,
1979:37)
Example of a Discrete Point Test A typical proficiency test with
MCQs divided into grammar, vocabulary, reading etc.
Examples of Integrative Tests Cloze tests Oller (1976, 1979)
good measure of overall proficiency requires a number of abilities
that lie at the very heart of language competence Knowledge of
vocabulary, grammatical structure, discourse structure, reading
skills and strategies and an internalized expectancy grammar
Dictation a potentially appropriate integrative test Taps into
certain grammatical and discourse competencies Requires careful
listening, reproduction in writing of what is heard, efficient
short-term memory, and some expectancy rules
Discrete Feature Listening Tests Auditory Discrimination
distinguishing specific sounds from a background of different
sounds Minimal pairs sound discrimination test Pen or Pan; Pill or
Peel; Van or Ban Identifying words that rhyme Identifying
intonation patterns Identifying stressed and unstressed
syllables
Discrete Feature Speaking Tests Minimal pair tests /pen/ &
/pin/; /bell/ & /bill/ Intonation tests He is here. He is here!
He is here? Here he is! Reading aloud A test of pronunciation,
stress and intonation Tests of language functions and their
linguistic realizations Writing down what is missing in a
conversation
Task-based Listening Tests Listening tasks that students
normally engage in authentic tasks Listen to a text/ description
and answer questions/ identify places on a route map
Task-based Speaking Tests Conversational exchanges different
degrees of control (controlled, partly controlled, one-sided
dialogue, incomplete dialogue with prompts) Using pictures single
picture/ object, pictures for comparison, a series of pictures to
make up a story Oral interviews common oral interaction test in
which one or two testers interview a candidate regarding a set of
pre-determined topics
Assessing Listening and Speaking Skills Do we use discrete point
tests or integrative tests to assess L&S skills? Or do we use a
Communicative Test?
Communicative Test To test the communicative production of
language A communicative test has to meet some stringent criteria.
It has to test for: Grammatical competence Discourse competence
Sociolinguistic competence Strategic competence Illocutionary
competence(Wesche 1983, Swain 1984) Has to be pragmatic Learners
have to use language naturally for genuine communication Use
authentic language within a context Should be direct Should test
learners in a variety of language functions DIFFICULT TO MEET ALL
THESE CRITERIA!!!
Communicative Tests - Merrill Swain (1984)Four primary criteria
1. Start from somewhere tests should build on existing knowledge
& principles 2. Concentrate on Content have interesting
motivating and substantive content; integrated and interactive 3.
Bias for best need to do everything possible to elicit the very
best from students 4. Work for washback we should not teach toward
a test but we can use tests as teaching tools; feedback devices
4.5 ACCURACY VERSUS FLUENCY
Activities which focus on accuracy try to get students to say
something correctly (correct grammar, correct word form).
Activities which focus on fluency try to get students to
communicate successfully, even if they make some mistakes. When
using communicative tests, the teacher constantly faces the dilemma
of deciding which is the focus of the assessment: accuracy or
fluency or both Both are equally important for language learning
and language use. Accuracy certainly helps students communicate
effectively and efficiently, and more importantly, they may need a
high level of accuracy to pass exams. Fluency activities are
important because they allow students to express their ideas and
communicate in a meaningful and enjoyable context.
REFLECTION As a teacher, which would you consider more important
when teaching: accuracy or fluency? As a teacher, which would you
consider more important when testing: accuracy or fluency? Can you
think of an activity that focuses on accuracy which can be used to
test L&S skills
What will the focus of the activity be? Grammatical
accuracy?
Can you think of an activity that focuses on fluency which can
be used to test L&S skills? What will the focus of the activity
be? Ability to communicate? What about errors made?
TUTORIAL TASK What is validity and how does it differ from
reliability? Why is practicality an important issue in learners
listening and speaking skills? What are positive and negative
washback? Provide a few examples of positive and negative washback
effects of testing on teaching. Think about an important listening
and speaking test that you have taken. How did you prepare for that
test? What did your teacher do to help you prepare for the test?
Did that test have a positive or negative impact on you? Describe
the test that you took. If you have not taken such a test before,
think of possible reasons why it was not carried out.
4.6 Assessment Strategies for Listening and Speaking Skills
Types of activities that can be used for testing L&S
communicatively Reaching a consensus (Groups of 3/4) Deciding on
ten out of twenty items that they would take on a 2-week trip to
New York; need to provide justifications Moral Dilemmas (Groups of
3/4) Invigilating an important exam See a student cheating with
notes 4 possible action: ignore, warn, ask student to leave, report
to authorities Discussion Using controversial topics (smokers
should be banned, forced to quit habit, jailed, allowed to smoke in
designated areas) Debates (two sides argument: points for or
against); Balloon debate who to throw out of a balloon which is
losing air! Relaying instructions Giving each other instructions
Making models Describe and draw Communication Games Find the
differences between two pictures Describe and arrange Story
reconstruction Problem Solving Desert Dilemma Simulation (reality
of function, a simulated environment, structure) and role play
(pretending to be someone they are not) Creating the pretence of
real-life situations in the classroom; simulating the real world To
provide practice in real world use of English
Devising Marking Bands - Descriptors When assessing L&S
skills communicatively, what are the sub-skills or areas you will
be looking at? Topics to be covered? Activity type? Individual?
Pair? Group? Duration? Holistic or analytical marking? Accuracy?
Grammatical? Fluency? Pronunciation? Appropriacy? Message conveyed?
Others? Depending on what your assessment objectives are, you may
choose to incorporate a number of sub-skills or areas listed above
in your marking band. The marking band is formulated to address
issues related to reliability inter-rater variability (the
inconsistencies between markers) so that a more objective score can
be obtained by all raters.
4.7 The Skills of Providing Constructive Feedback What is
feedback? Why feedback? How to provide constructive feedback?
Exercise? Innovations in methods of feedback? Take home
message?
What is a feedback?
Why Feedback? Provision of important information to the pupil. A
stimulus for further learning and training. Show pupil the level of
their performance. Address the weaknesses and deficiencies of the
pupil. Decide the progress of the pupil. An effective method to
evaluate the whole program.
Characteristics of Good Feedback
Good Feedback
CONSTRUCTIVEAPPROPRIATE
Constructive Feedback Constructive feedback can help the trainee
to improve in their knowledge, skills and attitudes It can help
them to rate their learning in a realistic way It can help them to
be more self-regulated about their learning It should be focused on
behaviour rather than the person, and on observations rather than
inferences or judgments
Appropriate Feedback Feedback should be completed as soon as
possible after the event, before they forget details of the events
Confidentiality and privacy should always be respected Check if the
feedback has been understood More than one approach is preferred
(e.g. visual and verbal in the same time)4.9 HOW TO PROVIDE AN
APPROPRIATE CONSTRUCTIVE FEEDBACK
A FEEDBACK SANDWICH
A feedback which starts with a positive statement, followed by a
negative statement and finished with a positive statementPOSITIVE
-----> NEGATIVE -----> POSITIVE
Recommended feedback techniques in giving feedback Create a
respectful, friendly, open-minded unthreatening climate Elicit
thoughts and feelings before giving feedback Be non-judgmental
Focus on behaviour and specific observed facts Give right amount of
feedback Suggest ideas for improvement Base feedback on
well-defined, negotiated goals A constructive & appropriate
feedback is an essential tool to improve performance
Some Questions To Think About Look at an existing language test
(listening and speaking), evaluate it in terms of the various
criteria for a communicative test: Is the test communicative? Why
do you say so? Does it focus on both the listening and speaking
skills? What is the focus of the test --> accuracy or fluency or
both? Is the activity suggested appropriate? Does it truly measure
the pupils ability to communicate? Is there any way to resolve the
dilemma of giving large-scale communicative tests and still
maintaining a sense of practicality (the feasibility of scoring
thousands of tests relatively quickly and cheaply)? Computers are
revolutionizing the testing industry. Can computerized tests meet
communicative test criteria? In what way can the addition of an
interactive video component to a computerized test help to meet
those communicative criteria?
References:Brown, G., & Yule, G. (1983). Teaching the Spoken
Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Brown, H.D. (1994). Teaching by Principles: An Interactive
Approach to Language Pedagogy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall
Regents.
Brown, H.D. (2004). Language assessment Principles and Classroom
Practices. Longman.
Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign
Language (2nd ed.) (pp. 81-106). Boston: Heinle and Heinle.
Hughes, A. (2003). Testing for Language Teachers. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.Nunan, D., & Miller, L. (Eds.).
(1995). New Ways in Teaching Listening. Alexandria, VA:
Penny Ur. (1996) Teaching Listening Comprehension. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Weir, C.J. (1990). Communicative Language Testing. Prentice
Hall.lgp/wsl/kj 2012