POWER POLITICES &OD. Sharing power is a business necessity.

POWERPOLITICES &ODPOWERPOLITICES &OD

Sharing power is a business necessity

THE CONCEPT OF POWER

Influence: a transaction in which person B is induced by person A to behave in a certain way

Power (Robert Dahl): A has power over B to the extent that he can get B to do something B would not otherwise do

POWER the capability to get

someone to do something

the potential to influence

INFLUENCE the exercise of that

capability power in action

You may have power but not use it; on the other hand, you cannot influence anyone without power

It is important to stress that power is not an attribute of a particular person it is an aspect of relationship that exists between two (or more) people.

No individual or group can have power in isolation; power must exist in relation to some other person or group.

Power relationships symmetrical both parties are equal or have the same

amount of power asymmetrical one person in the relationship has more

power than other

Social Influence, Power & Politics: How They Are Related( Greenberg dan Baron, 2003)

Personal Characteristics

Organizational Position

POWER

Motive: to satisfy personal interests

Organizational politics

Legitimate behavior

Motive: to satisfy organizational goals

Successful influence (had desired

effect)

Unsuccessful influence (did not have

desired effect)

WHERE DOES POWER COME FROM?

INTERPERSONAL Legitimate power Reward power Coercive power Expert power Referent power

TYPES OF INDIVIDUAL POWER: A SUMMARY( Greenberg dan Baron, 2003)

INDIVIDUAL POWER

POSITION POWER

• LEGITIMATE POWER

• REWARD POWER

• COERCIVE POWER

• INFORMATION POWER

PERSONAL POWER

• RATIONAL PERSUASION

• REFERENT POWER

• EXPERT POWER

• CHARISMA

INTERPERSONAL POWER

Legitimate power: capacity to influence derived from the position of a manager in the organizational hierarchy. Subordinates believe that they “ought” to comply.authority: the ability to influence others based on the perceived power of one’s position and role within an organization

Reward power: an influence over others based on hope of reward -

Coercive power: influence over others based on fear -

Expert power: capacity to influence related to some expertise, special skill, or knowledge

Referent power: power based on a subordinate’s identification with a superior -

Subordinates responses to different power sources1. The use of legitimate or reward power

will typically result in compliance – subordinates will obey your requests, but are unlikely to exert more than the minimal effort necessary

2. The use coercive power may result in resistance – subordinates may only pretend to comply with your requests, and they may openly resist

3. The use of expert and referent power frequently result in commitment – subordinates are likely to exert high levels of effort to accomplish what you ask, perhaps even exceeding what you requested

American CEOs: What are their power bases?

• Source of power– Personality and leadership skills (83%)– Support of the board of directors (70%)– Support of senior colleagues (64%)– Expertise & knowledge (43%)– Management decision control (28%)– Support of the financial community (9%)

a survey of more than 200 American CEOs revealed that they obtain their power primarily by cultivating the support of others at different levels of the organization (source: based on data appearing in Stewart, )

WHERE DOES POWER COME FROM?

STRUCTURAL• Resources• Decision making

power• Information power

STRUCTURAL POWER

The structure of an organization is the control mechanism by which the organization is governed.

Organizational structure creates formal power and authority by specifying certain individuals to perform specific tasks and make certain decisions. Structure also significantly impacts informal power through its effect on information and communication flows within the system.

Resourcespower stems from

(1) access to resource, information, and support, and

(2) the ability to get cooperation in doing necessary work

Power occurs when a person has open channels to resources – money, human resources, technology, materials, customers, etc

STRUCTURAL POWER

Decision-Making PowerThe degree to which individuals or subunits can affect decision making determines the amount of power acquired.A person or sub unit with power can influence how the decision making process occurs, what alternatives are considered, and when a decision is made.Individuals who influence a decision making process and its outcomes may or may not have formal authority.

Information PowerKnowledge: a conclusion or analysis derived from data and information.Having access to relevant and important knowledge information is power.Information is the basis for making effective decisions. Thus, those who possess information needed in order to make potential decisions have power.

The powerful manager exist because s/he allocates required resources, makes crucial decisions, and has access to important information.

The powerless manager lacks the resources, information, and decision making prerogatives needed to be productive

INTERDEPARTEMENTAL POWER

THE STRATEGIC CONTINGENCIES MODEL: POWER THROUGH DEPENDENCE

Subunit Power, the power differential between subunits, is influenced by

(1) the degree of ability to cope with uncertainty

(2) the centrality of the subunit, and (3) the substitutability of the subunit

The Strategic Contingencies Model: Power Through Dependence

Capacity to reduce uncertainty

Contingency Examples• Preventing market share decline by product

development

• Providing future based predictions that are accurate

• Absorbing problems from other units

High organizational centrality

Nonsubstitutable and Indispensable

activities

Power acquired by subunit and

power differentials

• Being in an urgent or immediacy position

• Located at center of work flow

• Possessing needed skills or expertise

• Possessing only talents that are available to complete job

INTERDEPARTEMENTAL POWER

THE RESOURCE-DEPENDENCY MODEL: CONTROLLING CRITICAL RESOURCES

the view that power resides within subunits able to control the greatest share of valued organizational resource

All subunits may contribute to an organization, but the most powerful are those that contribute the most important resources. Controlling the resources other departments need puts a subunit in a better position to bargain for the resources that it requires

The Resource – Dependency Model: An Example

Important Resources

Unimportant Resources

Production Accounting Marketing

Resources needed

Resources control

The accounting department would be more powerful than the production department or marketing department

EMPOWERMENT

Empowerment

a process of enhancing feelings of self efficacy among organizational members through the identification of conditions that foster powerless and through their removal by both formal organizational practices and informal techniques of providing efficacy information

encouraging and/or assisting individuals and groups to make decisions that affect their work environment

the passing of responsibility and authority from managers to employees (Greenberg & Baron, 2003)

The Empowerment Continuum: Relinquishing Control is a matter of degree

(Greenberg & Baron, 2003)

No Empowerment

(workers are not free to make any decisions about how to do their

jobs)

Total Empowerment

(workers are free to do their jobs as

they wish)

POWER GIVEN TO WORKERS

None A great deal

Increasing your effectiveness in empowering others

1. When you delegate responsibility, make certain you are also delegating authority to go along with

2. Be prepared to give up your managerial “parent” role and assume a “partner” role

3. Assure your subordinates through words and deeds that it is OK to make mistakes

4. Information sharing is important.5. Provide training opportunities so employees can develop

skills to successfully perform new job responsibilities6. Performance feedback is always important; it is

particularly important for newly empowered employees.

What should you do tomorrow ?

Communication competencies for managing interactively

Interactive managers are able to: Make people and their knowledge accessible throughout

an organization or business web Share power with people at all levels of an organization Design on-line and physical environments that enhance

collaboration Create effective rituals and experiences that build cultures Actively use key interpersonal skills Make information available, useful, and enticing to variety

of stakeholders Use stories in innovative ways to both share and capture

knowledge Resolve hidden conflict between actions and words Listen to whole organization Engage people across organizational boundaries

SHARE POWER Sharing power is a business necessity Power follows ability, not seniority

Sharing power from above Sharing power from below

Everyone is responsible for sharing power, not just leaders

Technologies such as e-mail, voting software, augmented meetings, and on line discussion groups can help you share power

Avoid paternalistic messages and show trust in employees by sharing information

POLITICAL STRATEGIES AND TACTICSOrganizational Politics Actions by individuals that are directed toward the goal of furthering

their own self-interest without regard for the well-being of others or their organizations

all about actions not officially approved by an organization that are taken to influence others to meet one’s personal goals

Political Behavior behavior outside the normal power system, designed to benefit an individual or a sub unit

1. Behavior that usually is outside the legitimate, recognized power system

2. Behavior that is designed to benefit an individual or subunit, often at the expense of the organization in general

3. Behavior that is intentional and is designed to acquire and maintain power

Research on PoliticsStudy of political behavior – in the electronics

industry in Southern California

87 managers:

- 30 CEO

- 28 higher level staff managers

- 29 supervisors

were interviewed and asked about a number of aspects organizational political behavior.

Among other questions, the managers were asked to describe the personal characteristics of organizational members who were effective “politicians”

13 Personal Characteristics of Effective Organizational Politicians:

1. Articulate (pandai mengemukakan pendapat)2. Sensitive3. Socially adept (memiliki kemampuan adaptasi tinggi)4. Competent5. Popular6. Extroverted7. Self confident8. Aggressive9. Ambitious10. Devious (licik)11. Organization person (memiliki bakat organisasi)12. Highly intelligent13. Logical

THE ANTECEDENTS OF POLITICS: WHY AND WHEN IT OCCURS

Personal Characteristics High Machiavellianism

High Self-Monitoring Ambition

Extraversion Popularity

Organizational Factors Ambiguous Roles, Goals Scarce Resources

History of Political Behavior High Centralization

Conflicting Goals Across Units or Subunits

Organizational Maturity or Complexity

Organizational Politics

THE ANTECEDENTS OF POLITICS: WHY AND WHEN IT OCCURS

Personal and Organizational variables Personal Characteristics: high Machiavellianism, high

self-monitoring, ambition, extraversion, popularity Organizational Factors: ambiguous roles, goals, scare

resources, history of political behavior, high centralization, conflicting goals across units or subunits, organizational maturity or complexity

Politics in Human Resource Management such as performance appraisal, personnel selection, and

compensation decisions

Politics and the Organizational Life Span the use of political practices in organizations is likely to be

affected by its degree of maturity

POLITICAL TACTICS: WHAT FORMS DO THEY TAKE?

Gaining control over and selective use of information

Cultivating a favorable impression image building ~ (1) dressing for success, (2) associating oneself with the successful accomplishments of others, (3) simply calling attention to one’s own successes and positive characteristics

Building powerful coalitions Blaming and Attacking other: finding a

scapegoat Associating with powerful others Creating obligations and using reciprocity

PLAYING POLITICS Political Influence Tactics

Individuals and groups engage in political behavior in order to influence the perceptions or behaviors of other individuals and groups

Based on research 9 specific tactics used by individuals to influence their superiors, coworkers, and subordinates to do what they wanted to do: Consultation Rational persuasion Inspirational appeals Ingratiating tactics Coalition tactics Pressure tactics Legitimating Personal appeals Exchange tactics

TACTICS OF SOCIAL INFLUENCE:GETTING TO “YES”

CONSULTATION: asking for participation in decision making or planning a change

RATIONAL PERSUASION: using logical arguments and facts to persuade another that a desired result will occur

INSPIRATIONAL APPEAL: arousing enthusiasm by appealing to another’s values and ideals

INGRATIATION: the process of getting someone to do what you want by putting that person in a good mood or getting her/him to like you

COALITION-BUILDING: seeking the assistance of others, or noting the support of others

PRESSURE: seeking compliance by using demands, threats, or intimidation LEGITIMATING: pointing out one’s authority to make a request, or verifying it

is consistent with prevailing organizational policies and practices PERSONAL APPEAL: appealing to another’s feelings of loyalty and friendship

before making a request EXCHANGE: promising some benefits in exchange for compliance with a request

PLAYING POLITICS Impression Management

the actions individuals take to control the impressions that others form of them.

Research suggests that a significant part of behavior in organizations is motivated by the desire of organization members to be perceived by others in certain ways Effective impression management can be quite useful.

e.g. the employment interview Many impression management tactics are designed to

emphasize the positive. e.g. self promotion Others impression management tactics may be aimed at

reducing negatives.e.g. providing an excuse for why you made mistake may be designed to further the impression that the error was beyond your control

self handicapping any actions taken in advance of an outcome that is designed to provide either an excuse for failure or a credit for success

ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS: ITS EFFECTS

Adverse Effects of Organizational Politicswhen the level of political behavior is high in organization, job satisfaction and organizational commitment may suffer – with the result that good people decide to leave and seek employment elsewhere. Clearly this is a very negative effect of organizational politics.

ETHICS, POWER, AND POLITICS

Political Antics Top the “Most Unethical List” Hiring, training, or promoting based on

favouritism Allowing differences in pay due to friendships Sexual harassment Gender discrimination in promotion Using discipline in consistently Not maintaining confidentiality Gender discrimination in compensation Non-performance factors used in appraisals Arrangement with vendors leading to personal

gain Gender discrimination in recruitment or hiring

potentially political behaviour

WHAT, IF ANYTHING, IS UNETHICAL ABOUT ORGANIZATIONAL POLITIS?

ASSESSING THE ETHICS OF POLITICAL BEHAVIOR

The more power an individual has, the more tempted s/he is to use that power toward immoral or unethical purpose

The ethics of organizational politics must satisfy three moral principles

1. Criterion of utilitarian outcomes.Utilitarian outcomes ~ are only selfish interests promoted?

2. Criterion of individual rights.Individual rights ~ are privacy rights respected?

3. Criterion of distributive justiceDistributive justice ~ is it fair?

What does a manager do when a potential behavior cannot pass the three criteria?

The behavior may still be considered ethical in the particular situation if it passes the criterion of overwhelming factors.

Guidelines for Determining Ethical Action

Unethical

Ethical

Question 1

Will the political tactics promote purely selfish interests (as opposed to also promoting organizational goals?)

Question 2

Does the political activity respect the rights of the individual affected?

Question 2

Does the activity conform to standards of equity and justice; is it fair?

Yes No No Yes

How to combat Organizational PoliticsAbolishing organizational politics completely may be impossible but managers can limit its effect. Some of the most successful tactics are

summarized hereSUGESSTION DESCRIPTION• Clarify job

expectation

• Open the communication process

• Be a good role model

• Do not turn a blind eye to game players

• Political behavior is nurtured by highly ambiguous conditions. To the extent managers help reduce uncertainty (e.g. by giving precise work assignments), they can minimize the likelihood of political behavior

• People have difficulty fostering their own goals at the expense of organizational goals when the communication process is open to scrutiny. It is hard to “get away with anything” when the system is open for all to examine

• Employees model the behavior of higher ranking officials. Accordingly, an openly political manager may encourage subordinates to behave in the same way

• Immediately confront an employee who attempts to take credit for another’s work. Managers who do not do so send a message that kind of behavior is acceptable

USING POWER TO MANAGE EFFECTIVELYJeffrey Pfeffer several considerations that are

important in using power to manage effectively: Recognize that there are multiple interests in

virtually every organization Know what position relevant individuals and

groups hold with respect to issues important to you

Understand that to get things done you must have power, and in the case of those who oppose you, you must have more power than they do

Recognize the strategies and tactics through which organizational power is developed and used