Politics and Development A-102 Development Studies-The State of the Discipline Dr. Taiabur Rahman Department of Development Studies University of Dhaka.

Politics and DevelopmentPolitics and DevelopmentA-102A-102

Development Studies-The State of Development Studies-The State of the Disciplinethe Discipline

Dr. Taiabur RahmanDr. Taiabur RahmanDepartment of Development Department of Development

StudiesStudiesUniversity of DhakaUniversity of Dhaka

IntroductionIntroduction• DS is a relatively young field of academic study. The DS is a relatively young field of academic study. The

term ‘Development Studies’ did not come into use term ‘Development Studies’ did not come into use until after World War II and many DS journals date until after World War II and many DS journals date from the early 1950s to the early 1970s.from the early 1950s to the early 1970s.

• Many have argued that DS was born out of the Many have argued that DS was born out of the decolonization process in the 1950s and 1960s, as decolonization process in the 1950s and 1960s, as newly independent states sought policy newly independent states sought policy prescriptions to ‘catch up’ economically with prescriptions to ‘catch up’ economically with industrialized nations . industrialized nations .

• If we accept that DS is largely a post-World War II If we accept that DS is largely a post-World War II phenomenon, then the dominance of economic phenomenon, then the dominance of economic thinking in the ‘early years’ of DS is virtually beyond thinking in the ‘early years’ of DS is virtually beyond question.question.

• Contextual factors shaping DS at this time were Contextual factors shaping DS at this time were certainly economic. certainly economic.

IntroductionIntroduction• There was the influence of Marshall Plan ideas, and the There was the influence of Marshall Plan ideas, and the

well-cited 1949 Truman Declaration of ‘a bold new well-cited 1949 Truman Declaration of ‘a bold new program to make the benefits of industrial progress program to make the benefits of industrial progress available for the improvement and growth of under-available for the improvement and growth of under-developed areas’.developed areas’.

• It can even be argued that DS emerged from ‘a lower-It can even be argued that DS emerged from ‘a lower-ranking caste’ within what Leijonhufvud (2000) labelled ranking caste’ within what Leijonhufvud (2000) labelled ‘the Econ’ – the economics profession.‘the Econ’ – the economics profession.

• The ‘Devlops’ – or Development Economists – were The ‘Devlops’ – or Development Economists – were viewed with suspicion by the Econ for ‘endangering the viewed with suspicion by the Econ for ‘endangering the moral fibre’ of the tribe by non-enforcement of the moral fibre’ of the tribe by non-enforcement of the strict taboo against association with Polscics, Sociogs, strict taboo against association with Polscics, Sociogs, and other tribes.and other tribes.

• It might, however, also be argued that the genealogy of It might, however, also be argued that the genealogy of DS can be linked back to eighteenth-century DS can be linked back to eighteenth-century anthropology.. anthropology..

IntroductionIntroduction• However, economics was dominant in DS during However, economics was dominant in DS during

the 1950s and 1960s, and even today in the age the 1950s and 1960s, and even today in the age of multi-dimensional development the relationship of multi-dimensional development the relationship between DS and economics remains controversialbetween DS and economics remains controversial

• Indeed, economics stands accused of imperialist Indeed, economics stands accused of imperialist tendencies, not only in DS but across the social tendencies, not only in DS but across the social sciences. it is worth emphasizing that some of the sciences. it is worth emphasizing that some of the fundamental changes over the last 20 years that fundamental changes over the last 20 years that have shaped the evolution of DS into multi-have shaped the evolution of DS into multi-disciplinarity and away from purely economic disciplinarity and away from purely economic approaches have been led by development approaches have been led by development economists such as Amartya K. Sen, Paul economists such as Amartya K. Sen, Paul Streeten, and Ravi Kanbur, to name but a few.Streeten, and Ravi Kanbur, to name but a few.

IntroductionIntroduction• Development Studies is the historical creature of Post Development Studies is the historical creature of Post

World War IIWorld War II• Development Studies came in being to provide policy Development Studies came in being to provide policy

prescriptions for third world nations’ development after prescriptions for third world nations’ development after decolonization.decolonization.

• While it originally emerged as a branch of economics, While it originally emerged as a branch of economics, development economics, it has become an increasingly development economics, it has become an increasingly inter- and multi-disciplinary subject, encompassing inter- and multi-disciplinary subject, encompassing politics, history, woman studies, sociology, geography, politics, history, woman studies, sociology, geography, social anthropology and international relations social anthropology and international relations

• Development studies takes of issues of poverty, resource Development studies takes of issues of poverty, resource distribution and the like. It is one of the realms of theory distribution and the like. It is one of the realms of theory and practice that is established academically and and practice that is established academically and politicallypolitically

• It has theory and it has the power of the western purse It has theory and it has the power of the western purse out in the ‘Third World’. It is the field along with imperial out in the ‘Third World’. It is the field along with imperial history and literaturehistory and literature

• Development Studies as a professional field was born in Development Studies as a professional field was born in the 1950s around three themes of late modernity-the 1950s around three themes of late modernity-Decolonization, Rationality and DevelopmentDecolonization, Rationality and Development

Theoretical ImpasseTheoretical Impasse• Social science’s theoretical image of the 3Social science’s theoretical image of the 3rdrd world world

could have analyzed by oppositional Modernization could have analyzed by oppositional Modernization and Dependency. Both theories partially could and Dependency. Both theories partially could explain the development trajectories in the 3explain the development trajectories in the 3rdrd world world

• 1980s have become known as Lost Decade in 1980s have become known as Lost Decade in development terms for Africa and LA. development terms for Africa and LA.

• 199Os ended with a new development blockage 199Os ended with a new development blockage among the NIEs and near NIEs in Asian region (Asian among the NIEs and near NIEs in Asian region (Asian Financial Crisis). Now the East Asian NICs no longer Financial Crisis). Now the East Asian NICs no longer provide a complete refutation of dependency theory provide a complete refutation of dependency theory (they compete among each other)(they compete among each other)

• 2000s have started with recovery economic 2000s have started with recovery economic downturn in NICSdownturn in NICS

Theoretical ImpasseTheoretical Impasse• Neither markets nor the state are likely to go Neither markets nor the state are likely to go

away in the foreseeable future. The issue is away in the foreseeable future. The issue is neither individual liberty nor empowerment of neither individual liberty nor empowerment of the state but to make both amenable to serving the state but to make both amenable to serving human needs.human needs.

• The study area remains in crisis as does its The study area remains in crisis as does its subject, the Third World.subject, the Third World.

• Development theory cannot concentrate itself on Development theory cannot concentrate itself on the study of 3the study of 3rdrd world world perseperse

• DS as Leys puts’ can no longer be conceived as a DS as Leys puts’ can no longer be conceived as a kind of area studies’. Poverty is becoming kind of area studies’. Poverty is becoming increasingly widespread in the north as claimed increasingly widespread in the north as claimed by Hesselberg. Joint efforts to achieve high by Hesselberg. Joint efforts to achieve high development goal can be stressed development goal can be stressed

Fifty Years of Development Fifty Years of Development ThinkingThinking

• The essentialization of the 3The essentialization of the 3rdrd World and its World and its inhabitants as homogeneous entitiesinhabitants as homogeneous entities

• The unconditional belief in the concept of The unconditional belief in the concept of progress and in the makeability of societyprogress and in the makeability of society

• The importance of the nation state in realizing The importance of the nation state in realizing that progressthat progress

• The first two characteristics form the core of so The first two characteristics form the core of so called developmentalism: a kind of evolutionary called developmentalism: a kind of evolutionary development thinking directed at the 3development thinking directed at the 3rdrd world world that was unilineair and teleological and could that was unilineair and teleological and could harbour two apparently contradictory theories-harbour two apparently contradictory theories-Modernization and DependenciaModernization and Dependencia

Fifty Years of Development Fifty Years of Development Thinking-Contd.Thinking-Contd.

• The 3The 3rdrd characteristic underscores the role of state characteristic underscores the role of state in the developmental process. The idea of in the developmental process. The idea of constructing the welfare state in the western constructing the welfare state in the western industrial world was exported to the 3industrial world was exported to the 3rdrd World World

• The essentialization of the 3The essentialization of the 3rdrd World World • Mounting critique of the idea of a homogenious 3Mounting critique of the idea of a homogenious 3rdrd

worldworld• The critique was an extension of dependency The critique was an extension of dependency

theorytheory• Example-The role of OPEC in oil crisis in 1970, the Example-The role of OPEC in oil crisis in 1970, the

economic success of NICs amid extreme poverty economic success of NICs amid extreme poverty in Africa, the return to military dictatorship in in Africa, the return to military dictatorship in several LA countries made clear that the 3several LA countries made clear that the 3rdrd world world was too heterogeneous a category to be covered was too heterogeneous a category to be covered by one theory-Dependenciaby one theory-Dependencia

Fifty Years of Development Fifty Years of Development Thinking-Contd.Thinking-Contd.

• This critique of alleged homogeneity was This critique of alleged homogeneity was strengthened by the postmodern critique strengthened by the postmodern critique of essentialism which was brought of essentialism which was brought forward by Foucault and Derrida. To forward by Foucault and Derrida. To them, real social research is not possible, them, real social research is not possible, it comes from the subjective mind of the it comes from the subjective mind of the researcher in question or based on so-researcher in question or based on so-called shared experiences of a group of called shared experiences of a group of respondentsrespondents

• At a Paradigmatic level, there was a sort At a Paradigmatic level, there was a sort of change from an emphasis on inequality of change from an emphasis on inequality to one on diversity.to one on diversity.

Fifty Years of Development Fifty Years of Development Thinking-Contd.Thinking-Contd.

• The end of the belief in ProgressThe end of the belief in Progress

• In the 1980s, development pessimism In the 1980s, development pessimism had already set in because it was realized had already set in because it was realized thatthat

• the gap between the poor and rich the gap between the poor and rich continued to widen, economic growth continued to widen, economic growth took place at cost of environmental took place at cost of environmental catastrophe and socialist inspired catastrophe and socialist inspired development trajectories from academic development trajectories from academic and political agendas have been excludedand political agendas have been excluded

Fifty Years of Development Fifty Years of Development Thinking-Contd.Thinking-Contd.

• W. Sachs(1992) found the concept of W. Sachs(1992) found the concept of development outdated because-development outdated because-

• Technology leads to ecological disasterTechnology leads to ecological disaster

• The concept of development as The concept of development as ideological weapon is no longer thereideological weapon is no longer there

• Welfare gap between north and south is Welfare gap between north and south is growinggrowing

• Development leads to a loss of diversityDevelopment leads to a loss of diversity

Fifty Years of Development Fifty Years of Development Thinking-Contd.Thinking-Contd.

• Huntington –talking about cultural Huntington –talking about cultural relativismrelativism

• Robert Kaplan-(1994, the coming anarchy) Robert Kaplan-(1994, the coming anarchy) piants a picture of total social and political piants a picture of total social and political chaos in West Africachaos in West Africa

• Ulrich beck talks about risk societyUlrich beck talks about risk society• The end in the belief in the role of stateThe end in the belief in the role of state• Globalization is threat to sovereignty Globalization is threat to sovereignty

(monopoly of the use of institutionalized (monopoly of the use of institutionalized violence with their borders, privatization/ violence with their borders, privatization/ local government/cultural identity is local government/cultural identity is eroding in favor of cosmopolitanismeroding in favor of cosmopolitanism

Paradigm regainedParadigm regained• Three paradigms of post WWII development Three paradigms of post WWII development

thinking have lost their hegemonic status in DS.thinking have lost their hegemonic status in DS.• Diversity vs inequality- Diversity vs inequality- gender studies for gender studies for

instance-emancipation of large number of instance-emancipation of large number of people/difference in terms of sex, race, class, people/difference in terms of sex, race, class, ethnicityethnicity

• Can studying endless diversity with the south Can studying endless diversity with the south contribute anything to alleviating poverty in the contribute anything to alleviating poverty in the 33rdrd world? world?

• The very essence of DS is a normative The very essence of DS is a normative preoccupation with the poor, marginalized and preoccupation with the poor, marginalized and exploited people in the Southexploited people in the South

• Inequality rather than diversity/difference Inequality rather than diversity/difference should be the focus of DS: Inequality of access should be the focus of DS: Inequality of access to power, resources, to human existence-in to power, resources, to human existence-in short, inequality of emancipationshort, inequality of emancipation

Paradigm regainedParadigm regained• Progress vs Risk ManagementProgress vs Risk Management• Let the poor in 3Let the poor in 3rdrd world forget about needs world forget about needs

which resemble those of the north/1which resemble those of the north/1stst world world needs/they should lead lives of their ownneeds/they should lead lives of their own

• That is pessimistic view. People in south That is pessimistic view. People in south also want to lead decent life, enjoy modern also want to lead decent life, enjoy modern facilities, full citizenship and political facilities, full citizenship and political participationparticipation

• The concept of risk society is not The concept of risk society is not uncontested-the globe is at risk due to uncontested-the globe is at risk due to expansion of western capital. The risk has expansion of western capital. The risk has always been exported to south. Risk should always been exported to south. Risk should be evenly spreadbe evenly spread

• The notion of progress seems to have lost The notion of progress seems to have lost much of its hegemonic status within DS. much of its hegemonic status within DS. Alternative views however have not come upAlternative views however have not come up

Paradigm regainedParadigm regained• State vs Civil SocietyState vs Civil Society

• State has been deemphasized in favor of civil State has been deemphasized in favor of civil society, local government or bothsociety, local government or both

• Three issues-retreat of state, role of LG and Three issues-retreat of state, role of LG and significance of CSsignificance of CS

• Transition from Politicomilitary model of Transition from Politicomilitary model of international mgt and domination to international mgt and domination to technofinancial system of global integration in technofinancial system of global integration in the WMthe WM

• (Nayar, Shaw and Kothari) on the ground of (Nayar, Shaw and Kothari) on the ground of spatial or concentration of trade and spatial or concentration of trade and investment, the definition of state should be investment, the definition of state should be updated/ recastupdated/ recast

Paradigm regainedParadigm regained• The 3The 3rdrd world countries are in a transition phase to world countries are in a transition phase to

democracy, the national state is robbed of through democracy, the national state is robbed of through local government and local autonomylocal government and local autonomy

• Role of state be replaced by civil society? Role of state be replaced by civil society? However, enthusiasm with which civil society has However, enthusiasm with which civil society has been embraced as a new paradigm has not been been embraced as a new paradigm has not been matched by an elaboration of its theoretical matched by an elaboration of its theoretical dimensions.dimensions.

• Putnam(1993) and Fukuyama(1996) have talked Putnam(1993) and Fukuyama(1996) have talked about the construction of civil society with the about the construction of civil society with the right kind (may lead to democracy and economic right kind (may lead to democracy and economic development)development)

• It is highly premature to replace the paradigmatic It is highly premature to replace the paradigmatic importance of the state by that of civil societyimportance of the state by that of civil society

ConclusionConclusion• Some of the paradigms seemed to have been lost and Some of the paradigms seemed to have been lost and

from mid-1980from mid-1980 s an impasse in development studies s an impasse in development studies became clearly visible.became clearly visible.

• We have seen where the criticism of central paradigms We have seen where the criticism of central paradigms came from and that alternative paradigms are either came from and that alternative paradigms are either absent or less attractive.absent or less attractive.

• The challenge for DS is to reestablish its continued The challenge for DS is to reestablish its continued relevance to study and to under the process of relevance to study and to under the process of exclusion and development. It need not cling to its own exclusion and development. It need not cling to its own treasured paradigms but to welcome alternative new treasured paradigms but to welcome alternative new ideas ideas

• Last but not the least, a crucial point to be kept in mind Last but not the least, a crucial point to be kept in mind is that understanding development is a process with is that understanding development is a process with numerous influences-conventional and unconventionalnumerous influences-conventional and unconventional

• Decolonizing of the mind must be done through a Decolonizing of the mind must be done through a dialectical dialogue in constant contact with realities of dialectical dialogue in constant contact with realities of the field-at home and away.the field-at home and away.

The Rationale for DSThe Rationale for DS• DS has a normative point of departure – to improve DS has a normative point of departure – to improve

people’s lives – and thus a shared commitment to the people’s lives – and thus a shared commitment to the practical or policy relevance of teaching and research. practical or policy relevance of teaching and research.

• There is also a growing interest among DS teachers and There is also a growing interest among DS teachers and thinkers in the importance of addressing local and thinkers in the importance of addressing local and global inequality, particularly gender inequality – to global inequality, particularly gender inequality – to which DS has been more responsive than have some of which DS has been more responsive than have some of its component disciplines. its component disciplines.

• This is perhaps one reason why feminist economists, This is perhaps one reason why feminist economists, anthropologists, geographers, political scientists, and anthropologists, geographers, political scientists, and so on have been drawn to DS.so on have been drawn to DS.

Subject matter of DSSubject matter of DS• DS has a shared interest in ‘less developed countries’, or DS has a shared interest in ‘less developed countries’, or

‘developing countries’, or ‘the South’, or ‘post-colonial ‘developing countries’, or ‘the South’, or ‘post-colonial societies’, formerly known as ‘the Third World’, and societies’, formerly known as ‘the Third World’, and comparative analysis therein.comparative analysis therein.

• Teaching and research in DS increasingly emphasizes Teaching and research in DS increasingly emphasizes heterogeneity and diversity in the subject matter of what heterogeneity and diversity in the subject matter of what was perceived as a homogeneous ‘Third World’ in the was perceived as a homogeneous ‘Third World’ in the 1950s and 1960s – and today is certainly not so perceived 1950s and 1960s – and today is certainly not so perceived (compare Ghana and South Korea in the 1950s and now, (compare Ghana and South Korea in the 1950s and now, for example). Increasingly DS is also recognising context-for example). Increasingly DS is also recognising context-specific matters and moving away from universal laws specific matters and moving away from universal laws

• The connecting theme is, in general, post-colonial The connecting theme is, in general, post-colonial countries, or the ‘Global South’, and standards of living countries, or the ‘Global South’, and standards of living within them. One might add the transition countries of within them. One might add the transition countries of eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, and perhaps eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, and perhaps DS even has something to say about OECD countries.DS even has something to say about OECD countries.

What is DSWhat is DS

• DS is about developmentDS is about development

• DS is (to a greater or lesser extent) about cross-DS is (to a greater or lesser extent) about cross-disciplinary insights. DS increasingly seeks to disciplinary insights. DS increasingly seeks to draw on the insights of more than one discipline draw on the insights of more than one discipline but does not necessarily always achieve this but does not necessarily always achieve this satisfactorily.satisfactorily.

• DS is (to a large extent) about applied or DS is (to a large extent) about applied or instrumental research. DS tends not to be instrumental research. DS tends not to be interested in knowledge generation for its own interested in knowledge generation for its own sake, but for its applied or instrumental value. sake, but for its applied or instrumental value. DS is concerned with real-world problems (even DS is concerned with real-world problems (even when theorizing). Many members of the DS when theorizing). Many members of the DS ‘community’ seek to ‘make a difference’.‘community’ seek to ‘make a difference’.

What is DSWhat is DS

What is DSWhat is DS

• Each of these three characteristics represents Each of these three characteristics represents elements within the 3x3x3 cube. elements within the 3x3x3 cube.

• The first, about the dimensions of development, The first, about the dimensions of development, can be sub-divided into development (a) as a can be sub-divided into development (a) as a process of change; (b) as a policy and/or process of change; (b) as a policy and/or practice-related evaluative outcome; or (c) as a practice-related evaluative outcome; or (c) as a dominant discourse. This could be viewed as a dominant discourse. This could be viewed as a continuum from arguably value-free continuum from arguably value-free (development as change) at one end to (development as change) at one end to research that is more explicitly value-laden research that is more explicitly value-laden (development as a policy-related and/or (development as a policy-related and/or practice-related evaluative outcome) at the practice-related evaluative outcome) at the other end. We would argue that these are the other end. We would argue that these are the three discernable definitions of ‘development’.three discernable definitions of ‘development’.

What is DSWhat is DS• The first is historical and long-term and arguably relatively The first is historical and long-term and arguably relatively

value-free – emphasizing ‘development’ as a process of value-free – emphasizing ‘development’ as a process of change. change.

• The second is policy-related and evaluative or indicator-led, The second is policy-related and evaluative or indicator-led, is based on value judgments (relating, for example, to is based on value judgments (relating, for example, to ‘good’ change), and has short- to medium-term time ‘good’ change), and has short- to medium-term time horizons – development as the achievement of the horizons – development as the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), for example. Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), for example.

• The third is post-modernist, drawing attention to the The third is post-modernist, drawing attention to the ethnocentric and ideologically loaded Western conceptions ethnocentric and ideologically loaded Western conceptions of ‘development’ and raising the possibilities of alternative of ‘development’ and raising the possibilities of alternative conceptions. conceptions.

• A common theme within most definitions is that A common theme within most definitions is that ‘development’ encompasses ‘change’ in a variety of ‘development’ encompasses ‘change’ in a variety of aspects of the human condition. Indeed, one of the aspects of the human condition. Indeed, one of the simplest definitions of ‘development’ is probably simplest definitions of ‘development’ is probably Chambers’ notion of ‘good change’.Chambers’ notion of ‘good change’.

What is DSWhat is DS• The second dimension of the development cube, ‘about The second dimension of the development cube, ‘about

cross-disciplinary insights’, can also be placed in a continuum cross-disciplinary insights’, can also be placed in a continuum of approaches – multi-disciplinary, inter-disciplinary, or of approaches – multi-disciplinary, inter-disciplinary, or transdisciplinary research – denoting an increasing level of transdisciplinary research – denoting an increasing level of integration between constituent disciplines. Development integration between constituent disciplines. Development Studies seeks to be cross-disciplinary.Studies seeks to be cross-disciplinary.

• Cross-disciplinarity is a generic term meaning any kind of Cross-disciplinarity is a generic term meaning any kind of mixing of disciplines. mixing of disciplines.

• Multi-disciplinarity entails researchers in teams conducting Multi-disciplinarity entails researchers in teams conducting research from their own disciplinary viewpoint but where the research from their own disciplinary viewpoint but where the team as a whole includes researchers from a number of team as a whole includes researchers from a number of disciplines. disciplines.

• Inter-disciplinarity is a step further towards integration rather Inter-disciplinarity is a step further towards integration rather than co-existence and means that the different disciplines are than co-existence and means that the different disciplines are still discernable but some level of deeper integration is still discernable but some level of deeper integration is evident. Individuals (or teams) seek to integrate concepts and evident. Individuals (or teams) seek to integrate concepts and methodologies from the outset. Most of the individual methodologies from the outset. Most of the individual researchers will be familiar with at least a second discipline.researchers will be familiar with at least a second discipline.

What is DSWhat is DS• Trans-disciplinarity relates to complete Trans-disciplinarity relates to complete

integration of two or more disciplines with the integration of two or more disciplines with the possibility of forming a new discipline. As an possibility of forming a new discipline. As an example, the field-research method known as example, the field-research method known as ethnography originates in anthropology but ethnography originates in anthropology but took insights from psychology, philosophy, took insights from psychology, philosophy, sociology, and other disciplines. sociology, and other disciplines.

• A final option in this classification is ‘non-A final option in this classification is ‘non-disciplinarity’, which represents a deliberate disciplinarity’, which represents a deliberate attempt to move away from the notion that one attempt to move away from the notion that one should work within well-defined disciplinary should work within well-defined disciplinary boundaries – a position which might be taken boundaries – a position which might be taken by those working in a post-modernist by those working in a post-modernist perspective.perspective.

What is DSWhat is DS

What is DSWhat is DS• If the first dimension is the focus – i.e. If the first dimension is the focus – i.e.

‘development’ (however defined) – and the ‘development’ (however defined) – and the second dimension of the cube is the approach – second dimension of the cube is the approach – i.e. cross-disciplinarity – the third dimension of i.e. cross-disciplinarity – the third dimension of the development cube is the aim or purpose. the development cube is the aim or purpose.

• This can again be placed within a continuum of This can again be placed within a continuum of purpose – from research with limited purpose – from research with limited instrumentality (such as theory/abstraction) at instrumentality (such as theory/abstraction) at one end of the continuum to research with high one end of the continuum to research with high instrumentality at the other (research which is instrumentality at the other (research which is focused on policy, practice, or on an action-focused on policy, practice, or on an action-based approach), with combinations of the two based approach), with combinations of the two in between. in between.

What is DSWhat is DS• Many people are attracted to DS by some sense Many people are attracted to DS by some sense

of concern and commitment about social justice of concern and commitment about social justice and the prevailing levels of global poverty and and the prevailing levels of global poverty and inequality. One avenue for this commitment is a inequality. One avenue for this commitment is a focus on informing policy.focus on informing policy.

• Definitions of DS typically identify some level of Definitions of DS typically identify some level of instrumentality, as in proposition that ‘knowledge instrumentality, as in proposition that ‘knowledge generation is not an end in itself’. This makes DS, generation is not an end in itself’. This makes DS, in the words of Mehta et al. (2006) ‘more loaded in the words of Mehta et al. (2006) ‘more loaded and contested than other kinds of research’.and contested than other kinds of research’.

• Indeed, its instrumentality has been a central Indeed, its instrumentality has been a central factor in many critiques of DS. It has led many to factor in many critiques of DS. It has led many to contend that DS is ‘the source of many of the contend that DS is ‘the source of many of the problems of the so-called Third World’problems of the so-called Third World’

The Critic of DSThe Critic of DS• Recent years have seen numerous attacks on Recent years have seen numerous attacks on

DS, of which three stand out.DS, of which three stand out.

• The first might be called a ‘delivery’ critique: The first might be called a ‘delivery’ critique: that DS is irrelevant, since much of the ‘Third that DS is irrelevant, since much of the ‘Third World’ is no better off than in 1950s or even World’ is no better off than in 1950s or even before.before.

• The second is the ‘neo-colonial’ or post-The second is the ‘neo-colonial’ or post-development critique: that DS is a neo-colonial development critique: that DS is a neo-colonial discourse which frames, shapes, and controls discourse which frames, shapes, and controls the ‘Third World’.the ‘Third World’.

• The third is the ‘depoliticization critique’: that The third is the ‘depoliticization critique’: that DS is apolitical, or even that it is a vehicle for DS is apolitical, or even that it is a vehicle for depoliticisation, through the expansion of DS as depoliticisation, through the expansion of DS as a politically neutral technocratic application.a politically neutral technocratic application.

The Critic of DSThe Critic of DS• The first critique relates closely to the neo-The first critique relates closely to the neo-

liberal critique and is based on the argument liberal critique and is based on the argument that DS (read: Development Economics) is that DS (read: Development Economics) is predicated on ‘bad economics’ (state-led predicated on ‘bad economics’ (state-led development, import substitution, infant-development, import substitution, infant-industry protection, etc.) and has led to bad industry protection, etc.) and has led to bad consequences, as has been argued by consequences, as has been argued by economists such as Milton Friedman, Anne economists such as Milton Friedman, Anne Krueger, and Deepak Lal, among others. The Krueger, and Deepak Lal, among others. The problem was the economics of DS.problem was the economics of DS.

The Critic of DSThe Critic of DS• The second critique relates to Michel Foucault’s The second critique relates to Michel Foucault’s

notions of knowledge and power in the context notions of knowledge and power in the context of post-development. This posited DS as an of post-development. This posited DS as an imperialist discourse which sought to impose a imperialist discourse which sought to impose a Western view of ‘development’ as modernity on Western view of ‘development’ as modernity on the ‘Third World’ (a position sustained by the ‘Third World’ (a position sustained by writers such as Arturo Escobar, Gustavo Esteva, writers such as Arturo Escobar, Gustavo Esteva, and Wolfgang Sachs, among many others). DS and Wolfgang Sachs, among many others). DS was in itself the problem.was in itself the problem.

The Critics of DSThe Critics of DS• The third relates to the extended power of the The third relates to the extended power of the

state and ‘technification’ of development as a state and ‘technification’ of development as a set of concepts and techniques to be applied set of concepts and techniques to be applied through the planning state. through the planning state.

• This problem resonates with Foucault’s political This problem resonates with Foucault’s political technologies: political problems rephrased in technologies: political problems rephrased in politically neutral, technocratic language, while politically neutral, technocratic language, while state functionaries or development state functionaries or development professionals are typically the ‘experts’ (as professionals are typically the ‘experts’ (as writers such as Robert Chambers, James writers such as Robert Chambers, James Ferguson, and John Harriss have argued.Ferguson, and John Harriss have argued.

The Future of DSThe Future of DS• DS could expand to be more global in perspective, DS could expand to be more global in perspective,

rather than maintaining its primary focus on ‘them’ rather than maintaining its primary focus on ‘them’ and deprivation in the South. and deprivation in the South.

• The case is that the concerns of DS extend beyond The case is that the concerns of DS extend beyond developing countries, since there are poverty and developing countries, since there are poverty and wealth in every country. Inequalities within high-wealth in every country. Inequalities within high-income countries mean that the types of policy income countries mean that the types of policy analysis applied to poverty-reduction programs in analysis applied to poverty-reduction programs in developing countries have a broader relevance. developing countries have a broader relevance.

• All countries are ‘developing’ in some sense of the All countries are ‘developing’ in some sense of the term, and industrialized countries experience term, and industrialized countries experience structural change of a socio-economic nature just as structural change of a socio-economic nature just as much as the developing countries. So cross-much as the developing countries. So cross-disciplinary analysis, which is familiar to DS disciplinary analysis, which is familiar to DS researchers, is also relevant to industrialized researchers, is also relevant to industrialized countries.countries.

The Future of DSThe Future of DS• A number of other socio-economic issues in A number of other socio-economic issues in

industrialized countries are also associated with the industrialized countries are also associated with the concerns of DS. For example, problems of ‘over-concerns of DS. For example, problems of ‘over-development’ in the industrialised countries, such as development’ in the industrialised countries, such as unhealthy diet and obesity, have complex socio-unhealthy diet and obesity, have complex socio-economic causes and effects. economic causes and effects.

• High consumption levels with their associated high CO2 High consumption levels with their associated high CO2 emissions in the industrialised countries have an emissions in the industrialised countries have an impact not only on these countries, but also on impact not only on these countries, but also on developing countries through the global environmental developing countries through the global environmental effects of the emissions. Other examples of increasing effects of the emissions. Other examples of increasing inter-connectedness between industrialised and inter-connectedness between industrialised and developing countries such as the globalisation of developing countries such as the globalisation of terrorism, security issues, and pandemics (HIV and terrorism, security issues, and pandemics (HIV and AIDS and avian flu, for example) mean that a cross-AIDS and avian flu, for example) mean that a cross-disciplinary approach to research and policy analysis is disciplinary approach to research and policy analysis is increasingly relevant in an international context.increasingly relevant in an international context.