PO ULT RY - woaw.org.au · PDF filePO ULT RY Compiled July 2007 ... Line W-36 “the world’s most efficient egg layer with excellent livability. ... Broiler Meat chicken, slaughtered

POULTRY

Compiled July 2007 Acknowledgments Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries www.dpi.qld.gov.au (poultry articles) NSW Dept of Primary Industries http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/ (poultry articles) The Poultry Site http://www.thepoultrysite.com/ For additional information on animal health, exotic diseases or biosecurity concerns, contact the DPI&F Call Centre on 13 25 23 (Queensland residents) or +61 7 3404 6999 (non-Queensland residents) between 8am and 6pm weekdays, or email [email protected] OR Disease Watch (24 hour) Hotline on 1800 675 888

POULTRY.............................................................................................................1 TYPES AND SPECIES OF POULTRY .................................................................3 POULTRY TERMINOLOGY..................................................................................4 POINTS OF THE CHICKEN .................................................................................5 POULTRY BEHAVIOUR.......................................................................................6

Behaviour problems ..........................................................................................7 HANDLING POULTRY .........................................................................................9 FEEDING AND NUTRITION...............................................................................11 SIGNS OF ILL-HEALTH .....................................................................................13 COMMON ILLNESSES AND DISEASES ...........................................................14 PARASITES AND WORMS ................................................................................16 REPRODUCTION NOTES .................................................................................17 BACKYARD CHICKENS.....................................................................................18 BROODING AND GROWING CHICKENS (Handout)........................................24

TYPES AND SPECIES OF POULTRY Chickens, ducks, geese and turkeys are the common types of poultry. Guinea fowl, pheasants, quail, partridge and squab are also farmed in Australia as part of a small game-bird industry, or kept by fanciers. Backyard chickens or ‘chooks’ have always been popular, especially on small acreage blocks. Aside from being a source of fresh eggs and occasionally meat for the table, they are interesting animals to have around and are good scavengers and recyclers of vegetable waste. The commercial crossbreds are suitable, also breeds like White Leghorn, Australorp (black), Rhode Island Red, Plymouth Rock and Sussex are commonly kept. Poultry showing has quite a large following and ensures the continuation of the many pure breeds. Some are more suited to meat production than egg laying. Commercial egg and meat producing chickens are crossbreds intensively selected for high egg production, low feed consumption and docility. An example is the brown Hy-Line W-36 � “the world’s most efficient egg layer with excellent livability. The docile Hy-Line W-36 lays dozens of top-quality, strong shelled eggs on minimum feed intake, making her the industry’s lowest cost producer of eggs. The dependable Hy-Line W-36 generates maximum profits for the egg producer”. (From Hy-Line http://www.hyline.com/) Emu farming is a more recent industry. Products are mainly oil, meat and leather but reliable markets have not yet been established (DPI & F Note Sept 2006). Care and welfare information is available in Model Code of Practice for the Welfare of Animals: Husbandry of Captive-bred Emus. Available for download from CSIRO Publishing http://www.publish.csiro.au/nid/22/pid/5390.htm

POULTRY TERMINOLOGY Bantam Miniature breed or crossbred, often with a full-sized counterpart Broiler Meat chicken, slaughtered at 30� 60 days of age Broody hen Non-laying hen sitting on eggs to hatch them Chick Specifically a baby chicken � but used for other poultry babies as well Chicken The domestic chicken. A term once used only for the meat of chickens Clucky hen Same as broody hen Clutch Collection of eggs, usually fertile eggs intended for incubation or hatching

by the hen Cock Male chicken Cockerel Young male chicken Drake Male duck Duckling Baby duck Flock Group of poultry, especially chickens Fowl Alternate name for the domestic chicken, but can be used as a collective

term for other poultry Gaggle Group of geese Gander Male goose Gosling Baby goose Hen Adult female domestic chicken, but can be used for other female birds Poult Baby turkey Poultry Collective term for most types and species of farmed birds, though it was

once used mainly for chickens Pullet Young female bird, usually chicken Rooster Adult male chicken Tom Male turkey

Q: Why did the chicken cross the road? A: For some fowl purpose or some other poultry reason.

POINTS OF THE CHICKEN (Drawings from Conkey’s Poultry Book 1932)

Rooster

Hen

POULTRY BEHAVIOUR Note: the following information is based on chickens, but many of the behaviours described are applicable to other types of poultry. In nature or if kept free range, chickens live in small social groups with a rigid pecking order. Each group is comprised of a dominant rooster, hens and immature birds. Chickens (and other poultry) have very little defence against predators, so must have trees they can fly up into especially at night if no secure accommodation is available. Note that marauding dogs, foxes and dingoes will dig under wire netting fencing unless it is set well into the ground. Water lovers like ducks will use dams, waterways etc to stay clear of predators.

• Chickens spend much of the day pecking and scratching, foraging for food in their environment.

• They create depressions in the ground with beaks and feet for dust bathing purposes. This helps control parasites and keeps their feathers in good order.

• Unless broody, chickens roost (perch) in high places well off the ground to avoid night predators. They will perch in trees if no other roosting place is available.

• If not provided with suitable laying boxes, hens will make their own nests in undergrowth or long grass. Such nests with their eggs can be hard to find.

• Hens periodically go broody or clucky, meaning they stop laying and instead sit on a clutch of eggs to hatch them. If the eggs are not fertile, i.e. no chicks hatch out after 21 days or so, the hen will return to normal laying.

• They have a range of vocalisations � the crow of roosters, the cackling of hens in alarm or after laying an egg, and a gentle clucking or “took, took, took” used to communicate with others in the flock.

• They will congregate around a human in anticipation of food and soon learn to come when called – typically to “chook, chook, chook”.

• All poultry experience physical pain and emotional distress. • Vision is highly developed in chickens and they can distinguish colours. • Chickens (and other poultry) can fly very well so may need their wings clipped to

prevent them flying the coop if it is not netted over.

Behaviour problems Severe pecking/cannibalism A bird is dominant if it pecks another which doesn’t peck back. In any flock there will be one bird right at the bottom of the pecking order. In situations of overcrowding, this bird might be so badly pecked (cannibalised) that euthanasia is the only humane option. Newcomers are likely to be badly pecked until a new order is established. Signs of severe pecking include open wounds (especially head and comb), feather loss, loss of weight, reluctance to move. Any milder injury that draws blood can attract pecking leading to cannibalism, as can even slight exposure (partial prolapse) of vent tissues. Chickens are quite cruel in this regard.

Solution: a) Provide adequate room for the flock and places where lowly-ranked or recently introduced birds can escape, e.g. natural features in the environment such as rocks, logs, shrubs, undergrowth, or artificial hiding places like boxes and similar. b) To avoid cannibalism, isolate birds with open wounds. c) Commercial battery hens are debeaked and have at least their middle claw removed as very young chicks.

Feather picking/pecking Self-mutilation in all birds, including caged pet birds, is usually a sign of stress. Stressors typically include overcrowding, thwarting of natural behaviours (especially natural pecking and scratching for food), no provision of alternative behavioural outlets, excessive cold and heat, no protection from weather, lack of company and fish-bowl existence (caged birds). Other causes are diet and illness.

Solution: Remove or reduce known stressors. If this doesn’t work, seek veterinary advice. Commercial battery chicks are debeaked and declawed to prevent pecking by cage mates and self-mutilation.

Fighting roosters Two or three roosters brought up together usually do not fight provided space is adequate, but larger groups of mature males will fight and sexually harrass one another. A strange rooster introduced to a group of mature males is likely to be killed if he has no means of escape. Fight displays between free-range roosters is mostly bluff and results in no harm if they have plenty of room to get away from one another.

Solution: Avoid situations that cause roosters to fight. Excessive mating behaviour One rooster + small number of hens + confined area equals constant mating behaviour resulting in hens losing feathers on their backs and even suffering skin abrasions and injuries. Solution: Do not keep a rooster and/or provide more room for the flock. Excessive crowing Roosters traditionally crow at daybreak but unfortunately, many start crowing long before then. This can lead to quite serious neighbourhood disputes. Most councils have bylaws stipulating minimum areas of land on which roosters can be kept � usually no less than one acre (0.4 hectare).

Solution: a) Do not keep roosters, they are not needed for egg production by the hens. b) Prevent roosters from crowing by totally blacking out their quarters at night; or house them in some way that

prevents them elevating their heads sufficiently to crow, e.g. by forcing them to use a perch high up under a roof. Obviously, these preventions need careful management for welfare reasons.

Excessive broodiness Some individuals and some breeds are worse than others. Broody hens are a nuisance in a backyard flock unless deliberately set on fertile eggs. Apart from not laying themselves, they take over a laying box and defend it quite aggressively against use by other hens, which can lead to broken eggs.

Solution: Keep only crossbreds. They are much less prone to broodiness than purebreds. Sometimes hens can be made go “off the cluck” by being removed from the nest and shut out of the laying area during the day. Collect eggs daily to prevent a broody hen gathering a clutch.

HANDLING POULTRY Individual members of any of the poultry types can become very tame, but collectively, most of them have a healthy wariness of strange people, animals and objects in their environment. Chickens panic easily and will do much running and cackling, one often setting off the others. The commercial crossbred strains are an exception, the fear factor has largely been bred out of them, it being unnecessary and a disadvantage for life in a cage. But if these commercial crossbreds end up in backyard flocks, they are so quiet and unaware of danger that care must be taken to protect them from potential hazards like being stood on or run over by motor vehicles. Catching chickens Herding chickens is a bit like herding cats � virtually impossible. But if free-ranging, they do always return to the coop just on dark and once settled on the perch, individuals are easily caught. Otherwise they can be difficult to catch individually, they are hard to corner and once caught will flap and squawk alarmingly. Again the very quiet commercial crossbreds are an exception, also some hens will freeze and squat when approached by a human, as though in preparation for being mounted by a rooster. A good length of heavy gauge plain wire with one end bent in the shape of a hook is an effective and humane catching tool � simply hook the bird above the hock with it. Be aware that roosters will sometimes attack, especially little people. If picked up, a big rooster can peck and scratch quite hard and his spurs need to be treated with extreme caution. The commercial broiler industry relies on human catchers who move through flocks usually at night, grabbing individual chickens by the legs. Mechanical catchers are also used, there is debate about which method results in the least injuries to the birds. Holding chickens It is important to remember that the primary way birds breathe is by movement in and out of the large breastbone (keel bone). Birds can suffocate if this movement is prevented by holding them too tightly. Only quiet birds should be held cradled in the arms. The safest method of holding is to restrain the wings in one hand while holding the legs with the other. Covering the head with a soft cloth has an excellent calming effect. Hens are easily “hypnotised” by being held upside down by the legs or by being laid on their side and held there for a little while, though this is probably more a protective “playing dead” mechanism than true hypnosis.

From IACUC Training, University of Arizona.

FEEDING AND NUTRITION Digestive system The chicken’s digestive system breaks down ingested food to basic components by mechanical and chemical means. These basic components are then absorbed and utilised throughout the body to manufacture new tissues and provide energy.

The digestive system begins at the mouth and ends at the cloaca or vent. Poultry grind up food in the gizzard which contains grit and is a very powerful organ for its size. The cloaca or vent is a common exit for urine, faeces, eggs and semen. Feeding The easiest way to feed poultry is with the commercially prepared grain mixes available from produce agents. They come as pellets, crumbles or mash individually formulated to the requirements of each type and class of bird. They are correctly balanced for all the nutrients, including vitamins and minerals. It is safe to feed most types of poultry ad lib, using self-feeders. Ensure feed is kept dry and not allowed to go mouldy. It should not be stored too long to ensure freshness and retention of nutrients. Chickens and other poultry really like fresh green grass, this can be cut for them if unable to access it themselves. Free-ranging poultry appreciate some of their grain or pellets scattered on the ground. They enjoy scratching and pecking for it and will supplement it with all sorts of additional ‘goodies’ in the environment, e.g. grass, seeds, insects, grubs, worms. Note: Swill feeding is now illegal, i.e. the feeding of food waste of animal origin or which may have been in contact with or contain animal matter (e.g. from restaurants, hospitals and domestic households). However, it is still acceptable to feed poultry household and garden vegetable scraps as additions to their normal grain diet, provided the scraps have not been in contact with meat. Water A constant supply of fresh water must always be available, shaded from the sun. Poultry will sometimes soil their water by washing their beaks out in it, particularly when fed certain types of feed. Such water will rapidly become smelly and needs regular

replacement and cleaning of the container or trough. Also consider changing the feed if it becomes a real problem, e.g. from pellets to mash or vice versa. There are various self-watering systems available for poultry, but these must be checked daily for proper functioning.

SIGNS OF ILL-HEALTH Chickens should always be observed from a distance to check signs of health or ill-health. Disturbing them or handling them might mask some signs of illness. The following signs are abnormal:�

• bird is obviously depressed and looks sick • feathers ruffled • not getting on the perch at night • not eating, not drinking; or drinking excessively • head and/or wings drooping. Head twisted back or held between legs or under

wing • unusual movement and posture – penguin-like, duck-waddling, lame • comb and wattles very pale or discoloured or swollen • nasal discharge or nostrils caked with material • coughing, rattling, snicking noises from the beak • open wounds, evidence of pecking or self-mutilation • sores or wart-like growths on non-feathered parts of head and legs • bird has lost weight, feels like a heap of feathers when picked up • droppings very watery and/or green and/or contain blood • labored or rapid breathing, beak open, panting (unless very hot weather) • vent pasted over with droppings, or tissue protruding • one hanging wing, or leg(s) held abnormally or toes curled

COMMON ILLNESSES AND DISEASES Stress predisposes birds to illness. Stressors include incorrect nutrition, starvation, water deprivation, overcrowding, dirty conditions, chilling, overheating, continual damp, external parasites, worms, concurrent infection with other disease agents. Egg bound An egg-bound hen has an egg stuck in the oviduct. Signs vary from being hunched up and not eating to adopting odd postures e.g. penguin-like stance. The preferred treatment is to place her in a warm environment and give her time to pass the egg. An experienced person might be able to manually remove the egg, or break it inside the hen, taking great care to avoid injuring her. If the vent has prolapsed at all, the hen should be isolated to avoid being cannibalised by the others. Otherwise seek veterinary help or humanely cull. Vent gleet This is a smelly discharge from the vent accompanied by reddened skin and soiled feathers around the area. Bird is depressed and usually ceases laying. Seek veterinary treatment or cull humanely. Chronic respiratory disease (CRD) A common, chronic and lingering respiratory illness. Symptoms include a nasal discharge, coughing, sneezing, rattling. Outbreaks are most likely when birds are stressed (chilling, moving, beak trimming, vaccination, poor general care and hygiene). Can be treated with antibiotics, but faulty hygiene and husbandry practices must be corrected to achieve control. Pullets can be vaccinated. Coccidiosis Prevalent in damp and dirty environments. Stress due to overcrowding predisposes. Birds are depressed, pale and usually have diarrhoea which may be bloody, and can die suddenly. Commercial chick starters contain coccidiostats for control. Vaccination is possible. The best treatment is prevention – dry clean environment, proper nutrition and management. Otherwise seek veterinary advice. Fowl cholera Causes respiratory distress and diarrhoea and/or sudden death. Birds can be left with chronic localised swellings in joints, eyes, throat and wattles. Poor hygiene, stress from overcrowding, cold weather or poor ventilation predispose to fowl cholera. It is often introduced by wild birds contaminating drinking water. Fowl pox This disease is spread by mosquitoes and causes wart-like masses on the head and legs, sometimes in the nose, throat and mouth. Vaccination is available. Infectious laryngotracheitis

A contagious respiratory disease characterised by gasping, neck extension and coughing, and conjunctivitis. It is a notifiable disease in Qld because of its similarity to early Newcastle disease. Controlled by annual eye drop vaccination. Marek’s disease This disease usually occurs in chickens 10–24 weeks of age. It causes depression and loss of appetite then the bird becomes paralysed and unable to stand. Death may occur without obvious clinical signs. Chicks are routinely vaccinated, though hygiene and good husbandry are also very important in its control. Exotic diseases Exotic diseases are diseases not normally found in Australia but which have the potential to devastate the nation’s poultry industry should they be introduced. Newcastle disease and avian influenza (bird flu) are of most concern and require constant vigilance. To prevent delays in controlling an outbreak should there be one, people who have more than 100 poultry must apply for a Property Identification Code (PIC) from the DPI & F. Newcastle disease can affect many species of birds, with chickens being the most susceptible. Signs include gasping and coughing, drooping wings, dragging legs, twisting of the head and neck, circling, depression, not eating, partial or complete cessation of egg production, eggs are misshapen and thin/soft-shelled, greenish watery diarrhoea and finally collapse, with death rates up to 100% in severe outbreaks. Currently (2007), vaccination of commercial flocks of over 500 birds is required by law in Qld. Avian influenza (bird flu) has the potential to infect many species of birds. There are many strains, H5N1 is the subtype responsible for the more recent cases in Asia, Europe, the Middle East and Africa. A very small number of illnesses and deaths were confirmed in humans who had close contact with H5N1 infected chickens. No cases of H5N1 have been reported in either birds or humans in Australia to this date (July 2007). The signs in chickens are extremely variable, ranging from sudden death to breathing difficulties, coughing, swollen heads, dark comb and wattles, depression, drop in egg production, loss of appetite, not eating, decreased vocalization. Nervous signs like tremors of the head, unsteady gate, twisted necks and other unusual positions of the head and body sometimes occur. Unexplained deaths in poultry or wild birds or any of the above signs should be reported immediately to a private veterinarian, stock inspector, government veterinary officer or call the Disease Watch Hotline on 1800 675 888 which is available 24 hours a day.

PARASITES AND WORMS External parasites Lice, mites, stickfast fleas and ticks can all affect poultry. They cause worry to the birds, blood loss in some cases, decreased production and feather loss. Paralysis ticks (Ixodes) will kill if on the bird long enough to fully engorge with blood. Wild birds e.g. pigeons are a source of lice. Over-the-counter treatments for external parasites are readily available, though veterinary advice should be sought for severe or recurrent problems. The red poultry mite (chicken mite) is a common parasite, particularly in dirty, overcrowded and/or poorly maintained chicken runs and can sometimes cause allergy in humans and domestic pets. They are tiny, almost microscopic creatures but appear as bright red dots once filled with blood. They are not actually on the birds during the day, having left to lay their eggs in wall crevices and cracks, litter, nests etc. At night they leave these hiding places to attack birds on the perch. A heavily infested chicken coop can appear blurry as millions of mites slowly move out seeking a host. Damage can be severe – birds become unthrifty and anaemic due to irritation and loss of blood, egg production drops, broody hens leave the nest, chicks die. The mites can survive off the host for 6 months or longer, so expert advice and assistance may be needed to eliminate them from buildings and birds. The stickfast flea is a common parasite of chickens in Qld. They suck blood, so large numbers cause anaemia and loss of condition. They are reddish brown, smaller than dog/cat fleas, and they do ‘stickfast’, particularly on the heads of poultry. They can also infest cats, dogs and other species. Both birds and accommodation will need to be treated to achieve control, using products in strict accordance with the manufacturer’s labeling. Worms Backyard chickens, particularly young birds, are much more likely to be infected with worms than those kept commercially. Species include hairworms, gizzard worms, tapeworms, roundworms, caecal worms, eyeworms and gapeworms. They are less of a problem the more area is available to the birds, the better their general care and the cleaner and dryer the accommodation. Symptoms of worms include illthrift, loss of weight, diarrhoea, depression, ruffled feathers, conjunctivitis (eyeworm), breathing difficulties and gasping (gapeworm), sudden death. Commercial wormicides are not effective against all species of poultry worms and veterinary advice should be sought if there is a persistent problem. Eggs from treated birds should not be eaten until the chemical withholding period is over.

REPRODUCTION NOTES

• Pullets become hens and start laying eggs at about 5 months of age. • A hen lays an egg every 23-26 hours for 9-11 months of the year. She will lay

progressively less eggs each year after her first laying season. • Hens lose their feathers (moult) and stop laying for a few months over winter in

response to decreasing daylight hours. Commercial hens are kept under artificial lighting to shorten the moulting period and maintain production.

• Roosters are not necessary for the production of eggs, they are only needed if fertile eggs are required for hatching purposes.

• Fertile eggs can be hatched by a broody hen sitting on them, but commercially they are hatched in an incubator, which mimics natural hatching conditions.

• It takes about 21 days for chicken eggs to hatch, but not all fertile eggs will produce live chicks.

• Newly hatched chicks have enough energy reserves to spend some hours fluffing out and gaining strength before they need to be removed from the incubator and fed.

• Once removed from the incubator, chicks are transferred to a heated brooder, where they remain for 3-6 weeks. They are given more room to run around and move away from the heat source after the first week or so.

• Chicks in brooders are fed a specially formulated chick feed and must have access to clean water in a drown-proof container.

BACKYARD CHICKENS

How many chickens can be kept? Local councils place restrictions on numbers of backyard poultry and often the type of housing. Most councils also stipulate the minimum area on which a rooster can be kept � usually no less than one acre (0.4 hectare). Roosters are not needed for egg production and can become a nuisance. Unfortunately, many of them start crowing long before daybreak, which can lead to quite serious neighbourhood disputes. People who have more than 100 poultry must apply for a Property Identification Code (PIC) from the DPI & F. Eggs from any source, including backyard flocks, cannot legally be sold unless the supplier is accredited by Safe Food Queensland. In her first year, a hen will lay 5 or more eggs/week but her production will decline with age. Also she will lose her feathers (moult) and stop laying for a few months over winter in response to decreasing daylight hours. A flock of about six birds will provide plenty of eggs for a family of four. To maintain egg quality, eggs should be stored in the refrigerator. Starting the flock This can be done by purchasing point-of-lay pullets or day-old chicks from an accredited hatchery. The point-of-lay pullet is around 18 weeks old, giving her a few weeks to settle in before she starts laying at 22 to 24 weeks. The best time to buy pullets is in December or January, as they will then lay for 11-12 months without moulting in autumn. It is not recommended to mix birds of different ages and colours as this can upset the established pecking order and lead to considerable fighting. Vaccination status of pullets and day-old chicks should be checked – they are usually vaccinated against Marek´s disease as well as other illnesses. See the handout “Brooding and growing chickens” for more information on brooding of day-old chicks. Some suitable breeds Commercial crossbreds from a reputable supplier are the best, they have been intensively selected for high egg production, low feed consumption, docility and they seldom go broody. The pure breeds like White Leghorn, Australorp (black), Rhode Island Red, Plymouth Rock and Sussex are also popular amongst fanciers. Poultry showing has quite a large following and has ensured the continuation of these and many other pure breeds. Some are more suited to meat production than egg laying. Feed and water Commercially prepared feeds should be used as they supply the correct balance of nutrients to maintain health and production. They are available from produce agents in mash, crumbles or pellet form. Adding additional grain is not recommended because it

upsets the balance of vitamins and minerals required. Birds should also have access to an insoluble grit like Calgrit or shellgrit to help them grind their food in the gizzard and build strong egg shells. A constant supply of fresh water must always be available, shaded from the sun. Hens will sometimes soil their water by washing their beaks out in it, particularly when fed certain types of feed. Such water will rapidly become smelly and needs regular replacement and cleaning of the container or trough. Also consider changing the feed if it becomes a real problem, e.g. from pellets to mash or vice versa. There are various self-watering systems available for poultry, but these must be checked daily for proper functioning. Feeding management Feed should be available to the birds at all times. Self feeders can be used. Feed must be kept dry and not bought in too large a quantity to ensure freshness. It should be stored in vermin-proof containers. To avoid wastage, the height of troughs should be about level with the hens’ backs and not filled more than half-full. Clean the feeders regularly and remove stale, wet or mouldy feed. Layer feed should not be given to chicks or growing stock because the high calcium level may be harmful. The feed needs to be suited to the age and type of poultry being fed. Feed manufacturers label their product accordingly � that is, suitable for chickens, growers, layers etc. Free-ranging poultry appreciate some of their grain or pellets scattered about on the ground, provided they are on a fairly large area (not a small run covered in droppings). They enjoy scratching and pecking for it and will supplement it with all sorts of additional ‘goodies’ in the environment, e.g. grass, seeds, insects, grubs, worms. Note: Swill feeding is now illegal, i.e. the feeding of food waste of animal origin or which may have been in contact with or contain animal matter (e.g. from restaurants, hospitals and domestic households). However, it is acceptable to feed poultry household and garden vegetable scraps as additions to their normal grain diet, provided the scraps have not been in contact with meat. Also care should be taken not to feed material high in salt or contaminated with insecticide. Hens really enjoy green leafy vegetables like silver beet and cabbage, also they appreciate fresh green grass occasionally, this can be cut for them if unable to access it themselves. Housing the flock “Chook houses” need to be built in accordance with local council regulations, also the sounder the construction, the more likely it is to keep out rats and mice. Bird-proofing will keep out vermin as well as wild birds, which eat the feed and may introduce disease and parasites. Crows are notorious for working out how to get into coops to pinch eggs.

Goannas in rural areas will also steal eggs if bird-proofing is not used, and carpet pythons will occasionally get in and squeeze to death and swallow a whole hen. One example of a suitable chicken coop is shown in Figure 1. There are a great many others available, including ‘chicken tractors’, which are moveable pens with no flooring. They can be moved daily if required, giving the hens constant access to fresh scratching areas and grass. Chicken sheds generally should face north. The coop in Figure 1 has a bird-meshed front, a partially enclosed back and solid sides. It is made from material such as fibre cement board which is easily cleaned and not too hot. The roof should slope to the rear with sufficient overhang at the front (600 mm) and back (300 mm). The roof and the walls should be painted, preferably matt white, to reflect heat from the sun. A concrete floor with a rat wall is desirable. New litter should be spread about 100 mm deep. Suitable litter materials are pine shavings, sawdust and straw. If the litter is kept dry it will reduce odour, provide a better fertiliser for the garden and reduce the risk of disease to the birds. The shed should be well ventilated but not draughty. Access to an outside run can be provided but this must be very securely fenced with wire netting sunk well below the ground surface to ensure marauding dogs (and foxes in the outer suburbs) cannot dig under it. A neighbourhood dog on the loose can decimate a flock of chickens in a very short space of time. Most backyard chickens kept on any sort of area are let out in the late afternoon for a run and scratch and peck about, though only if sensitive garden areas are fenced so that they cannot be damaged by overenthusiastic scratching. Hens eat quite a lot of insect pests and ducks in particular are often used for grub and insect control. It is vitally important though that they are securely shut back in the coop at night to protect them from predators.

Figure 1. A shed for up to 12 laying hens. A similar shed without the nestboxes and roost would suit meat chickens. (All measurements in mm) A covered water trough, which automatically refills, mounted outside on the shed wall avoids wet litter. The trough should be 200 mm above floor level and should be long enough to allow each bird in the flock to drink at the one time. There are a variety of automatic waterers available from poultry equipment suppliers, all should be checked daily for proper functioning. The self feeder should have enough trough space for all the birds to feed at the same time. The nest boxes should be mounted on the cool side of the shed preferably 600 to 900 mm off the ground. Allow one 300 mm x 300 mm nest box for every four hens. The nest material can be shavings or straw and should be kept clean and dry.

Chickens do not have to roost but it is natural for them to do so. Roosting perches made of 75 mm x 50 mm dressed timber placed 500 mm from the floor can be provided � at least 180 mm of roost space per bird is required. Health and sanitation Stress predisposes birds to illness. Stressors include incorrect nutrition, starvation, water deprivation, overcrowding, dirty conditions, chilling, overheating, continual damp, external parasites, worms, concurrent infection with other disease agents. To keep your chickens healthy:

• avoid overcrowding • avoid stressing them unduly • the shed should be well-ventilated but free from drafts and dampness • keep the shed clean • frequently renew the litter, wash and/or spray the shed if external parasites are a

problem • also treat the birds if external parasites like lice, stickfast fleas or red poultry

mites are a problem • ensure vaccination status is adequate • isolate sick birds and treat or humanely cull • treat young birds for worms (healthy adults are usually resistant)

Signs of ill-health Chickens should always be observed from a distance to check signs of health or ill-health. Disturbing them or handling them might mask some signs of illness. The following signs are abnormal:�

• bird is obviously depressed and looks sick • feathers ruffled • not getting on the perch at night • not eating, not drinking; or drinking excessively • head and/or wings drooping. Head twisted back or held between legs or under

wing • unusual movement and posture – penguin-like, duck-waddling, lame • comb and wattles very pale or discoloured or swollen • nasal discharge or nostrils caked with material • coughing, rattling, snicking noises from the beak • open wounds, evidence of pecking or self-mutilation • sores or wart-like growths on non-feathered parts of head and legs • bird has lost weight, feels like a heap of feathers when picked up • droppings very watery and/or green and/or contain blood • labored or rapid breathing, beak open, panting (unless very hot weather) • vent pasted over with droppings, or tissue protruding • one hanging wing, or leg(s) held abnormally or toes curled

A word about bird flu

Avian influenza or bird flu, along with other exotic diseases, has the potential to devastate the nation’s poultry industry. There are many strains, H5N1 is the subtype responsible for the more recent cases in Asia, Europe, the Middle East and Africa. A very small number of illnesses and deaths were confirmed in humans who had close contact with H5N1 infected chickens in those countries. No cases of H5N1 have been reported in either birds or humans in Australia to this date (July 2007). BUT unexplained deaths in poultry or wild birds should be reported immediately to a private veterinarian, stock inspector, government veterinary officer or call the Disease Watch Hotline on 1800 675 888 which is available 24 hours a day. The same applies to any signs of illness in poultry with an unknown cause.

BROODING AND GROWING CHICKENS (Handout) (Adapted from the DPI & F article: Small scale poultry keeping – brooding and rearing chickens)

Introduction The brooding and feeding systems described below are generally suitable for small numbers of chickens, turkeys, ducks and geese. The period from hatching until the chickens no longer require supplementary heat is called the ´brooding period´ and usually lasts for 3-6 weeks, depending on seasonal temperatures and the type of housing. Chickens need supplementary heat when they hatch because they are unable to maintain their body temperatures. The heat can be supplied by a broody hen or, more usually, by brooders using electricity, gas or oil as fuel. As the chicken grows, its downy coat is replaced by feathers, and the brooding temperature can be gradually reduced until supplementary heat is discontinued at about 3-4 weeks. During the brooding period the chickens need warmth, shelter, fresh air, proper food and clean water. Temperature The brooder must be capable of providing a temperature of 35°C, even in the coldest conditions. It must be adjustable so that a steady temperature can be maintained. Simple electric hobby brooders can be obtained from poultry equipment suppliers and will successfully brood up to 50 chicks. The brooding temperature for day-old chicks should be 35°C at the level of the chickens´ backs, that is, about 50 mm above the litter. As the chickens grow, the temperature can be reduced until it is discontinued generally at the end of the fourth week, though it may be necessary to provide heat on very cold nights in the fifth week. Temperatures are to be used only as a guide because the best way to adjust the temperature for the comfort of the chicks is to observe their behaviour. If they crowd near the heat source and chirp loudly the temperature is too low. If they move well away from the heat source and start panting they are too hot. Ideally they should be fairly quiet and spaced evenly under and around the heat source.

Brooding area layout showing surrounding fence, heat source, feeder and waterer

A simple and effective means of brooding small numbers of chickens is to use an infra-red heat lamp. These lamps are designed for higher infra-red energy output and a lower light output than are ordinary electric light bulbs. The infra-red energy passes through the air without heating it but when it strikes an absorbing body, such as a chick, the energy is absorbed and transformed into heat. The litter is also heated and the surrounding air warmed by heat convected from the heated bodies. A single infra-red lamp will brood up to 50 one-day-old chickens. The lamp should be suspended 350-400 mm above the litter and the temperature checked by laying a thermometer on the litter directly under the lamp. The temperature can be adjusted by raising or lowering the lamp. Heat lamps should be hung securely by a chain to minimise the risk of fire. They must not be hung by the electric lead. Because of the possibility of a lamp failing, a spare globe should be available. For brooding small batches of chickens (up to 50) a normal incandescent 100 W spotlight globe may be used, but these are not as efficient as the infra-red lamps. Preparing for the chicks Clean and disinfect the brooding area some days before the chickens arrive so there is time for the area to dry. Cover the floor with dry absorbent litter material (wood shavings, rice hulls, chopped straw, sawdust or shredded paper) to a depth of 50 mm. Place a surround of cardboard, metal sheeting or hardboard around the brooding area. The surround should be about 450 mm high to protect the chickens from draughts, and the area enclosed should provide at least 50 cm2 of floor space for each bird. For the first two days the litter in the brooding area should be covered with newspaper. Feed should be sprinkled on the paper and clean fresh water provided. Ideally the water should be in specially designed drinkers consisting of a plastic jar inverted into a shallow circular trough. The drinkers hold about 2 L of water and the shallow troughs are designed so that the chickens cannot drown in them. Ordinary flat dishes can also be used but if the water is too deep the chickens may drown. A large stone or block of wood

placed in the centre of the pan will usually prevent drowning by reducing the amount of water in the vessel without restricting access by the birds. Switch the brooder on at least 2 hours before the chickens arrive so that the area is warmed and the necessary adjustments to temperature can be made. Place feeders and drinkers near the heat source and, for the first 2 days, sprinkle food liberally on the newspaper to encourage the chickens to eat. Also dip each chicken´s beak in the water as it is placed in the brooder to encourage it to drink. With large numbers it will not be possible to do this with all of the chickens but it is generally worthwhile dipping the beaks of 10% of the flock. The base pans from hanging feeders can be used as feeders for young chickens; as the chickens grow the tube hoppers can be attached. The tube will hold enough feed for several days. If the feeders are gradually raised after a few days so that the base of the pan is always level with the chickens´ backs, feed wastage is reduced. Small flat pans or trays can also be used for feed for the first week. Keep fresh food and water in front of the chickens at all times and clean and refill the feeders and drinkers regularly. Cleaning will have to be carried out at least twice daily until the chicks have grown sufficiently and the feeders and drinkers can be raised above the litter. The newspaper can be removed after 3 days, the feeders and drinkers moved further away from the heat source and the surround gradually expanded until it can be removed completely at 2 weeks. Make sure that the brooder room is well ventilated but that the chickens are free from draughts. Floor space and equipment Overcrowding and lack of feeder and drinker space can cause some chickens to grow slowly. Suggested space requirements are shown in Table 2. The feeding and drinking space requirements are lengths given in millimetres. For circular feeders and drinkers, the length available to the chickens can be found by multiplying the diameter of the feeder or drinker by three.

Table 2. Space requirements of chickens

Age

(weeks)

Floor

space

(birds per

m2)

Feeder

space

(mm per

bird)

Drinking

space

(mm per

bird)

1-4 20 20 10

5-8 10 30 20

9-20 5 50 30

Feeding Chickens that are to be grown for egg production need chicken starter crumbles or mash from 1 day old to about 6 weeks. The diet should contain 18% crude protein and a coccidiostat (to prevent the disease coccidiosis) if the chickens are to be reared on the floor. For small flocks from the age of 6 until 16 weeks, grower pellets or crumbles (15-16% protein) are generally used. Birds should have unrestricted access to food and water. At 16 weeks the pullets should be fed a laying diet, which should be available at all times. It can be supplemented with scratch grain and vegetable garden scraps (it is illegal to use food or food scraps containing or possibly having contacted animal matter (e.g. from restaurants, hospitals and domestic households) as feed for pigs, poultry or ruminants. This is classed as swill feeding and is illegal in Australia because of the serious risk of introducing and spreading a devastating exotic disease such as Foot and Mouth Disease. From 1 day old until it is 16 weeks old a pullet will eat about 1.5 kg of starter diet and 5.5 kg of grower diet. During the laying period each hen will eat up to 1 kg of feed a week. Diets containing anti-coccidial compounds are recommended only for chicks and should not be fed to laying hens. Commercial poultry farms use diets that have been formulated for particular varieties of poultry. These diets are available for small flocks but generally have to be specially ordered from local feed suppliers.