Political Socialization in the 21st Century

8/10/2019 Political Socialization in the 21st Century

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Political Socialization in the Twenty-first Century:

Recommendations for Researchers

Diana Owen

Associate Professor of Political ScienceChair, American StudiesGeorgetown University

3!" Pros#ect Street, $%Suite 3&&

%ashington, D'C' !""(

email: owend)georgetown'edu#hone: *!"!+ -(.(&/0fa1: *!"!+ -(.&(!"

Pa#er #resented for #resentation at 2he 4uture of Civic 5ducation in the !&stCentury6conference cos#onsored 7y the Center for Civic 5ducation and the 8undes9entrale fur #olitische8ildung, ames ;adison


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he twenty.first century was ushered in with the re=uisite sense of antici#ation tem#ered

7y tre#idation that accom#anies the arrival of a new millennium' >t soon 7ecame clear that the

new century would 7e mar?ed 7y radical develo#ments' he Se#tem7er &&, !""&, terrorist

attac?s on the United States and the su7se=uent incursions into Afghanistan and >ra= signaled the

7eginning of an era that has 7een characteri9ed 7y threat, fear, and uncertainty' he glo7al

media and communications system has 7een undergoing a ma@or transformation' he world

economy has 7ecome increasingly unsta7le, as illustrated 7y the colla#se of large.scale financial

institutions and madly fluctuating investment mar?ets' >n addition, there have 7een distinct

shifts in the national and community cultural conte1ts within which #olitics and civic

engagement ta?e #lace' Significant changes are evident in the norms and actions surrounding

relations involving gender, race and ethnicity, religion, and social class *>nglehart and %el9el,

!""+' hese factors all #oint to the fact that the #olitical sociali9ation in the twenty.first century

is li?ely to e1hi7it some uni=ue currents'

Political sociali9ation, the #rocess 7y which citi9enshi# orientations are transmitted, is

conditioned 7y shifts in the #olitical, social, and economic conte1ts at the community, nation.

state, and international levels' he com#le1ities that characteri9e the #olitical sociali9ation

#rocess and its outcomes 7ecome es#ecially evident during #eriods of transition and u#heaval'

aving a strong gras# of how the sociali9ation #rocess wor?s can #rovide us with tremendous

insights into the changes that are going on in a society and how they are affecting democratic

regimes' According to Almond, #olitical sociali9ation 2not only gives us insight into the #attern

of #olitical culture and su7cultures in Ba society, 7ut also locates for us in the sociali9ation

#rocesses of the society the #oint where #articular =ualities and elements are 7eing sustained or

modified6 *Almond, &/": 3&+'


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At the macro or #olitical system level, #olitical sociali9ation is the means 7y which

#olities and other #olitical societies inculcate a##ro#riate norms and #ractices in citi9ens,

residents, and mem7ers *Sa#iro, !""0: !+' Polities convey esta7lished #atterns of thought and

action, laws and norms, and traditions and fol?ways through agencies, such as the family,

educational system, #eer grou#s, mass media, #olitical institutions, community organi9ations,

religious organi9ations, and the military *8ec?, &/((F ;arshall, &//-+' he ?inds of =uestions

that are addressed at the macro level focus on 2where and how #eo#le develo# the ?inds of

#olitical orientations and #ractices that transform the design of democratic constitutions and

institutions into the creation of real, functioning democratic #olities6 *Sa#iro, !""0: &/+'

At the micro or individual level, #olitical sociali9ation constitutes 2the #atterns and

#rocesses 7y which individuals engage in #olitical develo#ment and learning, constructing their

#articular relationshi#s to the #olitical conte1ts in which they live6 *Sa#iro, !""0: 3+' As a result

of #olitical sociali9ation, individuals ac=uire ?nowledge a7out the #olitical system and how it

wor?s' hey internali9e the societyt is difficult to ta?e stoc? of research on #olitical sociali9ation without 7eing im#ressed

7y the enormity of the tas? at hand' >t is clearly im#ossi7le to account for every nuance and

situational wrin?le that may e1#lain differences in the sociali9ation e1#erience' et, the

accumulated ?nowledge from nearly early eighty years of social scientific in=uiry into the

ma?ing of citi9ens is remar?a7le' >t #rovides a wealth of theoretical insights as well as a

voluminous em#irical findings that #rovide a vital 7aseline for future studies' owever

im#ressive the e1isting 7ody of #olitical sociali9ation scholarshi#, there are issues that need to 7e


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addressed as we go forward' Significant theoretical and methodological issues have straight.

@ac?eted the enter#rise, and at times have contri7uted to misleading inter#retations a7out the

citi9enshi# orientations of young #eo#le in society''

he #ro7lems of the value.laden theoretical assum#tions and overly.narrow em#irical

referents that have #lagued #olitical sociali9ation scholarshi# have 7een well.documented' Social

scientific research has largely 7een guided 7y #articulari9ed notions of the good citi9en that

severely limit the sco#e of in=uiry *Sherrod, et al', !""!+' hese include 2the citi9en as loyal

su7@ect and #atriot,6 2the citi9en as voter,6 and 2the citi9en as enlightened community

#artici#ant6 *Owen, !""0+' he over.reliance on survey research and the focus on a narrow set

of indicators, many of which are tied to voting, has led scholars and commentators to

underestimate the sco#e and su7stance of youth #olitical engagement' 4or e1am#le, measures of

#olitical ?nowledge that have 7een used to la7el young #eo#le as uninformed are overly

sim#listic and trivial' 5soteric =uestions, such as naming ca7inet mem7ers or listing the countries

with #ermanent seats on the United $ations Security Council or identifying the #olitical #arty to

which the #rime minister of Poland 7elongs *;ilner, !""(F Pew Hesearch Center =uestion

archive+, do little to assess individuals< understanding of government, #olitics, or civic life

*Dudley and Gitelson, !""3+'

4urther, the dynamic nature of the #olitical sociali9ation #rocess is not ca#tured 7y

research which tends to #resent static sna#shots of discrete em#irical relationshi#s 7etween well.

trodden varia7les' Political sociali9ation #roduces distinct generational #atterns that at the same

time are riddled with su7tleties and contradictions' 4ew investigations have successfully dealt

with the underlying causes of historical, generational, or time.related differences in #olitical


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sociali9ation' i here is a failure to recogni9e how changes in the nature, structure, and o#eration

of agents over time can fundamentally alter the sociali9ation #rocess'

here is a #aucity of research that ta?es into account more than su#erficially the

intersection of macro and micro level sociali9ation, and e1amines how system.level factors

influence individual


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develo#ed sense of civic duty, and ta?e the o7ligations of citi9enshi# more lightly than older

cohorts *Dalton, !""-+' hey are unli?ely to ta?e #art in #olitical activities, such as contacting

officials, signing and circulating #etitions, attending #olitical meetings, and wor?ing on election

cam#aigns' outh have 7een found to have less of a commitment to the American creed and its

ideals of e=uality of o##ortunity and freedom in society than older #eo#le, as well as slightly

lower levels of #atriotism' hey are somewhat more inclined to trust #olitical institutions than

their older counter#arts, although this is often chal?ed u# to their naivete and lac? of e1#erience

with government' hey are as li?ely as others to distrust 7usiness, la7or, legal institutions, the

educational system, and the media, 7ut less li?ely to trust other #eo#le *see Galston, !""&, !""(+'

On a #ersonal level, young #eo#le are stereoty#ed as self.interested, s#oiled, greedy, and

disres#ectful' A !"" Pew Hesearch Center study found that (/I of the #u7lic answered 2no6 to

the =uestion: 2Do you 7elieve that young #eo#le have as strong a sense of right and wrong as

they did " years ago,6 while only&-I answered in the affirmative *Pew Hesearch Center,

!""+'ii hese trends have 7een attri7uted, often without su##orting evidence, to young #eo#le


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families, schools, and #olitical #arty organi9ations, to successfully sociali9e young citi9ens to

#olitics'

Hecently, scholars have 7egun to ree1amine the evidence concerning young #eo#len fact, there has 7een an overall decline in #olitical and civic involvement since

%orld %ar >> that is not confined to young #eo#le *Shea and Green, !""(+' Current trends #oint

in a #ositive direction, as young #eo#le today are #artici#ating in mainstream #olitics and voting

in higher num7ers'

>n an attem#t to sort out what a##ears to 7e conflicting evidence a7out youth activation,

some researchers have drawn a distinction 7etween #olitical engagement and civic engagement'

Political engagement constitutes involvement with the formal institutions and #rocesses of

government' >t includes activities li?e voting, cam#aign #artici#ation, attending town meetings,

@oining a #olitical #arty, contacting #u7lic officials, ?ee#ing informed a7out government and

current affairs, engaging in discussions of #olitics, and running for office' Political engagement

is associated with the norms of duty.7ased citi9enshi# which em#hasi9es the formal o7ligations,

res#onsi7ilities, and rights of the citi9en.su7@ect as they have 7een defined historically *Dalton,

!""-+, as well as #olitical tolerance defined as mutual for7earance *Callan, !""0+' hose who

ascri7e to duty.7ased citi9enshi# norms acce#t a limited #artici#atory role in #olitics, relegating

authority to elites and ac=uiescing to the e1isting #olitical order *Dalton, !""-+'


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Civic engagement encom#asses 2wor?ing to ma?e a difference in the civic life of

communities and develo#ing the com7ination of ?nowledge, s?ills, values, and motivation to

ma?e that difference6 *5hrlich, !""": 1i+' >t includes voluntarily wor?ing on 7ehalf of a cause

and hel#ing others either individually or as #art of an organi9ed effort' 51am#les of civic

engagement include non.electoral activities, li?e volunteering in a sou# ?itchen, @oining a

neigh7orhood association, advocating on 7ehalf of a #erson in need, and 7uying 2green6

#roducts to save the #lanet' he norms associated with engaged citi9enshi# #rivilege autonomy,

ethical and moral res#onsi7ilities *Dalton, !""-+, and mutual res#ect among individuals *Callan,

!""0+' hose who ascri7e to engaged citi9enshi# norms are more li?ely than others to #artici#ate

in elite.challenging 7ehavior and #rotests *Dalton, !""-+'

5vidence suggests that young #eo#le engage heavily in 2service #olitics6 while they are

less li?ely to ta?e #art in traditional forms of #olitical engagement' Studies conducted in the

current decade indicate that -"I or more of high school student ta?e #art in some form of

volunteer wor? either on their own or as #art of a service.learningKfor.credit #rogram through

their educational institution' his #ercentage dro#s slightly to a##ro1imately (I for college

students and declines further to -I si1 years after graduation *Eogelgesang and Astin, !""+'

%hile some students engage in civic wor? to 7uild their resumes, the ma@ority do so of their own

volition without e1#ectations of a concrete #ayoff *Shea and Green, !""(+' he greater em#hasis

on civic over #olitical engagement coincides with the tendency for young Americans to em7race

norms associated with engaged citi9enshi# as o##osed to duty.7ase citi9enshi#La trend that

har?ens 7ac? to the &/"s *Dalton, !""-+'

here are a num7er of reasons why young #eo#le show greater enthusiasm for civic

engagement than #olitical engagement' oung #eo#le are turned off 7y the scandal.strewn


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#olitics and uncivil 7ehavior of leaders that has reached e#ic #ro#ortions in their lifetimes' hey

do not feel as if the older #oliticians that #o#ulate higher office #ay attention to their concerns

other than during elections when they are stum#ing for votes *Shea and Green, !""(+, nor do

they 7elieve that their actions can ma?e a difference' >n addition, young #eo#le lead lives that

are filled with non.#olitical #ursuits that increasingly include time.7urning activities li?e

watching television *Putnam, !"""+, surfing the internet, and te1t messaging friends' Political

#artici#ation may, in some instances, re=uire a more sustained and informed effort than

volunteering' >n addition, young #eo#le may 7e content enough with the #olitical status =uo that

they do not feel the need to engage *Shea and Green, !""(+'

he most im#ortant factor influencing young #eo#len addition, #olitical

consultants are convinced that it is costly to get young voters out to the #olls, and often advice

clients not reach out to them during elections *Owen, !""(+'

he relationshi# 7etween #olitical and civic engagement and its im#lications for #olitical


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sociali9ation has generated de7ate' Some scholars contend that distinguishing 7etween the two

forms of engagement is erroneous as the activities that fall under 7oth ru7rics are inherently

#olitical in nature' Others view civic #artici#ation as a 7ridge to #olitical #artici#ation *Putnam,

!"""F ;cMaren and 8aird, !""3+' Civic engagement acts as an invitation to community life

which can 7e crucial for esta7lishing #artici#atory norms *Schier, !"""+' >t #rovides individuals

with e1#erience and s?ills, such as organi9ing, s#ea?ing in #u7lic, and raising funds, that are

necessary for ta?ing #art in #olitical affairs' Eolunteerism 7rings #eo#le together within

communities, and #romotes grou# norms of coo#eration and com#romise *Putnam and 4eldstein,

!""3F Shea and Green, !""(+' Peo#le involved with community grou#s are #laced within larger

networ?s of activists who can recruit them for #olitical activities' here is some em#irical

evidence that youth voluntary organi9ations serve as agents of #olitical sociali9ation'

>nvolvement in voluntary associations that ta?e #art in community service, advocate on 7ehalf of

issues, and wor? with disadvantaged grou#s encourages adult #olitical #artici#ation, es#ecially

electoral involvement *eorell, !""3F ;c4arland and homas, !""+'

On the other side of the de7ate are those who 7elieve that civic engagement has little, if

any, connection to #olitical engagement or to the ma?ing of good democratic citi9ens' i77ing

and heiss.;orse contend that, 2Eoluntary grou#s #erform wonderful services and have

undenia7le value to society, 7ut their effect on democratic #olitics is tenuous and #ossi7ly

negative6 *!"": !00+' hey document the fact that many #eo#le choose to ta?e #art in civic

affairs so that they can wor? on 7ehalf of their communities while avoiding the tainted #ractice

of #olitics' Partici#ating in civic affairs can actually turn #eo#le off to #olitics when they have a

7ad e1#erience or run u# against even routine o7stacles to getting things done' 4inally, many

grou#s do not #ursue goals commensurate with democratic citi9enshi#, such as fostering

meaningful deli7eration on issues and leaders *i77ing and heiss.;orse, !""0+'


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Political Socialization Research in the Twenty-first Century

he shifting #ers#ective on youth engagement serves to illustrate how the limitations of

#olitical sociali9ation in=uiries may have led to overly.sim#listic inter#retations of com#le1

trends' he evidence seems to suggest that we may 7e witnessing the advent of an era of

increased engagement 7y young #eo#le, as well as citi9ens more generally, in civil and #olitical

society' his develo#ment coincides with the emergence of a new model of democracy that

re=uires more of its citi9ens, es#ecially in terms of #roviding greater in#uts into the electoral and

#olicy #rocesses *ooghe, !""0, >nglehart and %el9el, !""+' Dalton argues that changes in the

social conditions in the United States and other western democracies have resha#ed what it

means to 7e a good citi9en' e #oints to higher standards of living, rising levels of education,

increased availa7ility of information, a more active role for women in society, and increased

social diversity as contri7uting to the transformation of citi9enshi# norms' As a result, #eo#le

are 7etter e=ui##ed to 7e active citi9ensF they are less deferential to authority, they have more

s?ills and resources, and they #lace greater em#hasis on #artici#ating in the decisions affecting

their lives *Dalton, !""-+' At the same time, citi9ens have more mechanisms for engaging the

#olity than ever 7efore, including through the use of new communications #latforms *Owen,

!""-+'

ow might #olitical sociali9ation scholars 7etter address the #ressing =uestion: %hat

ma?es a citi9en in the twenty.first century 4irst, they need to carefully e1amine the e1isting

data that com#rise the 7aselines for #revious generations in order to accurately assess sta7ility

and change' 4or e1am#le, researchers in the middle decades of the last century relegated the

mass media to secondary status among the agencies of sociali9ation, assigning them a minor,

#rimarily reinforcing role in the #olitici9ation #rocess' A second loo? at the data that led to this

conclusion shows that the #olitical ?nowledge, attentiveness to #olitics, and #references of young


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#eo#le as well as adults were influenced 7y media 7oth directly and through the ar7itration of

other agents'

>t is im#ortant that studies consider macro level system and societal factors when

e1#laining cross.generational shifts in #olitical sociali9ation'iii>mmigration and glo7ali9ation

have influenced the very fa7ric of #olitical community, yet their treatment in studies has 7een

su#erficial 7ordering on trivial' 51amining the cross.cutting and transformative effects of

immigration and glo7ali9ation on the #olitical sociali9ation #rocess #resents #articular

challenges' Hesearching immigration effects re=uires rethin?ing core theoretical assum#tions

and develo#ing em#irical measures that are not sim#ly recycled from studies of native.7orn

citi9ens' >n the United States, #olitical sociali9ation has 7een treated as a su7field of American

#olitics, which hel#s to e1#lain the #arochial assum#tions under#inning much research' As

Sa#iro #oints out, the 2fundament #ro7lem for the field of #olitical sociali9ation as a whole is

that its 7asic =uestions, theories, and conclusions a7out how #eo#le 7ecome #art of the fa7ric of

their #olitical communities and how they develo# their #olitical orientations and #ractices are

framed 7y o7servations of an e1cessively limited range of #olitical conte1ts6 *!""0: +'

he develo#ment of national identity and its im#lications for citi9enshi# have not 7een

studied much in the United States 7ecause scholars too? for granted that immigrants would

naturally want to identify as Americans, leaving their former nationalities 7ehind *Sa#iro, !""0+'

he assum#tion has 7een that immigrants will 7e Nresociali9ed< into American society, and ada#t

7eliefs and 7ehaviors of their native #olitical system to conform to the norms of their ado#ted

country' Heluctance to ada#t will dissi#ate over time as immigrants gain greater e1#osure to the

norms and #ractices of the dominant culture *%hite, et al', !""-+' Our ?nowledge of how

national identity forms in a multicultural era and how this reflects changing attachments to

nation.states in incom#lete at 7est' here is a need to e1amine how #eo#le might hold multi#le


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#olitical identifies, mem7ershi#s, and citi9enshi#s, and to e1#lore the conditions under which

these identities are mutually reinforcing and when they might conflict *Ste#ic? and Ste#ic?,

!""!+' 4or e1am#le, the #olitical sociali9ation of foreign.7orn school children differs mar?edly

de#ending u#on whether they attend schools that have high levels of diversity or those that are

essentially segregated 7y ethnic grou#' Students who are isolated in segregated educational

environments lac? a connection to the mainstream culture and are less li?ely to develo# norms of

#olitical #artici#ation *5llen et al', !""!+' o date, studies of immigrant #o#ulations, which

concentrate #rimarily on Matinos and Asians, have focused on their identification with the

Democratic and He#u7lican #arties, their stands on issues, their mo7ili9ation 7y #olitical

organi9ations, their develo#ment of #olitical coalitions, and turnout in elections *Mee,

Hama?rishnan, and Hamire9, !""+' 4ew studies document the #olitical sociali9ation of foreign.

7orn youth outside the school conte1t, nor trace the #olitical develo#ment of immigrants over the

life course'

Glo7ali9ation has significant im#lications for #olitical sociali9ation that have 7een given

only cursory treatment in research' Glo7ali9ation fosters concentric circles of sociali9ation which

#resent #eo#le with a greater choice of citi9en identities that are not necessarily 7ased on

7irthright or ?inshi#' Peo#le may identify in different ways with a nation, town, community, or

grou#F they may 7e 2directed from the local to the general, from #articular to universal, from

#ro1imal to glo7al entities, from state to su#ranational entities6 *8ir9ea in Sa#iro, !""0: (+' %e

can only 7egin to understand the com#le1ities of these interloc?ing and overla##ing identities 7y

studying the #rocess 7y which nationality 7ecomes integrated into individuals< #olitical

orientations *Sa#iro, !""0+'

he international reach of glo7ali9ation and the accom#anying economic, #olitical, and

social interde#endencies along with wide.reaching communication networ?s have 7rought to


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light tensions 7etween #atriotism and cosmo#olitanism' Allegiances to #articular nations may 7e

wea?ening as traditional state 7oundaries deteriorate and cross.state interactions 7ecome

increasingly salient *Callan, !""0+' >ndividuals may develo# new allegiances 7ased on

Ncommunities of shared fate,< where mem7ershi# is 7ased not on identity with a nation or

racialKethnic community, 7ut instead is founded mutual need and shared vulnera7ilities

*%illiams, !""3+' >ssues surrounding the environment and glo7al warming, food and agriculture,

military intervention, #overty, and racism, have led #eo#le to #erceive that their destinies are

enmeshed with those of others e1isting outside of their own country and culture' Commensurate

with these #otential shifts in attitudes, scholars should consider the role of su#ranational

institutions in the #olitical sociali9ation of glo7al citi9ens *Callan, !""0F Sa#iro, !""0+'

>n addition to e1#loring the im#lications of macro level factors, scholars need to rethin?

the ways in which they study the agents of #olitical sociali9ation' Hesearch has focused heavily

on a limited set of agents that are hy#othesi9ed to have a significant im#act on the #olitical

learning #rocess' he family, school, #eer grou#, and mass media are the 27ig four6 agencies

that have commanded the 7ul? of attention des#ite the fact that research findings leave much left

to e1#lain' 5ven within these heavily.researched agencies, scholars have focused inordinately on

some conte1ts to the e1clusion of others' School.7ased research tends to concentrate on white,

middle class schools and colleges, while trade schools and those serving lower socio.economic

class students receive less attention' outh voting organi9ations o#erate in the much same way,

targeting college students and virtually ignoring trade school students and young wor?ing

citi9ens'

A more e1#ansive set of agencies needs to 7e e1amined in order to get the total #icture'

Heligious institutions, the military, the wor?#lace, correctional facilities, entertainment

organi9ations, interest grou#s, #olitical organi9ations, social clu7s, s#orts, and online


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communities, to name a few, can 7e instrumental for #olitical sociali9ation when they hold an

im#ortant #lace in individuals< life' >n addition, researchers need to loo? 7eyond the o7vious

#olitical venues for evidence of what Steve %ard of the University of Salford terms N#olitics in

other #laces'< 4or e1am#le, a great deal of meaningful #olitical discussion ta?es #laces

inadvertently on s#orts and entertainment tal? 7oards' Communities of fans who have develo#ed

a level of comfort with one another 7ranch out 7eyond the designated to#ic of the 7oard to

engage in discourse a7out leaders and issues'

4urther, research needs to #rovide more #recise s#ecifications a7out the role of agents in

the sociali9ation #rocess under #articular conditions' 5ven after decades of scholarshi# on the

family, little is ?nown a7out the dynamics under#inning the #olitical sociali9ation #rocess' An

e1ce#tion is Chaffee et al'


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vast ma@ority of Americans do not come into direct contact with #olitical #arty organi9ations and

identification with #arties has 7een wea? for decades'iv Only a7out I of young #eo#le

#artici#ate in #arty and candidate cam#aign organi9ations during a given election *Sitarman and

%arren, !""3+' et, #artisanshi# remains the most consistently researched varia7le in

sociali9ation studies' he conclusion generally drawn from this research is that young

Americans, es#ecially, have withdrawn from the #olitical realm' >n fact, #eo#le are increasingly

affiliating with issue and cause related organi9ations outside of the ru7ric of #arty'

he most significant develo#ment warranting the attention of scholars may 7e the

influence of technology on twenty.first century #olitical sociali9ation' >f we view sociali9ation as

#rimarily a communications #rocess, technology has fundamentally altered the core mechanisms

that sustain the enter#rise' he means 7y which #eo#le receive and #rocess information has 7een

essentially altered' Communication ta?es #lace more through technological intermediaries than

via face.to.face contact' 5ach generation of intermediaries serves the conflicting #ur#oses of

#lacing greater distance 7etween communicators while at the same time ?ee#ing them in closer

touch' e1t messaging, which often su7stitutes for #hone calls, allows te1ters to send many short

missives to reci#ients with ease, yet is devoid of the humanity of the voice message' $ew

communications technologies have allowed #eo#le, es#ecially younger citi9ens, to form their

own grou#s that meet and act 7oth digitally and offline' Social media have 7een used to generate

virtual organi9ations that attract thousands of mem7ers *Owen, !""-+' here is some evidence

that young #eo#le are develo#ing their #olitical identities online, and that these identities are

consistent with the norms of engaged citi9enshi# *8ennett, !""-+'

>n many ways, the !""- #residential election showcases some of the ?ey characteristics

of twenty.first century #olitical sociali9ation' >t has 7rought to light the need for sociali9ation

scholars to ta?e more innovative a##roaches to research and to cast aside #ersistent stereoty#es


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that have under#inned research' he election, es#ecially the nominating cam#aign, #rovided a

#latform for young #eo#le to demonstrate their #olitical commitment' Since !""0 when 0/I of

&- to !/ year olds *!"'& million #eo#le+ cast a 7allot, young voters have 7ecome more involved

in election cam#aigns *Mo#e9, et al', !""+' he trend continued with the !"" midterm election,

as a massive voter registration drive s#earheaded #rimarily 7y non#artisan youth voting

organi9ations recruited over a half a million new voters and young voter turnout rose 7y !0I

over the !""! figures *Owen, !""(+' During the !""- #residential nominating cam#aign, turnout

among &-.!/ year old voters was higher than in the !""0 contest in every state' urnout was

es#ecially significant in early contests in >owa *&3I+ and $ew am#shire *0/I+ as well as in

7attleground states li?e 4lorida *&3I+, Ohio *!I+, and Pennsylvania *&0I+' Over ' million

young voters turned out in what are ty#ically a low involvement elections *www'C>HCM5'org+'

he demogra#hic shifts in American society also are reflected in the engagement of the

electorate in !""-, as ethnic voters, such as is#anics, are #artici#ating at higher rates, es#ecially

younger, educated citi9ens who recogni9e the #otential for their vote to ma?e a difference in the

outcome of the election'

>n many ways, young #eo#le have laid the cornerstone of the twenty.first century election

cam#aign' hey have em#loyed %e7 !'" innovations to wor? on 7ehalf of candidates 7oth inside

and outside of the formal confines of cam#aign organi9ations, and have created a s#ontaneous

grassroots movement' hey have used social media, li?e 4ace7oo? and ;yS#ace, and video

streaming sites, li?e ouue, to generate and disseminate content through networ?s of friends

and associates' hey have engaged new media to recruit li?e.minded individuals to wor? on

7ehalf of candidates' hey also have 7ecome a visi7le #art of the media surrounding the

cam#aign as citi9en @ournalists, 7loggers, and video #roducers' Scoo#"-'com, for e1am#le, is an

online news#a#er whose content is #rovided entirely 7y hundreds @unior high, high school, and


19/23

college students wor?ing with some of the 7est editors in the 7usiness'

Conclusion

Studying how #olitical sociali9ation ta?es #lace in society is li?e aiming at a target that is

in #er#etual motion' Predicting what ?ind of citi9en will emerge from the actions of sociali9ing

agents #resents an eternal challenge for scholars and educators' here is a need for innovation in

sociali9ation scholarshi#, 7oth in terms of develo#ing theory and more refined em#irical

referents, in order to 7etter e1#lain #olitical sociali9ation in the twentieth century and its

im#lications for citi9enshi#' >m#ortant =uestions 7eg to 7e addressed, including: ow do you

teach civic s?ills to a diverse citi9enry ow do you deal with citi9ens of a glo7al community

with shared interests versus those who #rivilege national identity and allegiances ow will

technology influence the develo#ment of citi9en identities, 7eliefs, values, and #artici#ation

Decades of research has merely scratched the surface of the com#le1 #henomenon of #olitical

sociali9ation, and the o##ortunities to advance the field are myriad and e1citing'

Endnotes


20/23

i$oteworthy e1ce#tions include Alwin, et al'n !""-, more than one.third of the electorate consists of >nde#endents or #eo#le uncommitted to a#arty' &I of young #eo#le called themselves >nde#endents, down from !3I in !"", while 0(Iidentified with the Democratic Party and !-I with the He#u7lican Party *Ma?e and arrance, !""-+' >tis im#ortant to note that a si9a7le #ro#ortion of those who affiliated with a #arty are wea? identifierswhose #arty identification is volatile'

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Political Socialization in the 21st Century

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