Understanding Human Development The Learner
Understanding Human DevelopmentThe Learner
CHAPTER THREE NOTE METHOD
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The principle goal of education in the schools should be creating men and women who are capable of doing new things, not simply repeating what other generations have done.
Jean PiagetRead more athttp://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/authors/j/jean_piaget.html#Zf2elCv2XfSt9af1.99
Bandura
Erikson
Kohlberg
PavlovPiaget
Skinner
Vygotsky
Human Growth
Philosophers
PART ONE~
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Human Growth & Development
LIFE is a process of growth and development.
• GROWTH – physical changes in size• Most growth occurs during the first 20 years of life
• DEVELOPMENT – the gradual increase in skills and abilities that occurs over a lifetime• Development occurs during a person’s lifespan.
Four Areas of Development
• Advances in physical abilitiesPhysical
• Intellectual developmentCognitive(Intellectual)
Social and emotional are often intertwined,known as social-emotional.
• Growth in relationships and feelings.Social
• Growth in relationships and feelings.Emotional
Newborn Random Movements Rolling over Crawling Standing
upright Taking steps Walking Running Toddler
Areas of Development
Physical development is advancement in physical abilities.
Motor skills, needing strength and coordination, are developing during this stage.
Physical Development
Gross-Motor Skills• Using large muscles• Arms• Legs• Back• Shoulders
• Walking• Throwing
Fine-Motor Skills• Using small muscles• Hands• Wrists
• Picking up objects and eating with a spoon
Cognitive Development• Processes involving thought and knowledge are called cognition.• Thinking has many forms:
• You know your phone number…• You sense what is happening around you…• You memorize facts for a test…• You organize thoughts to write a paragraph…
• The way people change and improve in their ability to think and learn is called intellectual development, or cognitive development.
Areas of Development
Cognitive Development• Cognitive abilities, intellectual abilities, gradually increase.• Consider your 1st grade math skills compared to your current
math skills! • What you know in math has changed.• The WAY you are taught math has changed.
• The development of connections between nerve cells in the brain is the key component to cognitive development at all stages of life.• Brain connections grow and strengthen with new experiences
and repetition of familiar experiences.
Areas of Development
Social-Emotional Development• Social-emotional development includes the areas of relationships.
Do you “STILL” think those of opposite gender are GROSS?!?!?
Areas of Development
• Individuals must learn social skills and how to care about others.
Social-Emotional DevelopmentAreas of Development
Social-Emotional Development• Individuals must develop both self-confidence and self-esteem.
Areas of Development
Social-Emotional DevelopmentAreas of Development
• Individuals must learn self-control – waiting turns, waiting in line, listening while others are speaking…
• At each developmental stage, social and emotional challenges increase. • Increasing independence in childhood• Complex social situations in adolescence• Establishing an identity• Adult relationships• Parenting• Careers• Retirement• And numerous other life challenges
• The way individuals meet these challenges depend on skills they develop early in life and their ability to adapt to situations.
It’s human nature to
try to figure things out…
Did you start the search for
what’s missing?
• Human Nature – We try to figure things out!
• Research continues about human development; however, these four concepts we know about development.1. It’s relatively orderly.2. It’s a gradual, continuous process.3. It’s interrelated, consistent.4. It varies among individuals.
Principles of Human Development
1) Development is Relatively Orderly
• Development occurs in a predictable and orderly manner – a sequence of step, consistently following one after another.
• Teachers use knowledge of the developmental progress to design effective learning strategies appropriate to the age of their students.
Principles of Human Development
Sounds WordsRecognize
Letters of the Alphabet
Recognize Words
FINAL OUTCOME:
Reading
Children learn:
2) Development is a Gradual, Continuous Process
a 3yr old rides a tricycle
a 6yr old rides a bicycle
a teen uses the same
skills to learn to drive a car
Principles of Human Development
An adult typically has fewer accidents than a teen because years of practice and experience have improved his/her skills.
3) Development is Interrelated.
• Interrelated – Connected• Acquiring new skills usually requires growth in all
areas – physical, cognitive, social, and emotional.
Principles of Human Development
• Understand Body Language
• Have Perseverance
• Ability to “READ” Expressions
• Ability To “READ” Other Players
• Be Decisive
• Teamwork• Have Confidence
Physical Stamina Coordination
Cognitive DevelopmentPractice
ALL is required to be a good player!
4) Development varies among individuals.
• MANY factors affect development.
• Even twins have different experiences.
• Personality, knowledge, and prior experiences affect the way an individual responds to life-changing experiences.
• We reach growth at different rates and on slightly different time schedules.
Principles of Human Development
Theories of Development• Developmental theories are comprehensive explanations,
based on research, about why people act and behave the way they do and how they change over time.
Theories of Development
STOP to read the first two paragraphs on page 66.
Developmental TheoriesWHY do you need to learn this “junk”?• You are going to have to meet the
learning needs of students.• Understanding what they are capable
of doing will help you plan valuable lessons.
• Instead of relying on your personal experiences and observations, you will have a broader picture, understanding developmental theories.
• As you learn, evaluate – compare to your life experiences – thing about the potential impact this understanding can have in YOUR classroom…
Heredity vs. EnvironmentTheories of Development
STUDENT ONE – ANDRE
• Shy• Reserved• Nervous• Speaks quietly.• Reads well, but students
can barely hear.
STUDENT TWO - BRYSON
• Bursting with energy• Can hardly wait to read.• Speaks loudly.• Speaks confidently even
when stumbling over words.
CLASSROOM GOAL : Read o ra l l y in c lass .
What’s the difference between the two?
A bigger question: WHY is there a difference?
WHY ARE THE BOYS DIFFERENT?• Is it NATURE (Heredity) or NURTURE (Environment)?• Is it personality, abilities, skills, and genetics?• Is it a result of their environment; shy parents or family?• Did people and environment affect the boys or were they like
– born this way?
Heredity vs. EnvironmentTheories of Development
• Most will say – BOTH, heredity and environment play a factor in the boys response.
Lady GaGa
Heredity vs. EnvironmentTheories of Development
• Heredity and the environment interact in complex ways.• Genes have far-reaching influence. Biological inheritance not
only determines hair and eye color, it impacts a person’s intellectual potential and desire for social interaction.
ANDRE BRYCE
• Quiet• Reserved• Doesn’t mind being alone• Likes current friends, but slower
to make new friends
• Sociable• Outgoing• Seeks out friends if no one is
around• Makes friends quickly
• What children experience in any environment is a personal response between genetic makeup and the environment in which they develop.
Heredity vs. EnvironmentTheories of Development
• Shy parents = Shy Children ; Outgoing parents = Outgoing Children• However, a shy child CAN become more outgoing!!!• No single gene determines a particular behavior; behaviors are
affected by a variety of environmental factors. • Genes are only a PART of the story – it’s not the WHOLE story
and all traits do not “have” to develop!!!• A person is shaped by genes, experiences, social and
emotional traits from environment, physical traits, cognitive abilities, and stimulating environmental events.
• **Infants that are held and cared for, develop more connections between brain cells than infants who are not.
Heredity vs. EnvironmentTheories of Development
• Environmental Factors – Think about how your life has been shaped by your experiences and the impact your words and actions can have on those around you…
ENVIRONMENT
Family
Peers
Community
Media
Health
Nutrition and Physical
Activity
FAMILY:• Families often have the greatest
effect on human development.• Infants gain their first experiences
with the world through the care and attention they receive. • The bond between parent and child is the most basic.• What about infants that have poor care?
• Children learn to interact with others within family.• The QUALITY of home environment is a KEY to a very complex
development of a child.• Home life impacts physical, cognitive, social, and emotional
development. Home is where moral development occurs.
FAMILY:• Effective parenting techniques and providing a stimulating
home environment are consistently associated with better outcomes for children.
• Being an effective parent does not depend on advanced education or high income. (**Think about this statement.)
• Parenting skills can be learned!
• Researchers continue to study how and why families affect various aspects of development: sibling relationships, the impact of being an only child, birth order, middle child syndrome, the emotional climate of the home – all are areas of study.
PEERS:• The impact of peers increases in late childhood and
adolescence.
• The ability to make and maintain friendships, attaining social power and status, acceptance, and belonging – all affect social and emotional development.
• Peers offer equal status, a missing element in child-adult relationships.
• Peer relationships remain important to development throughout life!!
COMMUNITY:• Where a person lives influences development.• Behaviors that are modeled by other in neighborhoods and
communities can impact the behavior and career expectations of its residents.
• Research shows a relationship between feelings of self-worth and how people perceive their environment and their feelings of self-worth.
• Some communities have more cultural opportunities than others.
• Schools are part of communities,• The culture of a school, the expectations conveyed to its
students, and the abilities and attitudes of its teachers have an impact on students.
PERCEPTIONIs the cat at the TOP or BOTTOM of a flight of stairs?
Saxophone Player?
Or
YoungWoman?
Is it moving?
Really?
Notice how parts you AREN’T
looking at moves. Focus your eyes and
that part remains still…
Is it moving?
Really?
PERCEPTIONMATTERS
Is this the top of a button OR the bottom of a box?!?!?
MEDIA:• Students mimic television characters, recite
lines from performances, and sing ad jingles. • Media messages have been blamed for many negative social
problems in our society.• How a person interprets a messages and its effects depend
on things unique to that person’s life. (PERCEPTION)• Perception can depend on age, related experiences, values
taught in the home, and media education. These can be positive or negative. The effect may not be immediately apparent.
• Watching a superhero fight – children may mimic the actions immediately; repeatedly viewing violent images can have long-term effects.
HEALTH:• Diseases and illnesses may interrupt the normal
development of a person.• An expecting mother who abuses alcohol or other drugs may
have a child with a lifetime of developmental delays.• A child with autism may have difficulty in forming close
friendships; they may have delayed and limited speech.• A child with chronic illness and absences from school may have
difficulty with schoolwork.• The availability of health care can influence development; regular
checkups will most likely detect problems limiting the impact of complications.
NUTRITION & PHYSICAL ACTIVITY• Nutritious food and adequate exercise is needed for normal
physical growth, development, and functioning.• Lack of PROPER NUTRITION, not simply food, affects cognitive
development and limits learning and productivity.• Poor nutrition and lack of exercise hinders social and
emotional development.• Example: (A CHAIN REACTION THAT COULD BE PREVENTED)• Lack of proper nutrition and exercise and cause a child to be
overweight – causing possible teasing by peers – causing low self-esteem in the child, causing a lack of proper social relationships – causing depression – causing sickness – causing lack of attendance in school – causing getting behind in school work – causing failing grades – causing poor self-image - …etc. … the list could continue - so TEACH children to eat healthy and exercise!
END OF PART ONE~
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Part 2~
Behaviorist Theories
Behaviorism• Behaviorism is a theory based on the belief that individuals’
behavior is determined by forces in the environment that are beyond their control.
• According to behaviorists:• How people behave (thoughts, feelings, and actions) depends on
what they have learned through experience, rather than genetics or free will.
• Babies come into the world as “blank screens”.
PAVLOV• Pavlov started from the idea that there are some things that a
dog does not need to learn. For example, dogs don’t learn to salivate whenever they see food. This reflex is ‘hard wired’ into the dog. In behaviorist terms, it is an unconditioned reflex (i.e. a stimulus-response connection that required no learning).
• Pavlov discovered that any object (a bell) or event which the dogs learnt to associate with food would trigger the same response, he realized that he had made an important scientific discovery, and he devoted the rest of his career to studying this type of learning.
• CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Pavlov
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Behaviors Can Be Associated With Responses
Pavlov’s Dog
PAVLOV• CLASSICAL CONDITIONING – the theory that behaviors can be associated
with responses
• A dog naturally salivates at the sight of food.• Each time he fed the dog, he rang a bell.• Soon, when the dog heard the bell, he salivated.
• A parent afraid of bugs may unknowingly pass that fear along to their child by gasping or communicating alarm when they see bugs.
• Do you have “something” (a word, a picture, a song) that automatically brings a smile to your face because of a positive experience?
• All of our experiences, whether positive, negative, or neutral, can affect our emotions, attitudes, and behaviors.
Pavlov - CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Behaviors Can Be Associated With Responses
SKINNER
• A Skinner box is a chamber that contains a bar or key that an animal can press or manipulate in order to obtain food or water as a type of reinforcement. •When the lever is pressed, food, water, or
some other type of reinforcement might be dispensed. Other stimuli can also be presented including lights, sounds, and images. In some instances, the floor of the chamber may be electrified.
Skinner
OPERANT CONDITIONINGBehaviors that have a positive result or reinforcement are repeated
“The Skinner Box”
SKINNER• OPERANT CONDITIONING is when people tend to repeat
behaviors that have a positive result or are reinforced.
• To make new behaviors permanent, the reinforcements are to be removed gradually, and in unpredictable patterns. Sometimes reinforced; sometimes not. (Behaviorist call this effect, LEARNING.)
• Negative reinforcement, or punishment, can reduce unwanted behaviors.
Pavlov - CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Behaviors Can Be Associated With Responses
Skinner - OPERANT CONDITIONINGBehaviors that have a positive result or reinforcement are repeated
BANDURA• In social learning theory Albert Bandura (1977) states behavior
is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning. Children observe the people around them behaving in various ways. This is illustrated during the famous bobo doll experiment.
• Explanation - http://www.simplypsychology.org/bobo-doll.html
• Children observed adults with a bobo doll and imitated their behavior!
Bandura
SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORYPeople are complex!
Reactions to rewards and punishments are filtered by perceptions, thoughts, and motivations.
Based on Individuals~Observation~
BANDURA• Bandura argued that people are too complex for simple
classical or operant conditioning; that people of all ages observe and imitate the behaviors of others, regardless of rewards or punishments involved.
• Bandura supports SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY: People ARE affected by rewards and punishments, but their reactions to them are filtered by their own perceptions, thoughts, and motivations.
• People “might” mimic, but the mimicked experience may not have the same effect.
• A person’s response is based on personal reactions and how the individual processes information.
Pavlov - CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Behaviors Can Be Associated With Responses
Skinner - OPERANT CONDITIONINGBehaviors that have a positive result or reinforcement are repeated
Bandura - SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORYPeople are complex!
Reactions to rewards and punishments are filtered by perceptions, thoughts, and motivations.
PIAGET• Piaget's theory states that as children develop biologically they
also meet specific cognitive goals. Developments of adaptive behaviors are connected to mental development. These are obtained in specific chronological stages. Piaget's theory contrasts to other developmental theories by focusing on the development of intellect. Piaget contributed the idea that children's minds grow gradually, and that they are not capable of reasoning like adults.
Read more: How to Explain Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/how_7722233_explain-piagets-theory-cognitive-development.html#ixzz28zv7uxHr
Piaget4 STAGES OF COGNITIVE THEORY
~People are similar, but differences in individuals matter~At any stage of life, thinking skills or individuals are similar.
Sensorimotor, Toddler, Early Childhood, Adolescence and Adulthood
Learning is based on age and experimentation with objects.
4
PIAGETCan you find the differences?
PIAGET• Others were celebrating behaviorism; Piaget began looking for
differences! ~The Four Stages of Cognitive Development~• He found that at any stage of life, thinking skills of individuals
are similar. • At each new stage, people incorporate new experiences into
what they know based on skills they have developed earlier in previous stages.
• Piaget improved understanding of cognitive skills development.• Young children base thinking on senses. • (Logical Thought: The moon is following me!)
• Children need continuous exposure to experimentation, discover, and first-hand experiences to develop.
1 2 3 4
PIAGET – Page 73PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
AGE STAGE DESCRIPTION
Infancy(Birth to age 2)
Sensorimotor Babies begin to learn about the world through their senses. At first, learning relies on reflexes but more purposeful movement later enhances learning.
Toddler(Ages 2 – 7)
Preoperational Toddlers and young children communicate through language. They recognize symbols and learn concepts. Both hand-on experiences and imaginative play are keys to learning.
Early Childhood(Ages 7 – 11)
Concrete Operational Children begin to think logically. They can make generalizations, understand cause and effect, groups and classify items, and suggest solutions to problems.
Adolescence and Adulthood(Ages 12 and up)
Formal Operational Both logical and abstract thinking are mastered during this stage. This includes making prediction and considering “what if” questions.
Activity Based on Piaget – Flip Book
Pavlov - CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Behaviors Can Be Associated With Responses
Skinner - OPERANT CONDITIONINGBehaviors that have a positive result or reinforcement are repeated
Bandura - SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORYPeople are complex!
Reactions to rewards and punishments are filtered by perceptions, thoughts, and motivations.
Piaget – Stages of Cognitive Development~People are similar, but differences in individuals matter~
At any stage of life, thinking skills or individuals are similar.Sensorimotor, Toddler, Early Childhood, Adolescence and Adulthood
VYGOTSKY
•Culture is the prime determinant of individual
development.
Vygotsky Learning is social.
SOCIOCULTURAL THEORYSocial interaction is critical to cognitive development.
Interaction with parents, teachers, and other students influence development.
VYGOTSKY
• People learn through interaction, social and cultural environment, not just through experimentation!!!
• Vygotsky believed children are social. Their minds develop through interactions with parents, teachers, and peers.
• He believed that social interaction was critical to cognitive development.
Pavlov - CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Behaviors Can Be Associated With Responses
Skinner - OPERANT CONDITIONINGBehaviors that have a positive result or reinforcement are repeated
Bandura - SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORYPeople are complex!
Reactions to rewards and punishments are filtered by perceptions, thoughts, and motivations.
Piaget – Stages of Cognitive Development~People are similar, but differences in individuals matter~
At any stage of life, thinking skills or individuals are similar.Sensorimotor, Toddler, Early Childhood, Adolescence and Adulthood
Vygotsky - SOCIOCULTURAL THEORYSocial interaction is critical to cognitive development.
Interaction with parents, teachers, and other students influence development.
Erikson
•Each person has to pass through a series of eight
interrelated stages over his entire life cycle!
Erikson Personality matters.
PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORYPersonality development occurs during eight stages of life.
At each stage, people must successfully face and resolve a psychological or social conflict. Being unsuccessful will affect future stages of
development.
8
ERIKSON – • PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY – personality development occurs during eight
stages of life. At each stage, people must successfully face and resolve a psychological or social conflict to continue development.
Most influential developmental researcher of the 20th Century
Infancy Birth to 1 year Trust vs. Mistrust
Toddler Ages 1 to 3 Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
Early Childhood Ages 3 - 6 Initiative vs. Guilt
Middle Childhood Ages 6 - 12 Industry vs. Inferiority
Adolescence Ages 13 – 18+ Identity vs. Role Confusion
Young Adulthood Ages 18 – 40+ Intimacy vs. Isolation
Middle Adulthood Ages 40 to 65 Generativity vs. Self-Absorption
Older Adulthood Ages 65+ Integrity vs. Despair
Read page 75
Pavlov - CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Behaviors Can Be Associated With Responses
Skinner - OPERANT CONDITIONINGBehaviors that have a positive result or reinforcement are repeated
Bandura - SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORYPeople are complex!
Reactions to rewards and punishments are filtered by perceptions, thoughts, and motivations.
Piaget – Stages of Cognitive Development~People are similar, but differences in individuals matter~
At any stage of life, thinking skills or individuals are similar.Sensorimotor, Toddler, Early Childhood, Adolescence and Adulthood
Vygotsky - SOCIOCULTURAL THEORYSocial interaction is critical to cognitive development.
Interaction with parents, teachers, and other students influence development.
Erikson - PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORYPersonality development occurs during eight stages of life.
At each stage, people must successfully face and resolve a psychological or social conflict. Being unsuccessful will affect future stages of
development.
Kohlberg• One of the best known of Kohlberg’s stories concerns a man
called Heinz who lived somewhere in Europe.• Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors
said a new drug might save her. The drug had been discovered by a local chemist and the Heinz tried desperately to buy some, but the chemist was charging ten times the money it cost to make the drug and this was much more than the Heinz could afford. Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from family and friends. He explained to the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could have the drug cheaper or pay the rest of the money later. The chemist refused saying that he had discovered the drug and was going to make money from it. The husband was desperate to save his wife, so later that night he broke into the chemist’s and stole the drug.
KohlbergKohlberg asked a series of questions such as:
• 1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug?2. Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?3. What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference?4. Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died?
• By studying the answers from people of different ages to these questions Kohlberg hoped to discover the ways in which moral reasoning changed as people grew. Kohlberg told several dilemma stories and asked many such questions to discover how people reasoned about moral issues. He identified three distinct levels of moral reasoning each with two sub stages. People can only pass through these levels in the order listed. Each new stage replaces the reasoning typical of the earlier stage. Not everyone achieves all the stages.
Kohlberg Moral Development
MORAL DEVELOPMENTWhat is right or wrong is based on perspective and stages of
development.
KOHLBERG• PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY• Decisions about what is right or wrong depend on whether you will be punished
or rewarded for your behavior.• Moral decision are viewed from a personal perspective.
• CONVENTIONAL MORALITY• Decisions are based on society’s basic rules of right and wrong behavior.• Moral decisions are motivated by society’s laws and rules and how a person that
disobeys might be perceived. People may set their own persona interests aside for the good of society as a whole.
• POSTCONVENTIONAL MORALITY• Decisions are based on principles such as justice and individual conscience.
There are universal moral laws related to human rights that are most important to follow.
• Moral decisions are motivated by integrity rather than personal interest or punishment.
Pavlov - CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Behaviors Can Be Associated With Responses
Skinner - OPERANT CONDITIONINGBehaviors that have a positive result or reinforcement are repeated
Bandura - SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORYPeople are complex!
Reactions to rewards and punishments are filtered by perceptions, thoughts, and motivations.
Piaget – Stages of Cognitive Development~People are similar, but differences in individuals matter~
At any stage of life, thinking skills or individuals are similar.Sensorimotor, Toddler, Early Childhood, Adolescence and Adulthood
Vygotsky - SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY
Social interaction is critical to cognitive development. Interaction with parents, teachers, and other students influence
development.
Erikson - PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORYPersonality development occurs during eight stages of life.
At each stage, people must successfully face and resolve a psychological or social conflict. Being unsuccessful will affect future stages of
development.
MORAL DEVELOPMENTWhat is right or wrong is based on perspective and stages of
development.
BanduraSocial Cognitive
Theory
EriksonPsychosocial Theory
8 stages of development
KohlbergMoral
Development
PavlovClassical
Conditioning
Piaget4 Stages of Cognitive
Development
SkinnerOperant Conditioning
VygotskySociocultural
Theory Human Growth
Philosophers
Bandura
Erikson
Kohlberg
PavlovPiaget
Skinner
Vygotsky
Human Growth
Philosophers
So who’s right?
Which theory is correct?• Throughout your career, theories will emerge and knowledge
will change! • Gaining greater understanding of the way humans learn helps
teachers develop effective teaching strategies.
Which theory is correct?• Throughout your career, theories will emerge and knowledge
changes. • Gaining greater understanding of the way humans learn helps
teachers develop effective teaching strategies.
• YOUR TURN: • Present your personal theory and belief of learning.
Use what you’ve learned in this unit to develop your presentation. • Due: __________
End of Part 2~
Behaviorist Theories
VOCABULARY TERMSGrowth Development Physical Develop
mentGross-Motor Skills
Fine-Motor Skills
Cognition Cognitive Development
Social-Emotional Development
Sequence Developmental Theories
Behaviorism Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Video Clips• Pavlov• http://www.schooltube.com/video/84f042baa171d98f78fa/
• Skinner• http://
www.schooltube.com/video/caa02d0b960d4738b8c7/Operant%20Conditioning%20BF%20Skinner
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X6zS7v9nSpo• Bandura• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zerCK0lRjp8
• Piaget
Understanding Human DevelopmentThe Learner