Political Science Workbook July Chapter 1 - 3

XAVIER UNIVERSITY – ATENEO DE CAGAYAN

CHAPTER 1

An Introduction to Politics

By John Mark H. Nuncio

―A good Catholic doesn't meddle in politics.' That's not true. That is not a good path. A good

Catholic meddles in politics, offering the best of himself - so that those who govern can govern.‖

-Pope Francis

Leaning Outcome/s:

1. Develop critical thinking in defining the nature and scope of politics.

2. Explain the difference between politics as art and politics as science.

3. Promote the appreciation of the importance of politics and Political Science.

Politics besets us. Like the air that we breathe, it is indispensable and

necessary but unlike this element, it is oftentimes not felt by the people

exercising and engaging in the practice. It is truly a marvel of human interaction

but proves to be painful as it has the dangerous capability of destruction. It is

chaotic but peaceful; produces conflict but fosters understanding; hateful yet

conciliatory; an alpha and an omega. The irony of politics is so confusing and

confusion is such an eminent problem that must be solved. This chapter offers

answers for the most curious and puzzled minds even up to the laziest soul within

the four solid corners of the classrooms we go back to the basics of this highly

controversial term, concept, discipline and practice.

An Answer to a Question

―Why‖ is such a natural question posed by humanity triggered by his very

own curiosity. A lot of ―why‘s‖ have been thrown to the pool of reality and

students who are taking the course on basic Political Science are definitely not

POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE WITH PHILIPPINE CONSTITUTION: 1ST EDITION


2

―Man by nature is

a political

animal.‖

-Plato

―All educational institutions shall include the study of the Constitution as part

of the curricula.‖

an exemption from this common scenario. ―Why do I have to take this pain in

the head?‖ would be the typical structure of the inquiry. This simple question

does not need extensive research in order to come up with a satisfying answer

since Article XIV; Sec. 3 (Paragraph 1) of the 1987 Philippine Constitution states it

in a very brief but concise manner:

Understanding the Misunderstood

Rebellious teens always feel like the entire world does not understand their

plight when in fact politics shares the same feeling that they have. It truly

belongs to the league of the ―misunderstood.‖ Thus, for us to understand it, we

must learn from the men who attempted to know it more deeply and

successfully established their intimate relationship with politics.

The ancient times are rich in intellectual

treasures germane to the concept of politics. Plato

defined it as ―the study of the affairs of the polis (city-

state) which he defined as the most sovereign and

inclusive association‖.1 The city-states, such as Sparta and Athens, which

flourished in Greece, are considered to be highly advanced political

communities where direct democracy (initial form of present democracy) was

exercised. Aristotle explained in his celebrated work Nicomachean Ethics that

―the end of politics is the best of ends; and the main concern of politics is to

CHAPTER 1: AN INTRODUCTION TO POLITICS


3

engender a certain character in the citizens and to make them good and

disposed to perform noble actions.‖2 This entails that politics is a process of

collaboration between the governor and the governed in achieving a goal that

is common to all.

During the Middle Ages, the church is the focus of every inquisitive mind.

Even politics was translated using terms associated with the religious realm.

Medieval thinker St. Thomas Aquinas believed that politics is a natural

phenomenon that cannot be evaded by man. But as a reminder, he further

emphasized that ―man is not ordained to the body politic according to all that

he is and has.‖3 Contentment and full splendor of each human individual will

always be found in the arms of God.

The Renaissance considered as the ―Age of Reason‖ broke the monotony

of the ―Era of the Church‖ as thinkers of this period destroyed the wall that

isolated human beings from the rest of the world. Niccolo Machiavelli, in The

Prince, viewed politics as a clever undertaking of utilizing power effectively

summed up by the notion ―the end justifies the means.‖ He asserted that good

rulers sometimes have to learn "not to be good" in order to maintain the stability

of the state.‖ 4

The contemporary times have its fair share of people who have been

enthusiastic in understanding politics. Harold Lasswell, an American political

scientist gave one of the most widely recognized definition of this term as ―who



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gets what, when and how.‖ His brief but all-encompassing description suggests

the following:

1. The entities interplaying in the political system;

2. The ultimate goal to be attained and the resources to be apportioned;

3. The timelines involved in the process of ―getting there‖ and the

distribution as well; and

4. The methods employed in carrying out the given objectives.

Canadian modern political scientist David Easton simply defined it as the

―authoritative allocation of values,‖ which generally relates to the policy-making

functions of the government in the apportioning of resources or values which

are deemed to be authoritative as it binds the members of the society.

Accordingly, ―values‖ in Easton‘s definition refers to any valuable thing that

every person wants to seek in his entire lifetime and comprises both tangible and

intangible ones.

Yale University‘s very own Robert Dahl also provided an enlightening view

about politics. He considered it as ―the existence of rules or authority within the

state.‖5 This signifies the necessity of an established governing body within the

bounds of the state that would promote the greater well-being of the people as

it distributes what is due to each member.

On a more local perspective, in the words of former Senator Ernesto

Maceda, ―politics is the art of compromise to achieve certain ends.‖6 The

political realm is full of various interests which tend to collide with each other



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due to certain incompatibilities and these must be balanced so as to promote

harmony rather than conflict within the political system.

From the various views presented, we can construe that politics is:

1. Inherent in society and people cannot evade the practice of such. The

term ―politicians‖ does not only encompass the people we vote during

elections but also includes commoners in society;

2. Important in the affairs of the state and the government and involves

power relationships;

3. An undertaking that advances the welfare of the governed but does

not totally depend on the efforts of the governor; and

4. A process whose character is shaped by the people engaging in it.

Knowing the Basic Ingredients

Cooking your favorite dish will not be possible without the ingredients listed

in the cookbook. The ―political menu‖ would also be considered as a failure

without the fundamental concepts that are considered as inseparable and

necessary in the engagement on politics.

1. Power could be considered as the top-notcher in the list. It is simply

defined as the capacity to make someone do what you wanted him to do

which can be voluntary or involuntary in nature. Furthermore, it is described as

―the currency of all politics,‖7 which means that power is an integral part of the

political process—without it, the state, government and other societal forms and

structures will never function properly. Indeed, it is the lifeblood of the political



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system. John French and Bertran Raven identified five bases or types of power8

namely:

a. Expert power which primarily relates to the expertise of the

leader;

b. Referent power that directly corresponds to the character and

innate charisma of the person having it which gravitates the followers toward

him;

c. Reward power which is associated to the ability of giving rewards

or merits to the members courtesy of the leader himself;

d. Legitimate power that refers to the legitimacy of the ruling

individual over the members, often depending on the degree of acceptance of

the latter; and

e. Coercive power which is based on the development of fear

within the minds of the governed due to the consequences employed by the

leader if they won‘t follow orders and mandates.

2. Authority is somewhat a by-product of power. It is defined as the ―right

to command and direct, to be heard or obeyed by others and to be voluntarily

accepted by the people and therefore exist without the imposition of

sanctions.‖9 The ruler himself is regarded as the rightful one and that he exercises

rightful power over the members which results to compliance and less friction

among the ruled. Basically, ―authority is largely subjective‖10, heavily dependent

on one‘s view of whom is rightful or not.



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Summary of

Approaches:

1. Behaviouralism

2. Rational Choice

3. Institutionalism

4. Constructivism

5. Marxism

6. Feminism

7. Normative

Approach

3. Legitimacy might be viewed as synonymous to authority but

fundamentally speaking, in most cases, the former is one of the prerequisites of

the latter in the political set-up. To be more specific, ―political legitimacy is a

virtue of political institutions and of the decisions (e.g. policies, law) made within

them.‖11 Unlike authority, it is usually based on sanctions available at the ruler‘s

disposal such as doctrine, ideology, laws, and processes and to a certain extent,

the use of force, in order to justify the regime. Without legitimacy, the assertion

of having authority usually goes to the pit of letdown.

4. Last but not the least is influence which refers to the indirect sway of an

individual as he exercises power over the others. It can be regarded as a

component of power in the sense that it typically acts as a minor driving force

for the people to be convinced of a particular political agendum and thus,

move for the realization of the same. The amount of influence usually varies and

is highly reliant on wealth, prestige, and honor as well as the linkages established

by a person.

Viewpoint Matters: Approaches to Politics

Politics is truly relative because not all people

share the same sentiments and ideas about it. Just

like beauty, it definitely depends upon the eye of the

beholder. Hence, we must take into account how

groups of people, particularly those in the academic

and scientific world, treat and view politics in their



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own perspective and language. On this segment, eight approaches in the study

of politics will be uncovered and presented.

1. In the early stages of studying politics, the Traditional/Historical

Approach became the front-runner in understanding ―what is the political?‖ This

approach extensively utilizes the lexicon of history in comprehending the

complexities of the political landscape covering institutions, structures,

governments, legal systems, etc. It stresses the vitality of chronology and tracing

the roots and development of the previously stated variables so as to fathom

the factors or reasons that catapulted the present conditions of the same.

2. Behaviouralism concentrates on the study of the political behavior of

the individuals partaking and intermingling within the political system. Such

behavior encompasses the distinct features and dynamics of the electorate, the

bureaucrats, the policy-makers, the civil society, etc. This approach

―concentrates on a single, deceptively, simple question: why do people behave

in the way they do?‖12 This particular viewpoint on political analysis utilizes the

empirical methods of the natural sciences in which the core variable is

observable behavior.

3. The rationality and self-interest of the human species is on the spotlight

of the Rational Choice advocates. Rationalists tend to view political action as

being driven by one‘s own instincts in the attainment of goals. Convergence

between the Rationalist and Behaviouralist outlook can be seen on the light of

using political behavior for understanding political phenomenon. But it is



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important to note that the former also incorporates the possible outcomes of

every action done by an individual within the environment where he belongs.

Moreover, this approach employs the principles of the field of economics

concerning the ―need to discover people‘s incentive structures in order to

explain their actions.‖13

4. On its initial stage, the Institutional approach was more centered on

the study and laying out descriptions about ―constitutions, legal systems,

government structures, and their comparison over time and across countries.‖14

Institutionalists tend to be inclined on the traditional analysis of politics in the

sense that they are limited on understanding and presenting explanations

regarding the conduits of representation and policy-making or in simpler terms,

the institutions found within the political arena. This traditional stance was

challenged by newer approaches and In order to address such weakness, a

―new institutionalism‖ emerged from oblivion wherein conventional analysis of

the structures was added with a more keen attention towards the relationship

between the individuals and institutions.

5. Constructivism is based on the belief ―that people do one thing and

not another due to the presence of certain social constructs.‖15 These social

constructs acts as the cilia or filtering agent of our reactions or interpretations of

the phenomena and things found in the landscape of the political. It typically

includes norms, doctrines, structures, as well as the political orientation of an

individual or a group of people shaping political perception.



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6. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels developed an approach which is

named after Marx himself. Marxism concerns with the study of the class struggles

that had occurred in the vast expanse of history and expounds on the dynamics

of production and consumption and the rise of the working class as capitalism

continues to exploit them. Marxists argue that organizational structures are not

rational systems for performing work in the most efficient manner; rather, they

are power systems designed to maximize control and profits.16 Thus, they view

politics as a landscape characterized by control wherein those situated in the

higher level (capitalists) tend to displace those at the bottom (proletariats). The

eventual actions, normally in the form of a revolution, initiated by the oppressed

individuals are driven by pressure brought about by this status quo of the

hierarchy.

7. A contemporary approach yet a very striking one, feminism ―emerged

as a movement and body of ideas that aimed to enhance women‘s status and

power.‖17 It visualizes the area of politics via the power dynamics involved

between men and women. Moreover, it emphasizes and addresses the plight of

the women sector regarding the conventional scope of the political being

confined in a masculine point of view.

8. Finally, we have the normative approach that went beyond

understanding the usual inquiry of ―what it is?‖ and sees the political milieu on

the more heavier issue of ―what ought to be?‖ It involves the descriptions of

significant elements found in the system and continues to venture on a more



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distant road by forming specific regulations or norms to guide the conduct of

people, structures, organizations, etc. Indeed an approach advancing a

contemplated ―right track.‖

Theories to Ponder

Philosophy has been an essential part of politics and it has provided the

foundations in understanding the mechanisms and interactions inside the

political system. The following are the most salient and prominent political

theories, most of which are of great value in international relations, that are

constantly used in order to comprehend political circumstances:

1. The Social Contract Theory explains the origin and the formation of the

state through a contract concluded by men living in a state of nature. The

social contract has three versions:

a. Thomas Hobbes in his well renowned Leviathan paints the state of

nature as a chaotic society where ―the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish

and short.‖18 In the Hobbesian version, the state of nature is a competitive

platform and the nature of contract is a necessary one. In addition, the chosen

ruler is a supreme monarch (The Leviathan) exercising absolute powers.

b. The second version was devised by English philosopher John Locke

whose state of nature is not as chaotic as that of Hobbes since men are

considered to be rational beings. The nature of the contract is voluntary which

means that the ruler is accountable to the people by advancing their interests



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and welfare. If the ruling individual proves to be inefficient and ineffective, the

right of revolution can be invoked by the governed.

c. Jean Jacques Rousseau proposed his own version of the social

contract by asserting that the state of nature is a peaceful one. Competition

was not that pervasive since nature can provide for the needs of men and

every individual has compassion towards the others. The nature of the contract

was a general consensus and the ruler is of the same type as that of Locke.

Lastly, the government formed through the general will of the people is ―an

extremely strong and direct form of democracy.‖19

2. The Divine Right Theory belongs to the same league as that of the

social contract theory due to the reason that it also deals on the highly sensitive

topic of state formation. But it goes beyond the bounds of the origin of the state

since this also covers the dynamics of power being the major justification of the

divine right rule of monarchs in the past. On the context of the origins of the

state, it holds that the state, like mankind, was a creation of the Divine

Providence. Moreover, this theory strengthens the belief that the Supreme Being,

aside from crafting the state, is the main entity who designates the person or

group of persons that will exercise power and rule over the populace. Divine

right theorists insist that the ruler's authority was from God alone and not from the

community.20

3. Political Idealism advocates the innate goodness of human beings

and postulates that the state was institutionalized in order to provide and



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cultivate what we call ―general welfare.‖ Idealism is grounded on morality

encompassing concepts such as justice, peace, order, equality, etc. This

political philosophy takes a more optimistic stance about politics and at some

point, conceptualizing a utopian social and political order where everything

and everyone is guided by ―what is right.‖

4. ―What is ideal may not be real‖ is the salient standpoint of Political

Realism. This theory stresses the selfish interests propelling every person as well as

the state as a whole which must be satisfied not just for greater glory but mainly

because it‘s a must for survival. Realism deviates from the near perfect political

view of idealists by assuming that clashes are normal phenomena and in order

to achieve success, what is moral or right could be twisted for convenience.

What is practical is necessary.

5. Rationalism could be contemplated as a middle ground for Idealism

and Realism. It is not as ―exemplary‖ as the former and is not as ―harsh‖ as the

latter. Rationalist believes in the power of the mind and reason by advocating

that even though political beings have the tendency to become selfish, there is

also a side in us that values reconciliation and compromise. For the case of the

state, ―it can be argued that it displays a commitment to the idea that it is

inappropriate to promote the national interest without any regard for

international law and morality.‖21

6. Political Extremism is a very absolutist political philosophy concerning

politics. It does not conform to the view of realism about assessing actual



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Other Political Theories:

1. Utilitarianism 2. Liberalism 3. Social Darwinism 4. Just War Theory 5. Interventionism 6. Marxism 7. Ethnic Conflict

Theory 8. Domino Theory

situations nor cares for the power of reason as what rationalists try to magnify. At

certain points, it resembles idealism but it is much darker due to the fact that

extremists see today‘s reality the same as the reality of tomorrow and the

coming days. It‘s like fitting a shoe that does not fit the size of your feet.

7. Balance of Power is a theory that is commonly used in the field of

International Relations. It postulates that balance in the international political

arena is realized via the existence of power levels that each state possesses—

one may be hard and menacing, the others might be soft and vulnerable.

Usually, the balance is attained through the formation of alliances whether

permanent or temporary. Hence, the balancing process helps to maintain the

stability of relations between states.22

8. Game Theory is another significant model in comprehending the

dynamic in politics. From the word itself, it considers political relationships as an

endeavor where one party wins and the other suffers losses to a certain degree.

Strategy is very crucial in this theory because one is assumed to be clever in

evaluating the future steps of the enemy in a game characterized by ―survival

of the fittest.‖

9. Finally, we have a theory that gives

importance to the core role played by a dominant

state in international politics. The Hegemonic

Stability Theory holds that in the affairs of the

international community, one state (hegemon) is



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recognized as the prime mover of the entire system which can be regarded as

a world leader. For a state to be a hegemon, it must have three attributes:23

a.) the capability to enforce the rules of the system;

b.) the will to do so; and

c.) a commitment to a system which is perceived as mutually beneficial to

the major states.

REFLECTION:

Janet Lim Napoles, Jinggoy Estrada, Ramon Revilla, Jr., and Juan Ponce

Enrile are making headlines right now. PDAF scam has heightened the dilemma

of massive graft and corruption in the country. Considering the current realities

of the Philippines, is politics absolutely dirty or not?

The Clash of Art and Science

The dichotomy of art and science has always been the subject of so

much debate for a very long time. The disparity between these two contrasting

areas is also evident in the realm of politics. Some would contend that it is

political art, while other might assert that it is political science. What is really the

nature of politics?

Definition of terms would be very helpful in answering this disturbing

question. Art is described as the ―power of performing actions especially

acquired by experience, study, and observation.‖24 Meanwhile, science, which

comes from the Latin word scire meaning ―know‖, implies a systematized body

of knowledge. Both art and science deals with the understanding and learning

of ―what is there‖, yet art is characterized as traditional while science is rather



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contemporary. From the descriptions given, we can construe that art is guided

by actual experience that keeps on improving as someone imbibes more vivid

images of reality. Thus, it is more open to changes and can accommodate

variations over time. On the other side of the scale, science is firm and values

uniformity because of the presence of constants and methodologies that must

be strictly followed for an undertaking to be considered acceptable.

Furthermore, it is generally guided by the empirical and uses the gravity of

numbers to solidify a scientific guess known as ―hypothesis.‖

Contemplating on these explanations, one would conclude that politics

as a field of study and as a practical undertaking takes the form of both art and

science as it flourishes in actuality. Political Art is normally seen through the

lenses of one‘s own strategy and style which constructs a new identity that is

distinct from others. This aspect of politics produces the variety in the political

landscape. What is stressed in the dominion of ―politics as art‖ is the critical

importance of properly using the power of the mind, commonly known as

common sense, to devise a plan of action which suits the taste of others.

Flexibility is a vital trait that must be developed by a political persona reminding

him how to mix and match charisma, skills, influence, resources and character,

etc. in order to develop the artistic side of his politics.

It is safe to say that political art is truly predominant in the realm of

practical politics but in the modern era, ―politics as science‖ has emerged as a

very influential aspect not just in the academician‘s corner but also in the actual



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―Politics is truly

the art and

science of

government.‖

application as well. As a science, politics attempts to incorporate the basic

methods of the natural and physical science in the study and analysis of those

enclosed within the limits of the political. Political scientists have learned the

credibility and reliability of figures and numbers in the interpretation of political

phenomena and now employ the methods of data acquisition or collection,

usually done through surveys, and data analysis and interpretation with the aid

of notable principles in mathematics specifically from the great sage statistics.

In reality, political art, even though it is fairly widespread, would not be

solely depending on instincts and common sense. The

political game in the current paradigm needs

collaboration between the two aspects of politics for

someone to become more effective and responsive in

a changing environment. Right now, political individuals consult with numbers to

assess the success or failure of their political campaigns via pre-election polls

usually conducted by third party survey firms like SWS and Pulse Asia. Indeed,

the best and efficient decision and policy-creators make an effort to strike a

balance between ―politics as art‖ and ―politics as science‖ to better

comprehend what not to do and what is to be done.

Political Science Defined

Now that we have discerned the difference between the two aspects of

politics, let us move on to a much more interesting discussion concerning the

academic discipline of the political—the field of Political Science.



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Basing on the study of word origin, Political Science is the crossroad of two

remarkable terms coming from the rich languages of Greek and Latin: polis

(city-state) and scire (know).Therefore, Political Science refers to the knowledge

of the city-state, a political society which can be considered as the state‘s

equivalent in the olden times.

Aristotle, the regarded ―Father of Political Science‖, simply defined it as a

―political investigation‖25 whose main objective was to ascertain the totality of

politics. Conducting such investigation would certainly require the formation of

questions or inquiries that would direct the whole process of discovery. Plato,

Aristotle‘s mentor, who is now considered as the parent of Political Philosophy

first identified the essence of politics through the recognition of the philosopher

kings‘ capability and wisdom to rule over the others. The beginnings of the

discipline have assumed the personality of political philosophy until French

political thinker Jean Bodin devised the term political science ―based on the

organization of institution related to law.‖26

Generally speaking, defining Political Science takes two to tango. In its

traditional sense, it is ―the study of the state in all its elements, aspects, and

relationships that includes its government, and its organs and institutions through

which the state functions.‖27 On a much modern sense, the discipline has

expanded by including the political attitudes and behaviors of people, how

they influence the structures and institutions, and the issues circulating in the

scene of governance. It is the oldest social science and has many points of



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contact with history, law, economics, and philosophy.28 Hence, Political Science

is a vital branch of social science that deals with the comprehensive study of

the state covering its structures such as the government, the personalities such

as officials and people, the processes involved in its local and international

affairs, and the interaction among these identified actors and variables in the

political system. Moreover, it is the systematic study and analysis of the sphere of

politics.

Political Science: Branches

Like any other sector of science, the field of Political Science which is one

of the daughters of the greater branch of social science, has developed its own

subdivisions overtime. The long list includes the following:

1. Political Theory establishes the link between Political Science and the

area of study known as Philosophy. This branch studies and contributes to an old

and ever-evolving dialogue about the ultimate realities that shape political life

and the ultimate principles that should guide it.29 Its primary concern is to give a

closer look to the basics of politics such as justice, rights, liberty, freedom, power,

etc. and understand their application in reality.

2. The actions undertaken by the government is the major focus of Public

Administration. It is all about how governments organize and operate, about

how bureaucracies work and interact with citizens and each other.30Public

administration evaluates the behavior developed by bureaucracies and has



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high regard on citizen‘s feedback concerning the program of action initiated by

the government and its other instrumentalities.

3. Differentiated from the area of Public Administration, Public Policy is a

branch that heavily deals with the system of regulations and laws that directs

the flow and course of both governmental action and inaction. Such regulations

have the ability of binding society due to the fact that it is promulgated by a

structure blessed with authority and power. Yet the irony is demonstrated by the

fact that public reaction can change or shape it.

4. Political Economy comprehends the influence and dynamic forces of

economics in the political system. ―It is not with the body politic, but with that

body social or body industrial that I have called the body economic, that

political economy is directly concerned‖31 says Henry George in his celebrated

work The Science of Political Economy. The thesis of this segment is the influence

of economic factors such as wealth, the means of production, the distribution of

wealth, goods, and services, etc. in the conduct of politics and how do they

affect the political actors‘ behavior and attitudes.

5. The evaluation of political systems and governments that had

flourished in the face of the Earth catches the attention of Comparative Politics.

Contrasting and comparing are techniques that experts in this area employ in

order to determine the degree and reasons for the success or failure of one

structure or system from the other accounting factors such as geography,

culture, traditions, etc.



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6. International Relations emphasizes on the interaction of states and

nations within the confines of the international political setting. The study of

organizations and institutions whose scope is primarily international in nature,

foreign policies and stance on global issues such as terrorism and global

warming, and the general relations of states whether peaceful or hostile, is

embraced by international relations.

In An Open Relationship

If Political Science was a Facebook user, expect that its list of friends

would be overwhelming because the field is undeniably friendly proven by its

noteworthy connections with other areas of study.

Philosophy. The discipline of Philosophy has significant multifarious

contributions to the development of Political Science as a separate field of

expertise in the sense that the latter‘s foundations was molded by Political

Philosophy. The political is simply guided by its wisdom as it expounds the

essences of justice, love, order, morality, power, authority, etc. and sets

standards that may not be completely realized in practice considering the

variety of interpretation.

History. Tracing the origins and developments through time is the salient

concentration of History. Interdependence exists between the two disciplines

and in the case of Political Science; the understanding of the present political

status quo could be fully realized through the help of the historical

reconstruction of the past. Accordingly, ―the historical beginnings of the



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government and its institutions are necessary inputs to explain the current

dynamics of the state‘s social environment.‖32 In addition, the visualization of

future political phenomena can be predicted based on trends or patterns

found in the domain of the past.

Psychology. The relationship between it and Political Science can be seen

on the scientific side of politics particularly in the study of political behavior.

Psychology translates the bland descriptions of Political Science into deeper

explanations using observable behaviors of the electorates, bureaucrats, and

other entities inside the political system that serves as driving force by producing

feedbacks to the institutions. In fact, a new hybrid field has been shaped from

the convergence of the principles and tenets of Political Science and

Psychology—the contemporary Political Psychology.

Sociology. This branch of social science whose core is directed towards

the study of a greater system or society has served as an essential device in

uncovering the hidden aspects of politics. Man by nature is a political animal;

thus, every person practices politics in a daily basis and we always belong and

are influenced by the societal constructs surrounding us. For example, public

opinion is crafted by the events and things occurring in the expanse of the

societal set-up. The environment really molds and has a strong impact to politics.

Education. Knowledge and critical thinking is very important in the political

realm and education inculcates these essential things to the people. The area

of education empowers individuals to step up their game and be actively



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involved in the political matters. Education motivates the ―common tao‖ to be

more participative in governmental processes such as elections and policy-

making and abolishes the mental passiveness of being merely governed.

Economics. Political Science and this discipline are intertwined by the fact

that political institutions and structure specifically the government and other

related organizations are deeply affected by the economic resources available

at its disposal. Economics ―deals with the management of the income, supplies,

and expenses of a household, community or government, or other group or

organization.‖33 Economics serves as the prompter of the government in the

production or generation and the apportioning of resources while Political

Science manages the process by pinpointing priorities from non-priorities.

Management. This field holds a prime position in all organizations.

Management typically involves the basic processes of planning, coordination,

staffing, budgeting, etc. which makes every organizational programs and

undertakings more effective and successful. Political Science enlightens

managers by giving assistance in ascertaining the prioritized goals, staffing the

right people, drafting proper budgetary allocations, and providing the right

measures for coordination.

Engineering. This is a breakthrough discipline where the canons of

Mathematics, Thermodynamics, and other empirical scientific areas of study are

applied into reality as observed in the establishment of government projects

that can be seen by the naked eye. Political Science advocates development



24

while Engineering makes development possible. The former evaluates the need

of the community while the latter realizes the need via concrete structures that

fosters opportunity for economic and social advancement and prosperity.

Accountancy. It is the discipline which ensures that public revenues are

lawfully, effectively, efficiently, and economically spent through proper auditing

procedures and with due diligence.34 The link between this academic area and

Political Science is that Accountancy offers conduits for checking governmental

revenue generation and spending that promotes the values of accountability

and transparency among political leaders, public servants or officers, and

bureaucrats.

Statistics. Political Science needs Statistics more than Statistics needing it.

The significance of the mathematical discipline in the context of understanding

the nature of politics is seen in the move of Political Science towards becoming

a more scientific-based field of specialization. Political Scientists, in the conduct

of their research works, requires the higher level analysis of data that is provided

by Statistics. It is not an issue of quantitative defeating qualitative but it only

faces current challenges where numbers proved to be something that matters.

Importance of Political Science

The rationale behind the inclusion of Political Science in the curricula of

tertiary education is anchored on realizing the following goals:

1. Knowledge and Competence. Political Science offers a colossal

chance to imbibe substantial knowledge and information on political concepts



25

and appreciate the essential functions of the government and the state in

providing the best for its people. Moreover, students would be able to learn their

basic rights as citizens of the country and the accompanying limitations in the

exercise of the same. Individuals who explore the richness of Political Science

would also appreciate the various governmental processes involved in the

advancement of the general welfare particularly the complexities of legislation,

administration, and interpretation of the body of rules and laws of the state.

2. Skills. This relates to the acquisition of legal skills as students would

venture the wholeness of the fundamental law of the land. They would develop

the keen ability in handling situations wherein conflict of interests and

encroachment of rights are involved. Persons with enough knowledge of the

discipline can provide basic legal assistance concerning the requisites of due

process and how to recover rightful damages when there is grave abuse of

discretion from authorities as well as private entities in the intervention of one‘s

rights. In addition, works as a preparatory course for students who want to

pursue careers in Foreign Service, government, the academe through research

and teaching, etc. Filipinos are empowered by Political Science to empower

their fellow Filipinos.

3. Values. Political Science supplants the seeds of nationalism and good

citizenship to the young bright minds of the country as they learn their

responsibilities as Filipino citizens and realizes their critical role in nation-building

and catalyzing change in the society. The discipline aims inculcate into their



26

cerebral domain that they, as youths, are the true hope of the fatherland and

that they must be aware of the dynamic environment where they belong.



27

ENDNOTES

1 Ricardo S. Lazo, 2009, Introduction to Political Science, (Manila: Rex Book Store), p. 3.

2 Edward Clayton, Aristotle: Politics, Michigan, USA,

<http://www.iep.utm.edu/aris-pol/#H4>, accessed 30 March, 2014.

3 Aquinas, Summa Theologica, I-II, 21.4 ad 3, as cited in P. Koritansky, 2007, Aquinas: Political

Philosophy, <http://www.iep.utm.edu/aqui-pol/>, accessed on 15 April, 2014.

4 Dr. L. Kip Wheeler, Niccolo Machiavelli and the Prince, updated 14 March, 2014,

<https://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/machiavelli.html>, accessed 1 April, 2014.

5 Ricardo S. Lazo, 2009, Introduction to Political Science, (Manila: Rex Book Store), p. 3.

6 Roman R. Dannug and Marlo B. Campanilla, 2004, Politics, Governance and Government with

Philippine Constitution, (Quezon City: C & E Publishing), p. 3.

7 Thomas M. Magstadt, 2013, Understanding Politics: Ideas, Institutions, and Issues, (USA:

Cengage Learning), p. 5.

8 Dannug and Campanilla, op.cit., p. 19.

9 Ibid., pp. 20-21.

10 Donna Lee Bowen, Power Vs. Authority (2003),

<http://magazine.byu.edu/?act=view&a=1202>, accessed 10 May, 2014.

11 Political Legitimacy, 29 April 2010,

<http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/legitimacy/> accessed 11 May, 2014

12 David Sanders, 2010, Behavioural Analysis, in Theory and Methods in Political Science (3rd

Edition), (United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan), p. 23.

13 Levitt, 2005: 2011, Rational Choice as cited in ibid., p. 44.

14 Vivien Lowndes, 2010, The Institutional Approach, as cited in ibid.,p. 60.

15 Craig Parsons, 2010, Constructivism and Interpretive Theory, as cited in ibid., p. 80.

16 Braverman, 1974, as cited in Marxist Theory,

<http://faculty.babson.edu/krollag/org_site/encyclop/marx_theory.html>, accessed 1 May,

2010.

17 Vicky Randall, 2010, Feminism, as cited in op.cit., p. 80.

18 Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, 186, as cited in Jonathan Wolff, 2006, An Introduction to Political

Philosophy, (New York: Oxford University Press), p. 8.

19 Jean Jacques Rousseau, as cited in Social Contract Theory,

<http://www.iep.utm.edu/soc-cont/#SH2c>, accessed 13 May, 2014.

20 J.P. Sommerville, Absolutism and the Divine Right of Kings



28

<http://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerville/351/351-172.htm> accessed 28 April, 2014.

21 Mark Beavis, IR Paradigms, Approaches, and Theories, last updated 12 March, 2014,

<http://www.irtheory.com/know.htm>, accessed 5 May, 2014.

22 Ibid.

23 Ibid.





26 Christopher Fuster Bueno, Origin of Political Science,

<http://savior.hubpages.com/hub/Origin-of-Political-Science>, accessed 6 May, 2014

27Reynold Reyes-Laurente, 2006, Essentials of Political Science 2, (Manila: Rex Book Store), p. 8.

28 Bueno, loc.cit.

29 Robert G. Moser, Political Theory,

<http://www.utexas.edu/cola/depts/government/graduate-program/fields/political-

theory.php>, accessed 7 May, 2014



31 As cited in <http://schalkenbach.org/library/henry-george/science-of-political-

economy/spe109.html#p-11> accessed 3 May, 2014.



33 Reynold Reyes-Laurente, 2006, Essentials of Political Science 2, (Manila: Rex Book Store), p. 18.

34 Dannug and Campanilla, op.cit., p. 65.


CHAPTER 2

The State and Government

By Roderico Y. Dumaug, Jr.

―Please, I would like to ask all those who have positions of responsibility in economic, political

and social life, and all men and women of goodwill: let us be ―protectors‖ of creation,

protectors of God‘s plan inscribed in nature, protectors of one another and of the environment.‖

-Pope Francis

Leaning Outcome/s:

1. Think critically on the formation of States and Governments as it exists today in the

Philippines.

2. Discuss in detail the policymaking and political structures of the Philippines.

3. Compare and contrast the three inherent powers of the State as it is exercised at present

in the Philippine national and local governments.

As one of the principal objects in the study of politics, the State is the most

powerful political institutions within a country. It is also considered as the basic

unit in the international community and the principal subject in the field of

International Law. Some students believe that the term State is synonymous with

the term Government but the two are different with the former being a more

durable institution while the latter may easily come and go and being an

element of the former. In this chapter, the basic concept of State and of the

Government will be discussed in continuation and in actualization on what we

learned from the previous chapter about the concept of politics.

Definition of State. Anchoring on the concept of international law, State is

defined as ―a group of people living together in a definite territory under an



30

James Garner defined State

as ―a community of persons

more or less numerous

occupying a definite portion

of territory completely free of

external control and

possessing an organized

government to which a great

body of inhabitants render

habitual obedience.‖

independent government organized for political ends and capable of entering

into international relations.‖1

It is also defined by our Supreme Court as

―a community of persons, more or less

numerous, permanently occupying a definite

portion of territory, independent of external

control, and possessing a government to which

a great body of the inhabitants render habitual

obedience; a politically organized sovereign community independent of

outside control bound by ties of nationhood, legally supreme within its territory,

acting through a government functioning under a regime of law.‖2

Nation, on the other hand, from its etymology which is ‗nasci‘ meaning ‗to

be born,‘ is understood in relation to birth or origin and signifies a common race

characterized by a community of language and customs.

To illustrate the above etymological definition of nation, several states in

the world belong to one and the same nation like the Arab nation in the Middle

East comprising independent countries like Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Egypt, Lebanon,

Yemen and several others. There is also one state which is generally known to be

composed of one nation and an example to this is the United Kingdom of their

English nation. There are states also which are composed of several nations and

the most famous for that is the United States of America which is considered as

CHAPTER 2: THE STATE AND GOVERNMENT


31

the ‗melting pot of all nations‘ for all known nations of the world comprise the

American nation. It is also possible that there are nations which do not have a

state of their own like the Jews before the formation of the Israeli state in 1948

especially during the first two World Wars, or of the Poles after the dissolution of

their country in 1795, the Italians before the State of Italy was organized in 1870

or of the Kurdish nation currently struggling for self-determination from Iraq or

Turkey.

Some authors would say that the term United Nations is a misnomer

because this international organization is composed actually of states and is not

an organization of races or of nations. To refer it as a United States instead of a

United Nations may be more confusing considering the very popular United

States of America. Theoretically, state is a legal concept and the nation refers to

a racial or ethnic concept.

Reflection 2.1. The existence of the Philippine State can be traced back

on July 12, 1898 when President Emilio Aguinaldo organized the Malolos

Government, and we were widely accepted to the family of nations during the

Commonwealth Period and when were given independence by the United

States of America in July 4, 1946. The Philippines was one of the originally

signatories for the organization of the United Nations. We understood in this

chapter that the term nation refers to a particular race or ethnic origin. Do you

think that there exists a unique Filipino nation? Explain.



32

Essential Elements of

the State:

1. People

2. Territory

3. Sovereignty

4. Government

Elements of a State. For a state to have international personality it

possesses the following essential elements:

1. People are the inhabitants of the state or

the human beings living within a territory. To sustain

itself the term people must be of both sexes, capable

of procreation and should be sufficient in numbers. In

our 1987 Constitution, the term people refer to the inhabitants3, citizens4 and the

voters5.

2. Territory refers to that fixed portion of the earth surface where the

people of the state reside. Defining a state‘s territory is necessary for sovereign

and jurisdictional reasons and in order to support the needs of the people in the

state. Pragmatically, the territory must be big enough to support the inhabitants

and small enough that it can be easily administered and defended.

3. Sovereignty is defined as the supreme and uncontrollable power of the

State and the right to exercise within its territorial boundary, to the exclusion of

any other state, the functions of a state. Others may equate it with the term

independence. State possesses that sole right of making decisions and power to

direct its own affairs, both external and internal, without the interference of other

states.

Sovereignty is classified into external and internal sovereignty. Internal

means the power of the state to enter into international intercourse with other



33

states or international organizations to the exclusion of other states. Internal

sovereignty means the inherent power of the state to run its internal affairs

independently from the other states.

Characteristically, sovereignty is permanent, exclusive, comprehensive,

absolute, indivisible, inalienable and imprescriptible. The concept of imperium in

reference to sovereignty means that the state‘s authority to govern embraced

in the concept of sovereignty includes the passage of laws governing a territory,

maintaining peace and order over it and in defending it against foreign

invasion. In the concept of dominium, the states have the capacity to own or

acquire property.6

The fundamental rights of the state are the (1) right of existence and self-

defense, (2) the right of sovereignty and independence, (3) the right of equality,

(4) the right of property and jurisdiction, and (5) the right of legation or

diplomatic intercourse.7

The Doctrine of Act of State originally says that a nation is independent

within its territorial jurisdictions and its internal affairs may not be questioned in

the courts of any other nations. This is applicable to acts that are carried out by

a government office or officer authorized to exercise governmental or sovereign

powers and these formal acts are supported by legislation or of an executive

order.



34

4. Governmentis that institution or aggregate of institutions by which an

independent society makes and carries out those rules of action which are

necessary to enable men to live in a social state or which are imposed upon the

people forming that society by those who possess the power or authority of

prescribing them.8

The existence of an organized government is important because the state

must have an institution to represent itself in the family of nations and to

maintain social order within its territorial jurisdiction, and where the form of

government is not an essential requirement.

As one of the essential elements of a State, the government is an

instrument through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed and

realized.

The two functions of the government are the (1) Constituent Functions

which are compulsory because it is constitutive of the very bonds of the society,

and (2) Ministrant Functions which are undertaken to advance the general

interest of the society9 and are merely optional.

The constituent functions include:

(1) The keeping of order and in providing protection to persons and

property;

(2) The fixing of the legal relations between husband and wife and

between parents and children;



35

(3) The regulation of the holding, ownership, transmission, transfer and

exchange of property, and in the determination of liabilities for debt or for

crime;

(4) The determination of the contractual rights between persons;

(5) Definition and the punishment of crime;

(6) Administration of justice in civil cases;

(7) The determination of the political duties, rights, privileges, and

relations of the citizens;

(8) The dealings of the state with other States: the preservation of the

state from external danger or the encroachment of its international interests.10

The ministrant functions which are not compulsory cover the regulation of

trade and industry, the establishment of standard weights and measures, laws

on tariffs, navigation laws, and the like, on the regulation of labor, the

construction and maintenance of roads, railways and other infrastructure

projects, maintenance of postal and telegraph and waterworks systems,

sanitation, including the regulation of trades for sanitary purposes, education,

the care of the poor and the incapable and others.11

In protecting its citizens, there is that Doctrine of Parens Patriae which

means that the government is the guardian of the rights of the people.12



36

Government is a term distinct from the word Administration because the

latter refers to the group of persons in whose hands the reins of the government

are held for the time being.

Reflection 2.2. Can you differentiate the State of the Republic of the

Philippines, the 5th Republic of the Philippines and the administration of President

Benigno S. Aquino III in terms of the manner of its formation and dissolution?

Explain.

Forms of Government. The following are some of the popular forms of

government in the world today classified into the number of people ruling, as to

the relationship between the national and the local, on the status of the rulers

running the government and according to the relationship between the

executive and the legislative branch.

A. As to the number of people ruling

1. Monarchy is a government where the supreme power is hold by an

individual or by a single sovereign as head of state through hereditary transfer of

power or one who comes from a royal family. This form of government is

classified into (a) Absolute Monarchy, where the monarch exercises absolute

powers, and (b) Limited Monarchy, where the monarch delegates some of his

powers to another government body. An example of absolute monarchy in

existence today is Saudi Arabia and Brunei. United Kingdom and Japan are

known to have powerful absolute monarchies before but now they are



37

constitutional monarchy where Queen Elizabeth of Great Britain and Emperor

Akihito of Japan have limited government powers or control enshrined in their

constitutions. Their major role as heads of state is their countries‘ ceremonial

figures.

2. Oligarchy is a form of government where power is vested by few

powerful persons like a dominant clan, elite or clique who rule for their own

vested interests especially for the accumulation of wealth and privileges. It is

usually called as the government of the few. This can be in the form of (a)

Aristocracy, Plutocracy and Theocracy.

3. Democracy is a government where power is hold directly or

indirectly by the citizens under a free and universal suffrage. The term

democracy is taken from a Greek word dēmokratía (demos for ―people‖ and

kratos for ―power‖) which means ‗a government of the people,‘ ‗the power of

the people‘ or the ―government of discussion.‖ Values like pluralism, the rule of

law, freedom and liberty, and human rights are attributed to democracy.

B. As to the relationship between the national and the local

1. Unitary is a government where powers are concentrated in one

central government. Central government may delegate or transfer limited

power or control to their sub-national, tiers or local government units. However,

the central government still possesses supreme power to recall the powers it

delegated.



38

2. Federal is a government with self-governing regions, states, local

units or tiers united by one central government usually called the federal

government. There is a clear division of powers between the national and their

local governments. In the federation, the self-governing status of states, regions

or constituent units are guaranteed by the constitution and cannot be changed

unilaterally by the central or federal government.

C. As to the status of the rulers running the government

1. Civil Government when it is run by a civilian authority and this is

usually formed after toppling a military or an authoritarian regime.

2. Military Government when the government is run by the members

of the Armed Forces.

D. As to the relations between the Executive and the Legislative Branch

1. Presidential form of government is a government where there is a

complete separation of powers between the executive and the legislative

branch both in tenure and prerogatives. It is also described as a government

where their head of state and their head of government are held by one and

the same person.

2. Parliamentary form of government is when the head of government

is elected from among the members of the legislative branch to perform

executive functions and conferred by the legislature complete control and

administration of the law. The citizens in this government indirectly elect their

country‘s chief executive through the election of their legislative representatives.



39

E. Other forms of Government

1. Dictatorship is a regime of one single leader who may have not

been elected and is using force, usually the military, to keep in power and to

be in control. In this government, there is no respect on public opinion or of the

individual human rights.

2. Totalitarian is a government ruled by a single political party where

citizens are forced to vote for the party and candidates chosen by the

government. This is an extreme form of an authoritarian government.

3. Republican is a representative form of government where its powers

and authority are directly or indirectly derived from the people.

4. Theocracy is a government where the rulers are claiming to be

ruling based on a set of religious ideas or as agent of a God or deity.

5. De Jure is a government which has rightful title founded upon a

constitution but no power or no control either because the same has been

withdrawn from it or because it has not yet actually entered into the exercise

thereof.

6. De Facto a government which actually exercises power or control

but without legal title.13 It is operating against the duly constituted government.

In understanding the forms of government, it is important to know the

distinctions between the Head of State and the Head of Government. The

former is the national leader of country who will represent the nation in the

international community while the latter is the chief executive who leads in



40

Principles governing the

operations of government:

1. Separation of Powers

2. Principles of Checks

and Balances

3. Blending of Powers

running the domestic affairs of the government. In a Presidential form of

government, the head of state and the head of government is hold by one and

the same person who is the President like in the case of the United States of

America and of the Philippines. It is quite different in the parliamentary form of

government where the head of state is usually the King, Queen, Emperor or

President who is performing ceremonial functions only while their head of

government is another leader usually named as Prime Minister or Chancellor like

in the case of Germany.

Principles Governing the Operations of the three branches of Government.

Governments, usually in democratic and republican states, are divided into

three branches namely the Legislative which has the power to make laws, the

Executive with the powers to execute and enforce the laws and the Judiciary

with the power to interpret the meaning, application and enforcement of the

laws. In democracy, the following are the principles governing the operations of

these three branches:

1. Separation of Powers – Principle of dividing government powers into

three parts namely the legislative power to the legislative branch, executive

power for the executive branch and judicial

powers to the judiciary. No single person or

groups of persons hold more than one

government powers, hence, in this principle,



41

concentration and overlapping of powers are held unconstitutional.

2. Principles of Checks and Balances – The powers of the three branches

of the government are equal and balanced with each other and it means that

no branch will have so much power capable of dominating the other. Although

each has designated separate powers, the other branch has the power to

check the other to ensure that no branch will control the government or exceed

in the exercise of its powers, and this is actualized through their sharing of

powers.

3. Blending of Powers -The three branches are not independent from

each other rather they are interdependent with each other. A branch cannot

exist without the presence of the other branch. Legislative measure passed by

the legislative branch becomes a law when signed by the Chief Executive, and

its intents and purposes are actualized when enforced or implemented by the

executive branch. Its legal acceptance is checked through the judiciary‘s

power to interpret it when confronted with questions on constitutionality, legality

or propriety.

The Three Fundamental Powers of the State. In this chapter, we have

already discussed the concept of State, the organization of its Government to

bring about its will and purposes, the Administration which will run the affairs in

the government and the several forms of government. These over-all concepts

can better be realized with the exercise of the state‘s three fundamental powers

which are the Police Power, Eminent Domain and Taxation. Upon the formation



42

Three Inherent Powers of the

State:

1. Police Power

2. Power of Eminent

Domain

3. Power of Taxation

of the State as an international entity, simultaneously, these three powers

commence to exist without a need of it to be expressly conferred by another

state, by the legislature or by a constitution. This is one of the unique natures of

the three powers that it is inherent in the state.

A. Police Power is a power called the

‗law of overruling necessity‘ which means the

power of the state in promoting the public

welfare by restraining the use of Liberty and

Property. The bases for the exercise of this power are the public necessity, and

the right of the State and of the public to self-protection and self-preservation.

Its justification is the Latin maxim ‗salus populi est suprema lex‘ which means that

the welfare of the people is the supreme law.

It is the legislature who generally exercises this power. The President or the

Chief Executive, administrative bodies and the local government units also

exercise police powers.

The limitations in the exercise of police powers are outline in the following

requisites:

1. Lawful Subjects – it is the interest of the public as differentiated from a

particular class requires the basic requirement in the exercise of police power.



43

2. Lawful Means – the means employed are reasonably necessary for the

accomplishment of the purpose and should not be unduly oppressive to the

people.

3. When it is exercised by a delegate – police power can be validly

exercised when expressly granted by law through the legislature, in the case of

the local government unit, within its territorial boundaries (except to protect

water supply), and must not be contrary to law.

B. Power of Eminent of Domain is the power of the State to acquire

private property for public use upon payment of just compensation. The basis in

the exercise of this power is the necessity of the property for public use.

Congress has the power, generally, to exercise eminent domain. The President,

local legislative bodies, public and quasi corporations can also exercise this

power.

In the valid exercise of this power, it follows the compliance of two stages.

First is the determination of the authority on the part of government or

corporation to exercise the power and the propriety of its exercise. Second is the

determination of just compensation.

The following are the requisites in the exercise of the power of eminent

domain.

1. Necessity

2. Private property



44

3. Taking

4. Public Use

5. Payment of Just Compensation, and

6. Due Process where the owner of the property to be acquired is given

the opportunity to be heard.

C. Power of Taxation is the power by which the State raises revenue to

defray the necessary expenses of the government. It is also defined as the

power to demand from the members of the society their proportionate share or

contribution in the maintenance of the government.14

The scope of taxation includes persons, property or occupation within the

taxing jurisdiction of the taxing authority, and its basis is the ―lifeblood theory‖

which means that taxes are the lifeblood of the government and such power is

emanating from the necessity of the government to survive.

Like the other two powers, taxation is exercised generally by the

legislature and can be exercised also by the President15 and delegated to the

local legislative bodies16.

For the valid exercise of the power of taxation, it has inherent and

constitutional limitations.

1. Inherent limitations in the exercise of taxation

a. Should be for public purpose

b. Power cannot be delegated



45

c. Territoriality or the situs of taxation

d. Exemption of the government from taxation

e. International comity

2. Constitutional limitations

a. Due process of law

b. Equal protection of the law

c. Uniformity, equitability and progressivity of taxation

d. Non-impairment of contracts

e. Non-imprisonment for non-payment of poll tax

f. Origin of appropriation, revenue and tariff bills in the lower house

g. Non-infringement of religious freedom

h. Delegation of legislative authority to the President to fix tariff

rates, import and export quotas, tonnage and wharfage dues

i. Tax exemption of properties actually, directly and exclusively

used for religious, charitable and educational purposes

j. Need for majority votes of all members of Congress in case of

legislative grant of tax exemptions

k. Non-impairment of the Supreme Court‘s jurisdiction in tax related

cases, and

l. Tax exemption of revenues and assets of, including grants,

endowments, donations, or contributions to, educational

institutions.



46

Double Taxation means additional taxes are laid on the same subject by

the same taxing jurisdiction during the same taxing period and for the same

purpose.17

License fee on the other hand is different from a tax in the sense that the

basis of the former is the police power to regulate while the latter is for the

government to raise revenue. The amount to be collected in the imposition of

fees must be limited only to the cost of issuing the license and the necessary

inspection while the tax rates or amounts are unlimited provided that they are

not confiscatory. The objects of taxation are persons and property while fees are

paid for the privilege of doing something but such privilege is revocable. For the

non-payment of taxes, the business or activity does not become illegal but

becomes illegal when failure to pay the fees.

DISTINCTIONS

SUBJECT POLICE POWER EMINENT DOMAIN TAXATION

Scope of Power Regulates both

Liberty and

Property

Affects only the

Property Rights

Affects only the

Property Rights

Who May Exercise Only the

Government

Maybe exercised

by Private Entities

Only the

Government

Necessity to

Exercise

Public necessity

and the right of

the State and of

the public to self-

preservation and

self-protection

Necessity of the

public for the use

of private

property

Public necessity

Property Taken Property is intended

for noxious

purposed and when

taken must be

destroyed.

Property taken is

wholesome and is

used for public

purposes.

Property taken is

wholesome and is

used for public

purposes.



47

Compensation Compensation is

the intangible,

altruistic feeling

that the individual

has contributed to

the public good.

Compensation is

full and fair

equivalent of the

property taken.

Compensation is

the protection

and public

improvements

instituted by the

government for

the taxes paid.

Effects on

Contracts

Contracts may be

impaired

Contracts may be

impaired

Contracts may be

impaired



48

ENDNOTES

1 Isagani A. Cruz, 1998, International Law, 8th Edition. (Quezon City: Central Lawbook Publishing

Company,), p. 29.

2 CIR v. Campos Rueda, 42 SCRA 23

3 Article 2, Article 3 and Article 13 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution.

4 Preamble, Article 2 and Article 3 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution.

5 Article 7, Article 16 and Article 18 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution.

6 Lee Hong Hok vs. David, 48 SCRA 372

7 Cruz, op. cit. p. 92.

8 US v. Dorr, 2 Phil 332

9 Bacani v. NACOCO, 100 Phil. 468

10Woodrow Wilson (n.d.), The Functions of Government. Retrieved April 18, 2014 from

http:www.history-world.org/govfunc.htm.

11Ibid.

12 Government of Philippine Islands v. El Monte de Piedad, 35 SCRA 738

13 Lawyers League for a Better Philippines v. Aquino, GR No. 73748, May 22, 1986

14 Isagani A. Cruz, 1995, Constitutional Law, 6th Edition, (Quezon City: Central Lawbook Publishing

Co., Inc), p. 81.

15 Section 23 (2) and Section 28 (2), Article 6 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution.

16 Section 5 of Article 10 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution.

17 Cruz, Constitutional Law, op. cit., p. 86.

Bibliography

1987 Philippine Constitution. (n.d.).

Bacani v. NACOCO, 100 Phil 468.

CIR v. Campos Rueda, 42 SCRA 23.

Cruz, I. A. (1995). Constitutional Law. Quezon City: Central Lawbook Publishing.

Cruz, I. A. (1998). International Law. Quezon City: Central Lawbook Publishing Company.

Government of Philippine Island v. El Monte de Piedad, 35 SCRA 738.

Lawyers League for a Better Philippines v. Aquino, GR No. 73748 (Supreme Court May 22, 1986).

Lee Hong Hok v. David, 48 SCRA 372.

Willson, W. (n.d.). The Functions of Government. Retrieved April 18, 2014, from www.history-

world.org/govfunc.htm: www.history-world.org/govfunc.htm


CHAPTER 3

Foundations of Philippine Politics and Government:

Philippine Political History and Filipino Values

By Roderico Y. Dumaug, Jr.

―Let us remember Paul VI‘s words: ―For the Catholic Church, no one is a stranger, no one is

excluded, and no one is far away.‖(Homily for the closing of the Second Vatican Council, 8

December 1965) Indeed, we are a single human family that is journeying on toward unity,

making the most of solidarity and dialogue among peoples in the multiplicity of differences.‖

-Pope Francis

Leaning Outcome/s:

1. Write clearly and with purpose the issues affecting Philippine politics.

2. Analyze contemporary problems in the country like poverty, corruption and rebellion in

light of the conceptual frameworks in this chapter.

3. Describe the importance of the political history and Filipino values in analyzing current

political problems of the country.

In the previous chapters, we learned the basic concepts of politics and of

the formation of states and governments. For now we have an idea on the

important role of politics in our society and, likewise, that by understanding the

concepts of states and governments in the previous chapter we are inculcating

the value of loving this country or nationalism which means the nation‘s interest

should be above personal interests.

In applying those concepts, we have to go deeper in the Philippine

context through learning the foundations of our politics and governance.



50

The term Nationalism is

sometimes used

interchangeably with

patriotism. The former is

identified with certain special

political programs while

patriotism does not have any

political program.

The topics in this section are relevant. Our country is facing several

recurring problems since the formation of the Malolos Government more than a

hundred years ago. Problems like the never ending corruption in the

government, the hardening poverty especially in the rural areas and rebellion in

the provinces and several others. In looking for the solution to these seemingly

unsolvable problems, one approach is to go back to the foundations of our

nation and examine the beginnings of the Philippine State.

Generally, a study that deals on building the Filipino nation is a broad

topic. In this particular chapter, however, we identified two of the most

important foundations of our nation: that which is (1) our political history

particularly the evolution of Philippine politics, democracy, government and of

our constitution, and (2) the Filipino values which may define how we built and

preserved this nation and our basis of confronting our national problems.

Nationalism is such political phenomenon

expressed by the people through patriotism1,

and it means the promotion of national interest

above self, and whereby the will of the citizens

is to associate the nation with the state‘s

political position2. It is also understood as ―mobility of feelings and national

sensations for homeland and catching political and economic goals‖3.

The following are some descriptions on the term nationalism:

CHAPTER 3: FOUNDATION OF PHILIPPINE POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT


51

1. A consciousness that one belong to a particular nation with sentiments,

feeling and aspirations for its prosperity and security.

2. An ideology which includes cultural doctrine of nations and of the

national will and which prescribes for the actualization of the

aspirations and will of the nation.

3. A political and social movement for the achievement of the nation‘s

goals and actualize the national will4.

4. Pertains to the geographical identification of people.5

Philippine Political History. The common definition of political history is the

―narrative and analysis of political events, ideas, movements and leaders‖6 and

central to this historical account is ―power – its structure, use and diffusion within

a society.‖7 Concisely, political history is defined as ―the study of that dynamic

activity in the past experience of human societies which has direct relevance to

the organizational aspects of those societies.‖8

In the Philippine context, the description of former Chief Justice Reynato S.

Puno may best explain our nation‘s political history when he said that, ―If you

look at our current news you will discover that they are repeats of past news,

perhaps with some modifications but repeats nevertheless. To a movie goer,

such repeats pose no problem. He simply tells himself, ―Napanood ko na iyan,‖

and simply walks away. I wish we can adopt that dismissiveness, that

nonchalance, that indifference to problems that keep repeating themselves to



52

Filipinos from generation to generation. If we give up, if we do not care

anymore, then the Filipino is ready for the requiem.‖9 Simply, the popular adage

that a nation forgetting or not learning from its past is condemned to repeat

history, to repeat the mistakes or failures in the past.

Aside from the recurrence of our problems, there are inconsistencies in the

way our nation is being organized and in the words of former National Security

Adviser, Retired General Jose T. Almonte, he said that ―we have a factional

politics, a nation ruled by men, institutions run by political personalities, civil

service despoiled by politics, weak financial system, an irresponsible Congress, a

monarchic and very powerful President, oligarchy, political system working at

cross purpose, policymaking captive to vested interests, nationalism to justify a

closed markets, patronage system and the poor remain to be a staunch

supporters of patronage, a nation not producing and extreme social injustice in

the urban poor sector and in the rural areas‖10

Beginnings of Philippine Democracy. Firstly, the theme that we are going

to discuss which will provide us an understanding of Philippine political history is

the democratization of our nation. We are going to trace the beginnings of

democracy in our history. This particular study is relevant because of the

political development today which is the rapid spread of democracy in the

developing world like the Philippines. It is once theorized that the present

generation is not only benefited by the end of Cold War or of the collapse of the



53

Berlin Wall or of the passing of a post-war period, but rather in the end of history

as such. The present is actually marked as the end point of man‘s search for

ideology and the commencement of the universalization of Western liberal

history.11 Indeed there is a strong appeal among the nations for a government

where the citizens have substantial participation in its formation, where they are

part in choosing its political leaders, be involved in the public decision-making

processes and that they can enjoy their freedoms and liberties like freedom of

expression, fair trials, practice their religion, equal rights among women and the

minorities and others. This concept has culminated in events like the Arab Spring

that toppled down non-democratic regimes in the Middle East which have

created a world opinion which says that ultimately, democratic governance is

considered to be generally right12.

In our context, Philippine democracy can be simply traced by

enumerating our nation‘s significant historical periods:

1. Pre-Spanish Period, until the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in 1521

2. Spanish Period, 333 years of colonization which ended in 1898

3. The American Period, almost a half century of being a colony – from

1898 to 1946

4. Japanese Period during the Second World War, 1941 - 1945

5. Contemporary Philippine Republics, counting from the 3rd up to the

current 5th Republic, 1946 up to the present



54

The simple periods of Philippine political history are based on the arrival of

or the end of colonization in the country, and second, though introduced during

the Commonwealth Period from the Americans, democracy takes its full course

only very recently when we were given independence almost 70 years ago on

July 4, 1946 with brief interruption during the Martial Law period.

Another example for this is our pre-Spanish period. The time that God

created the world or from the birth of this Universe until March 21, 1521, such

long period covering possibly important events is called the Pre-Spanish period

in the Philippines. We lack sufficient historical data of our distant past especially

the periods before the arrival of the Spanish colonizers. The gap is wide enough

and the quest is necessary. Necessary in the sense that the search may help us

identify our roots and later on define our identity as one Filipino nation.

Likewise our democracy is quite young. Despite being regarded as one of

the first independent States in Asia, ours is still in transition. Democracy in

transition, as compared to consolidated democracy, is defined ―as the interval

between one political regime and another which involves the process of

dissolution of an authoritarian regime and, on the other, by the installation of

some form of democracy, the return to some form of authoritarian rule, or

theemergence of a revolutionary alternative.‖13

In the words of Samuel Huntington in his seminal work on ―Democracy‘s

Third Wave‖ said that democracies in transition as part of the wave of



55

democratization is described as ―a group of transitions from nondemocratic to

democratic regimes that occur within a specified period of time and that

significantly outnumber transitions in the opposite direction during that period of

time. A wave also usually involves liberalization or partial democratization in

political systems that do not become fully democratic.‖14

During the pre-Spanish, Spanish, American and Japanese Occupation,

our political systems were not democratic. Except for some limited aspects

during the American and Commonwealth period. In those times when we were

still a colony, the country lacked the basic electoral democracy of free and fair

elections, there‘s an absence of democratic government processes, conflicts

were not settled peacefully and the people were not enjoying political and civil

rights. After our independence from America, the Martial Law period in

September 21, 1972 including the 4th Republic was non-democratic due to the

dictatorial powers of Marcos enshrined in the 1973 Constitution and there was

limited exercise of political rights and freedoms of the people. In totality, our

almost 70 year old democracy briefly interrupted during the Marcos regime is

young hence ours is in transition. Most developing countries in the world whose

democracy is in transition shared the same problems like poverty, corruption,

rebellion and with weak institutions.

Democracy, as a political system, may not be the best but it is the only

system that recognizes and respects the dignity of every person. From among



56

the many political systems in the world, democracy is considered compatible

with the free exercise of human freedoms, liberty and other human rights. In

theory, citizens in democratic states participate in the formation of their

governments and in electing their leaders. Although democracy and economic

development are not in any way connected like what is asserted to have

occurred in India, South Korea, some of the countries in the Middle East who are

endowed with abundant natural resources or even China which is non-

democratic but is the world‘s 2nd largest economy.15 However, it is proven that

the opportunities of a person to participate in the generation of wealth are

more afforded in an environment that is democratic.

Timeline of Philippine Governments. The following are the timeline of the

formation of the various Philippine Governments:

PERIOD NAME OF

GOV'T CONSTITUTION

PRESIDENT/ HEAD

OF STATE/HEAD OF

GOV'T

LEGISLATURE

1

1899

-

1901

1st Philippine

Republic

Malolos

Constitution

(1899)

President Emilio F.

Aguinaldo (1899 -

1901)

Assembly of

Representativ

es

2

1898

-

1902

US Military

Government

in the

Philippines

General Wesley

Meritt (1898)

1st Philippine

Commission

General Elwell S.

Otis ( 1898 - 1899)

Dr. Jacob

Schurman (1899 -

1901)

General Arthur

MacArthur, Jr.

(1900 - 1901)

General Adna

Chaffee (1901 -



57

1902)

3

1902

-

1916

Government

of the

Philippine

Islands

Philippine

Organic Act

(1902 - 1916)

William Howard Taft

(1901 - 1904)

Upper House:

Philippine

Commission

(1907 - 1916;

Appointed)

Luke Edward

Wright ( 1904 -

1905)

Henry Clay Ide

(1905-1906)

Lower House:

Philippine

Assembly

(1907 - 1916;

Elected)

James Francis

Smith (1906 - 1909)

William Cameron

Forbes (1909 - 1913)

Newton Gilbert (

1913)

Francis Burton

Harrison (1913 -

1921)

4

1916

-

1935

Government

of the

Philippine

Islands

Jones Law

Francis Burton

Harrison (1913 -

1921)

Upper House:

Senate (1916 -

1935; Elected)

Charles Yeater

(1921)

Leonard Wood

(1921 - 1927)

Eugene Allen

Gilmore (1927)

Henry L. Stimson

(1927 - 1929)

Eugene Allen

Gilmore (1929)

Lower House:

House of

Representativ

es (1916 -

1935; Elected)

Dwight F. Davis

(1929 - 1932)

George C. Butte

(1932)

Theodore

Roosevelt, Jr. (1932

- 1933)

Frank Murphy (

1933 - 1935)

5 1935 Commonwe 1935 President Manuel L. National



58

-

1946

alth

Government

Constitution Quezon (1935 –

1944, Nacionalista

Party)

Assembly of

the Philippines

(1935 - 1941;

Elected) President Sergio

Osmena (1944 –

1946, Nacionalista

Party)

President Manuel

A. Roxas (1946 –

1948, Liberal Party)

1st Congress

of the

Commonweal

th (1945)

6

1943

-

1945

2nd

Philippine

Republic

1943

Constitution

President Jose P.

Laurel (1943 – 1945,

KALIBAPI)

National

Assembly of

the 2nd

Republic

(1944,

Appointed)

7

1946

-

1972

3rd

Philippine

Republic

1935

Constitution

President Manuel

A. Roxas (1946 –


Upper House:

Senate

President Elpidio

Quirino ( 1948 –


President Ramon

Magsaysay (1953 –

1957, Nacionalista

Party)

President Carlos P.

Garcia (1957 –

1961, Nacionalista

Party)

Lower House:

House of

Representativ

es

President Diosdado

Macapagal (1961 –


President

Ferdinand E.

Marcos, Sr. (1965 –

1986, Nacionalista

Party, KBL)

8

1972

-

1981

Martial Law 1973

Constitution

President

Ferdinand E.


Legislative

Advisory (1976

- 1978)



59

1986, Nacionalista

Party, KBL)

Batasang

Pambansa

(1976 - 1978)

9

1981

-

1986

4th Philippine

Republic

1973

Constitution

President

Ferdinand E.


1986, Nacionalista

Party, KBL)

Interim

Batasang

Pambansa

(1978)

Regular

Batasang

Pambansa

(1984)

11 1986

Revolutionar

y

Government

1986

Constitution

(Freedom

Constitution)

President Corazon

C. Aquino (1986 –

1992, UNIDO)

Reestablishme

nt of the

Bicameral

Legislature

(1986)

12

1986

-

pres

ent

5th Philippine

Republic

1987

Constitution

President Corazon

C. Aquino (1986 -

1992)

Upper House:

Senate

President Fidel V.

Ramos (1992 –

1998, Lakas-NUCD)

President Joseph E.

Estrada (1998 –

2001,LAMP)

President Gloria M.

Macapagal-Arroyo

(2001-2010, Lakas-

KAMPI)

Lower House:

House of

Representativ

es President Benigno

S. Aquino (2010 –


Philippine Presidents. The table below shows the list of Philippine Presidents

with their term of office, the Constitutions during their tenure, their Vice-

Presidents and the province where they come from.



60

PERIOD CONSTITUTION POSITION NAME PROVINCE

1 1899 –

1901

Malolos

Constitution

President Emilio F.

Aguinaldo Luzon

Prime Minister

(President of

the Council

of

Government);

January 1899

Apolinario Mabini Luzon

Prime Minister

(President of

the Council

of

Government);

May 1899

Pedro A. Paterno Luzon

2 1935 -

1944

1935

Constitution

President Manuel L.

Quezon Luzon

Vice-

President Sergio Osmeña Visayas

3 1944 1943

Constitution President Jose P. Laurel Luzon

4 1944 -

1946

1935

Constitution President Sergio Osmeña Visayas

5 1946 -

1948

1935

Constitution

President Manuel A. Roxas Visayas

Vice-

President Elpidio Quirino Luzon

6

1948 1935

Constitution President Elpidio Quirino Luzon

1949 –

1953

1935

Constitution

President Elpidio Quirino Luzon

Vice-

President Fernando Lopez Visayas

7 1953 –

1957

1935

Constitution

President Ramon

Magsaysay Luzon

Vice-

President Carlos P. Garcia Visayas

8

1957 1935

Constitution President Carlos P. Garcia Visayas

1957 –

1961

1935

Constitution

President Carlos P. Garcia Visayas

Vice-

President

Diosdado P.

Macapagal Luzon

9 1961-

1965

1935

Constitution President

Diosdado P.

Macapagal Luzon



61

Vice-

President Emmanuel Pelaez Mindanao

10

1965 –

1972

1935

Constitution

President Ferdinand E.

Marcos Luzon

Vice-

President Fernando Lopez Visayas

1972 –

1976

1973

Constitution President

Ferdinand E.

Marcos Luzon

1976 –

1981

1973

Constitution

President &

Prime Minister

Ferdinand E.

Marcos Luzon

1981 –

1986

1973

Constitution

President Ferdinand E.

Marcos Luzon

Prime Minister Cesar Emilio

Aguinaldo Virata Luzon

11

1986

1986

Constitution

(Freedom

Constitution)

President Corazon C.

Aquino Luzon

Prime Minister Salvador Laurel Luzon

1986 –

1992

1987

Constitution

President Corazon C.

Aquino Luzon

Vice-

President Salvador Laurel Luzon

12 1992 –

1998

1987

Constitution

President Fidel V. Ramos Luzon

Vice-

President Joseph E. Estrada Luzon

13 1998 –

2001

1987

Constitution

President Joseph E. Estrada Luzon

Vice-

President

Gloria M.

Macapagal-

Arroyo

Luzon

14

2001 –

2004

1987

Constitution

President

Gloria M.

Macapagal-

Arroyo

Luzon

Vice-

President

Teofisto

Guingona Luzon

2004 –

2010

1987

Constitution

President

Gloria M.

Macapagal-

Arroyo

Luzon

Vice-

President

Manuel Leuterio

de Castro, Jr. Luzon

15 2010 –

2016

1987

Constitution

President Benigno S.

Aquino Luzon

Vice- Jejomar C. Binay, Luzon



62

President Sr.

The following are some of the salient events in the political history of

Philippine leadership:

1. The first President and Vice President elected by the people – President

Manuel L. Quezon and Vice President Sergio Osmeña

2. The only President who lost in a re-election to the Office to which he

succeeded – President Sergio Osmeña in the 1946 Presidential Elections

against President Roxas.

3. The first elected President and Vice President who came from the

opposing political parties – President Diosdado P. Macapagal and his

Vice President Carlos P. Garcia

4. Two women became President and swept into power by people

power revolution– President Corazon Aquino in the 1986 EDSA

Revolution and President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo in the 2001 EDSA II

People Power

5. A President with two Vice Presidents – President Gloria Macapagal

Arroyo with VP Teofisto Guingona (2001 -2004) and VP Manuel de

Castro (2004 – 2010)

6. A Vice President of two Presidents and was elected thrice into such

office – VP Fernando H. Lopez who was elected in 1949 as VP of



63

President Quirino and in 1965 and 1969 Presidential elections as VP of

President Marcos.

7. The 3 Presidents who succeeded without a Vice-President for the

remainder of the term to which they succeeded – Pres. Osmena after

the death of Pres. Quezon in 1944, Pres. Quirino after the death of

President Roxas in 1948 and President Garcia after the death of Pres.

Magsaysay in 1957.

8. Three Ilocano Presidents – Presidents Quirino, Magsaysay and Marcos.

9. Children of former Presidents who ran for the Presidency – Two

Presidential children lost: Sergio Osmena, Jr. who ran and lost in 1969

against Marcos and Salvador Laurel who ran and lost in the 1992

election against Ramos. Those who ran and won are Macapagal-

Arroyo in 2004 and Benigno S. Aquino, Jr. in 2010.

10. The following are the Presidents who broke with their original political

party and transferred to or formed another party when they ran and

won the Presidency: Roxas from Nacionalista to Liberal, Magsaysay

from Liberal to Nacionalista, Marcos from Liberal to Nacionalista,

Ramos from LDP and formed Lakas NUCD-UMDP, Estrada from Liberal

and formed Partido Ng Masang Pilipino, and Arroyo from LDP to form

KAMPI.

11. In the 1935 Constitution, the President and Vice-President are

geopolitically balanced while in the present 1987 Constitution, the



64

elected President and Vice-President are all from Luzon. The country

never had a President from Mindanao.

12. Twelve Presidents are from Luzon, three from Visayas and none from

Mindanao.

13. There were 15 Presidential elections since 1935 up to the present, 30

Senate elections since 1916 and 25 elections for the House of

Representatives and 4 Assembly elections since 1907.

14. There were 10 Philippine Legislatures, 5 National Assemblies, 1 Congress

of the Commonwealth and 15 Congresses of the Republic.

15. The Philippine has 80 years of bicameral congress (1907 – 1934, 1945 –

1972 and 1987 to present) and 19 years with unicameral congress (1935

– 1941, 1943 – 1944 and 1978 – 1986)

16. Before 1941, Senators were elected by Districts and from 1941 to

present elections of Senators is at large.

17. There were 22 Senators elected by Districts from 1916 to 1933; 24

Senators elected in 1941, 1987 and in 1992; 8 Senators were elected

from 1947 – 1971; and 12 Senators elected from 1995 to present

(except in 2001 where 13 Senators were elected and the 13th Senator

served for the unexpired term of Senator Guingona who became VP of

Pres. Arroyo in 2001).

18. The Philippines has 10 years of block voting (1941 – 1951), 32 years of

two-party system (1907 – 1941, 1946 – 1972) and there are 58 seats in



65

The term Values generally

means as set of principles or

standards of behavior or

one‘s judgment of what is

important in his life. The old

French of the term is the

feminine past participle

‗valoir‘ and its Latin

equivalent is ‗valere‘ which

means ‗be worth.‘

the House of Representatives which are reserved for the party list

groups. For 8 years, party list groups were appointed from 1987 – 1995

and since 1998 up to the present, they are already elected.

19. Manuel L. Quezon was the longest serving Senate President from 1916 –

1935, longest serving Speaker of the House was Sergio Osmena, Sr.

from 1907 – 1922, Senator Camilo Osias was the shortest termed Senate

President for 13 days and Representative Arnulfo P. Fuentebella as the

shortest termed Speaker of the House of Representatives for 72 days.

20. The 1935 Constitution was ratified on May 14, 1935 with 96% (1,213,046

votes) voted ―Yes‖ and only 4% of the electorate were not in favor.

21. On April 30, 1937 plebiscite, 91% of the Filipino electorate voted ―Yes‖

in favor of granting suffrage to women.

Filipino Values. This is the second

foundation that will be discussed in this section

which will help us in understanding Philippine

politics and government. It must be noted that

in learning this particular subject, we must relate

it to the current realities of our society, the

nation and public governance, and anchor the same on the value on human

dignity and the university‘s core value on ‗man and woman for others.‘



66

Values are also understood as things, ideas or people which are important

to us; that which will shape our behavior and define who we are; the things,

standards or qualities which are considered worthwhile or desirable; beliefs that

people have as basis for their decision making; which will commit persons to

action; and principles, standards or qualities which are considered worthwhile or

desirable.

Common perceptions and behavior of the people are created by values,

and political culture also describes the shared values of the people in a

particular political system.

Rokeach defines Values as ―an enduring belief that a specific mode of

conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an

opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence‖16. It is

described that a belief which is considered as a desirable mode of conduct is

called an instrumental value while a belief that considers a desirable end-state is

referred to as terminal value.17 For example, if an individual considers freedom

as valuable end-state of existence then he believes that freedom is better

compared to slavery18. Rokeach classifies terminal values into two kinds – (1)

values that are self-focused are called personal values, and (2) those values

that are others-focused are called social values. Likewise, instrumental values

are also of two kinds – (1) values which when violated result to twinges of

conscience or a feeling of guilt for committing wrong and this is called moral



67

values, and (2) those which when violated will cause shame on personal

inadequacy on competence or the so called self-actualization values19.

Schwartz and Bilsky made a summary on the common definition of values

as: ―(1) concepts or beliefs, (b) about desirable end-states or behaviors, (c)

which transcends particular situations, (d) guide selection or evaluation of

behavior and events, and (e) are ordered by relative importance.‖20

Filipino Values. Father Gorospe, S.J. described the distinct Filipino value

system as that which ―arises from our culture or way of life, our distinctive way of

becoming human in this particular place and time‖21. He enumerated four ways

in which to understand Filipino values:

1. The universality of human values including the Filipino values but there

are some elements of the latter which are uniquely Filipinos.

2. Some of the elements of Filipino values are also present in other

people‘s or culture‘s value system. The uniqueness of Filipino values

which make it different from the other values lie on how these

elements are ranked, given importance, combined or emphasized.

3. The ―universal human values in a Filipino context (historical, cultural,

socio-economic, political, moral and religious) take on a distinctive set

of Filipino meanings and motivations. This is true not only of the aims

and goals, beliefs, convictions, and social principles of the traditional

value system of the lowland rural family but also of what Fr. Horacio de



68

la Costa, S.J. calls the Filipino "nationalistic" tradition (pagsasarili,

pagkakaisa, pakikisama, pakikipagkapwa-tao, and pagkabayani‖22

4. Filipino values exist in the sense that the historical consciousness of

these values have evolved from among our people23. The Filipino

concept of justice has evolved from inequality to equality, and to

human dignity; from the tribe, to the family, and to the nation. Filipino

consciousness of these different values varies at different periods of our

history24. It is only in the last two decades that the Filipino people have

become more conscious of overpopulation and family planning,

environmental pollution and wildlife conservation, and the violation of

human rights (Martial Law), active non-violence and People Power

(1986 non-violent Revolution)25.

Filipino values according to Enriquez are categorized into the following:

1. Filipino Core Value which is the core construct of being a Filipino and

which makes up an intricate and complex system based on the concept of

Asal. This value is the standard for ideal conduct of a Filipino for it is considered

to be good, ethical, moral, desirable, beautiful and true. To reiterate, this is what

makes a Filipino.

The concept of Asalis composed of three core elements: (1) Kapwa–

which pertains to relational standard or in dealing with other, (2) Damdamin–



69

which is the emotional standards and (3) Dangal – referring to the moral

standard.

Kapwa, which is the core value of Filipino personhood means ―shared

self‖, a shared identity, of being one with another, such value that connects a

Filipino to anyone outside him or herself and which implies an obligation to a

Filipino to treat anyone as human being and as equal.26 It is said that without

Kapwa, once ceases to be a Filipino.

2. Filipino Shared Inner Perception which is best exemplified in

Pakiramdam which follows with the ―shared identity‖ of Kapwa. This is the way

in which a Filipino deals with other people through the use of Damdam, or such

inner perceptions of the feelings and emotions of other persons.

Pakiramdam means that feeling for another, being aware, sensitive

and attentive to the subtle cues and non-verbal behaviors of the other person.

Other definitions of Pakiramdam are the ―capacity for compassion, empathy,

and sympathy; is the pivotal value of shared inner perception which refers to

heightened awareness and sensitivity, a covert individual process by which a

person tries to feel and understand the feelings and intentions of another; a

heightened awareness and sensitivity for the other and is an active and

dynamic process involving great care and deliberation, paying attention to

subtle cues and non-verbal behavior, and employing mental role playing;and,

simply means feeling for another or a request to feel or to be sensitive to

others‖27.



70

3. Filipino Shared Humanity or the Kagandahang Loob or the ―shared

nobility,‖ such value which impels Filipinos to help other people who are in need

of help because of such feeling that everyone is part of community or of being

part to a Filipino humanity. This value can also be understood as generosity

towards other people, shared inner nobility or shared humanity. This particular

noble value moved Filipinos towards heroism.

4. Filipino Surface Values which can be seen from the outside and which

are considered ambivalent because they can be interpreted positively or

negatively. These values are used as strategies by Filipinos in building

relationships exemplified through their interpersonal or group communications.28

Surface values function like a coping mechanism which put Filipinos to give its

guts and determination rather than being passive and of an escapist way in

facing problems.29 The following are some of the surface values which are

ambivalent, that which can be interpreted positively or negatively.

The following are some of the Filipino surface values enumerated by

Emerita S. Quito in her article ―The Ambivalence of Filipino Traits and Values‖30:

(a) Hiya or shame which can be negatively interpreted ―because it arrests

or inhibits one's action. This trait reduces one to smallness or to what Nietzsche

calls the "morality of slaves", thus congealing the soul of the Filipino and

emasculating him, making him timid, meek and weak. Positively because, it

contributes to peace of mind and lack of stress by not even trying to achieve.‖31



71

(b) Ningas-cogon or procrastination which is ―negative by all standards,

because it begins ardently and dies down as soon as it begins. This trait renders

one inactive and unable to initiate things or to persevere. Positive, in a way,

because it makes a person nonchalant, detached, indifferent, nonplussed

should anything go wrong, and hence conducive to peace and tranquility.‖32

(c) Pakikisama or group loyalty which is ―interpreted negatively because

one closes one's eyes to evils like graft and corruption in order to conserve

peace and harmony in a group at the expense of one's comfort and positively

because one lives for others and there‘s peace or lack of dissension is a

constant goal.‖

(d) Patigasan or test of strength which is understood to be ―negative

because it is stubborn and it resists all efforts at reconciliation. The trait makes us

childish, vindictive, irresponsible and irrational. Actions resulting from this trait are

leaving the phone off the hook to get even with one's party line; stopping the

engine of the car to prove that one has the right of way; standing one's ground

until the opposite party loses its patience. Positively because it is assign that we

know our rights and are not easily cowed into submission. It is occidental in spirit,

hence in keeping with Nietzsche's "will to power."‖33

(e) Bahala Na or resignation is considered negative, because one leaves

everything to chance under the pretext of trusting in Divine providence. This trait

is really laziness disguised in religious garb. It is also considered positive because



72

one relies on a superior power rather than on one's own. It is conducive to

humility, modesty, and lack of arrogance.

(f) Sakop or inclusion is viewed as ―negative because one never learns to

be on one's own but relies on one's family and relatives. This trait stunts growth

and prevents a person from growing on one's own. Generating a life of

parasitism, this trait is very non-existential. Blaring music, loud tones are a result of

this mentality. We wrongly think that all people like the music we play or the

stories we tell. This mentality also makes us consider the world as one vast

comfort room. Positively because one cares for the family and clan; one stands

or falls with them. This trait makes a person show concern for the family to which

he belongs.‖34

(g) Mañana or Bukas Na or procrastination is ―negative because one

constantly postpones action and accomplishes nothing. This aggravates a

situation, a problem grows beyond correction, a leak or a small break becomes

a gaping hole. This arises from an indolent mentality that a problem will go away

by itself. It is positive because one is without stress and tension; one learns to

take what comes naturally. Like the Chinese wu-wei, this trait makes one live

naturally and without undue artificiality.‖35

(h) Utang Na loob or indebtedness is understood as ―negative because

one overlooks moral principles when one is indebted to a person. One who is

beholden to another person will do anything to please him, thinking that by

doing so he is able to repay a debt. One condones what the other person does



73

and will never censure him for wrongdoing. Positive because it is a recognition

of one's indebtedness. This trait portrays the spirit behind the Filipino saying, "He

who does not know how to look to the past will never reach his destination."‖36

(i) Kanya-kanya or of self-centeredness is considered ―negative because

it is self-centered; one has no regard for others. So long as my family and I are

not in need, I do not care about the world. It is positive because one takes

care of oneself and one's family: "Blood is thicker than water.37

Colonial mentality or the influence of foreign values destroys our

indigenous Filipino values. The exercise of the surface values together with the

core values on Kapwa, Pakiramdam and Kagandahang Loob is the ideal one

and may compose the true value-laden Filipino. It is said that once the surface

value is affected by colonial mentality or influenced by foreign values or

exercised negatively it is viewed then that will make a Filipino bad; when it is the

core value on Pakiramdam then that makes him worse, and worst or no longer a

Filipino when the core value Kapwa is absent.



74

ENDNOTES

1 James G. Kellas, The Politics of Nationalism and Ethnicity, 2nd Edition (New York, NY: St. Martin‘s

Press Inc., 1998), p. 67 cited in Defining Nationalism,

http://catarina.udlap.mx/u_dl_a/tales/documentos/lri/cruz_f_c/capitulo1.pdf, (April 18, 2014)

2 William Bloom, Personal Identity, national identity and international relations, (Cambridge, GB:

Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 83 as cited Ibid.

3 Ata Anbarani, Nation, Nationalism in Controversial Debates and Thought: A Review of Origin of

Nation and Nationalism, Canadian Social Science, Volume 9 No. 3,

DOI:10.3968/j.css.1923669720130903.2764

4 Smith, A. (1991 A). The ethnic origins of nations. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cited in Ata

Anbarani, Nation, Nationalism in Controversial Debates and Thought: A Review of Origin of


DOI:10.3968/j.css.1923669720130903.2764

5 Sargent, L. T. (1999). Contemporary Political Ideologies. Orlando: Harcourt Brace cited in Ata

Anbarani, Nation, Nationalism in Controversial Debates and Thought: A Review of Origin of


DOI:10.3968/j.css.1923669720130903.2764

6 Mary Boatwright, New Approaches to Roman Institutional and Political History: Duke University,

http://apaclassics.org/sites/default/files/documents/MTBAPA2009.pdf (April 18, 2014).

7 Jacques Le Goff, as quoted in William E. Leuchtenburg, ―The Pertinence of Political History:

Reflections on the Significance of the State in America,‖ The Journal of American History 73:3

(December 1986), 589 (http://www.jstor.org/stable/1902978)

8 G. R. Elton, as quoted in Illkka Nordberg, Regionalism and Revenue: The Moderate Basque

Nationalist Party, the PNV, and Politico-Economic Power in Basque Country of Spain 1980-1998,

University of Helsinki, http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/hum/histo/vk/nordberg/regional.pdf (April

18, 2014).

9 Chief Justice Reynato S. Puno (Ret) (2011, May), Why Change the Constitution? Speech

presented at the Centrist Democratic Forum on Decentralization among Local Leaders,

Cagayan de Oro City.

10 Jose T. Almonte, ―Is the Philippines declining?‖ in Federico M. Macaranas, PhD , ed., In Pursuit

of the Philippine Competitive Edge: An Oral History of a Continuing Journey by 50 Wisdom-

Keepers (Makati: Asian Institute of Management Policy Center and Konrad Adenauer Stiftung,

2007), p. 24.



75

11 Francis Fukuyama, The End of History, The National Interest,

http://www.kropfpolisci.com/exceptionalism.fukuyama.pdf (April 19, 2014).

12 Amartya Sen, in Introduction to Politics of the Developing World (Boston, MA: Wadsworth

Cengage Learning, 2013), 24 (www.cengage.com).

13 O‘Donnell, Guillermo, and Philippe Schmitter. 1986. ―Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain

Democracies.‖ In O‘Donnell et al., eds., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule, Part 4, pp. 1-78 as

cited by Scott Mainwaring in Transitions to Democracy and Democratic Consolidation:

Theoretical and Comparative Issues, The Helen Kellog Institute for International Studies,

November 1989.

14 Samuel P. Huntington, Democracy‘s Third Wave,

http://www.ou.edu/uschina/gries/articles/IntPol/Huntington.91.Demo.3rd.pdf accessed May 22,

2014.

15 Michael Schuman, Is democracy necessary for economic development? Time, November 5,

2010. http://business.time.com/2010/11/05/is-democracy-necessary-for-economic-success/,

accessed May 13, 2014.

16 Rokeach, M (1973). The nature of human values. New York: Free Press. Page. 5 cited in Does

Management Education Make Students Better Actors? A Longitudinal Study of Change in

Values and Self-Monitoring, Venkat R Krishnan (http://www.rkvenkat.org),

17 Ibid.

18 Ibid.

19 Ibid.

20 Schwartz, S H, and Bilsky, W (1987). Toward a universal psychological structure of human

values. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53 (3), 550-562 cited in Ibid.

21 Chapter vi: understanding the Filipino value system by fr. vitaliano r. gorospe, S.J. cited in

http://www.crvp.org/book/Series03/III-7/chapter_vi.htm, (May 14, 2014)

22 Ibid.

23 Ibid.

24 Ibid.

25 Ibid.

26 Dr. Virgilio Enriquez as cited in an article entitled ―Indigenous Filipino Values: A Foundation for a

Culture of Non-Violence,‖ Paper prepared for the forum: Towards A Culture of Non-Violence, by

Katrin de Guia, Ph.D., author of ―Kapwa: The Self in the Other‖, 2005, Anvil Publishing Inc., Pasig,

M.M.



76

27 Raj Mansukhani, Pakiramdam: A critical Analysis, http://www.crvp.org/book/Series03/IIID-

4/chapter-9.htm.

28 Michelle Antonette Elum Marasigan and Jim Ryan Manalang Yap, Accommodative and

Confrontative Communication in television news broadcasting during crisis reporting,

http://iskwiki.upd.edu.ph/images/f/f2/NEWs_VALUE_(Marasigan_&_Yap).pdf.

29 Enriquez, V. (1989). Indigenous psychology and national consciousness cited in Ibid.

30 Emerita S. Quito, The Ambivalence of Filipino Traits and Values accessed

http://www.crvp.org/book/Series03/III-7/chapter_v.htm.

31 Ibid.

32 Ibid.

33 Ibid.

34 Ibid.

35 Ibid.

36 Ibid.

37 Ibid.

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