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PLAYING MUSIC TO RELIEVE STRESS IN A COLLEGE CLASSROOM
ENVIRONMENT
E ileen FerrerSchool o f Kinesiology and Nutrition Science,
California State University
P olong LewLos Angeles Chinatown Senior Citizen Center
Sarah M. J ungSchool o f Kinesiology and Nutrition Science,
California State University
Emilia JanekeSchool o f Kinesiology and Nutrition Science,
California State University
M ichelle GarciaSchool o f Kinesiology and Nutrition Science,
California State University
C indy PengSchool o f Kinesiology and Nutrition Science,
California State University
George P oonLos Angeles Chinatown Senior Citizen Center
VlNISHA RATHODSharon B eckwith
Chick F. TamSchool o f Kinesiology and Nutrition Science,
California State University
Music therapy can be an effective treatment that prevents stress
from contributing to the etiology of disease. For this study, the
participants, college students enrolled in an annual Alternative
Nutrition class at California State University, Los Angeles, were
instructed to select a song to present during class. After
listening to each song selection, participants provided written
feedback based on a 9-question survey. Self-perceived stress was
measured using a Likert scale from 1 to 10, with 10 being the
highest level of stress. Microsoft Excel 2007 Data Analysis, was
used to calculate t-Test: Paired Two Sample for Meansat a 5%
significance level (a
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482 / College Student Journal
Introduction
Time spent in college can be a priceless experience, but it can
also be a stressful one. In recent years, the academic circle has
noted stress to be an important topic of interest, due to the many
stresses of daily life (Agolla & Ongori, 2009). There are a
variety of reasons students experience stress, which may include:
being away from home for the first time; trying to balance the
demands of classes, work, extracurricular activities, and a social
life; the pressure to perform well academically. Even though some
of these may be perceived as positive changes, any departure from a
familiar routine can bring about some degree of stress
(Richlin-Klon- sky & Hoe, 2003).
Some students may not know how to effectively cope with the
demands of college life. As a result, having severe and/or
prolonged stress may lead to reduced academic performance. This
type of stress can potentially hinder a students level of
contribution and participation in campus life, and increases the
likelihood of substance abuse and other destructive behaviors
(Ross, Neibling & Hecker, 1999). Coping with unhealthy stress
begins with recognizing the signs of building stress levels and the
stressors that cause them. While stress can be caused by external
events, the events themselves may not necessarily be stressful. In
fact, it is the way in which an individual interprets and reacts to
a stressor that is responsible for producing stress (Bu- sari,
2012). Consequently, although various methods exist to help college
students cope with stress, the appropriate method must be selected
for the individual.
According to Romano (1992), the interactions between an
individuals perception and reaction to stressors are what result in
stress. While many may be unaware of the danger of stress, the
American Institute of Stress (2012) claimed stress to be the number
one health problem for Americans.
While stress itself can be debilitating, its main effect on
public health involves increasing risk for diseases such as cancer,
diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular disease. Stress can also lead
to depression and its related conditions. Moreover, overall health
and wellness is a matter of concern among populations with elevated
levels of stress. College students, subject to pressure from many
areas, fit into this category.
Music TherapyInterventions for HealthMusic therapy (MT) is
defined by the
American Music Therapy Association (2011) as the clinical and
evidence-based use of music interventions to accomplish
individualized goals within a therapeutic relationship by a
credentialed professional who has completed an approved music
therapy program. According to the American Music Therapy
Association (2011), music therapy is a well-established health
program and it is used therapeutically to address an individuals
physical, emotional, cognitive, and social needs. Furthermore, a
study by Lu and colleagues (2010) defined MT as a form of
psychotherapy that is safe, enjoyable, and inexpensive.
The goal and purpose of this study was to examine the role of
music as a potentially stress-alleviating therapy among college
students. The correlation between music therapy and stress was
examined, and research was conducted to investigate the
effectiveness of stress reduction via music within an academic
population in classroom settings.
Statement of the Problem
What is Stress and how does it function?Emerging scientific
evidence suggests that
psychosocial factorswhich are the interrelation of social
factors, individual thought, and behavior from emotional states,
behavior dispositions, and psychosocial stresscan
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directly influence both physiologic function and health outcomes
(Rozanski, Blumen- thal, & Kaplan, 1999; Kiecolt-Glaser, 1999;
Baum & Posluszny, 1999). Additionally, if adequate coping
skills are lacking, a somatic or psychological dysfunction may be
expressed in the form of chronic pain and illness, gastrointestinal
distress (GI), sleep disturbances, fatigue, high blood pressure,
headaches, or stress emotions, such as anger, anxiety and panic,
fright, guilt, shame, sadness, and depression (Yehuda, 2011).
Stress has also been known to affect the immune system through
an intricate route of neural and hormonal pathways (Besedovsky
& DelRey 1991; Maier & Watkins, 1998). Furthermore,
behavior can be affected by stress, manifested by acting
impulsively, making poor exercise and nutritional choices,
excessive use or abuse of alcohol and/or drugs, and withdrawal from
relationships or social situations (MedicineNet, Inc., 2011).
Therefore, it can be strongly argued that stress contributes to the
etiology of disease.
The main organ responsible for the stress response is the brain,
which determines what constitutes as stressful, along with
determining the behavioral and physiological responses to specific
stressors (McEwen, 2008). McEwen and Stellar (1993) also stated
that the brain is the main target of stress and it is structurally
and chemically changed by acute and chronic stress.
The chief hormones involved in the stress response are
glucocorticoids and catecholamines. Glucocorticoids are steroid
hormones produced in the adrenal cortex in response to
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the pituitary gland
(McEwen, 2008). A specific glucocorticoid, cortisol, is the main
stress hormone that becomes elevated during stress. Cortisol
manages stressful situations by preparing the body and the
fight-or-flight response (Yehuda, 2011). Catecholamines are
hormones produced
by the adrenal glands, which are released into the blood during
times of stress. The key catecholamines are dopamine,
norepinephrine, and epinephrine. These hormones increase during the
fight-or-flight response as the body requires stored energy,
glucose and fat to be immediately available to cells.
Additionally, the immunological system that responds to stress
releases stress markers that provide the body with the energy it
needs to escape from the real or perceived danger (Yehuda, 2011;
American Diabetes Association on Stress, 2011). Understanding the
mechanism of stress provides a backdrop for the effectiveness of
mind-body therapies (MBT) as a treatment for stress reduction.
Techniques and Therapies for Stress Management
There are various helpful techniques and therapies for
individuals who require stress management. Music is known to be an
effective therapeutic treatment. Music therapy is a treatment most
commonly applied during a form of complementary and alternative
medicine (CAM), a practice that involves using the mind to improve
health. As defined by the National Center for Complementary and
Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) (2008), mind and body practices focus
on interactions among the brain, mind, body, and behavior, with the
intent to use the mind to affect physical functioning and promote
health (para. 9). Lu and colleagues (2010) stated that stress in
early life can affect the biochemistry of the immune system.
Therefore, health can be directly influenced by emotional, mental,
social, spiritual, experiential, and behavioral factors with the
use of a wide range of healing practices known as mind-body
therapies (MBT) to support immune functions as shown in Figure
1.
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Figure 1. An interrelationship among genetic self, immunity, and
environment (epigenetic factors)
Research has proven that music therapy can produce ameliorative
effects upon immune systems that have been negatively affected by
stress. Lu and colleagues (2010) found that stress increased serum
corticosterone and interleukin-4 levels in rats. With exposure to
music, the stress-induced elevations in these immune system
biomarkers became normalized, proving that music therapy can
produce a clinical effect (Lu et al., 2010). Decreased levels of
immune system reactants are associated with decreased stress and
increased relaxation.
It is an unfortunate fact that while relaxation is critical for
stress relief; many individuals do not spend an adequate amount of
time relaxing. This is common among college students, who are
constantly on-the-go or dealing with stressors involving academic
concerns. Academic stress has been defined as the product of a
combination of academic related demands that exceed the
adaptive
resources available to an individual (Wilks, 2008). The amount
of stress a student may experience is something that should not be
taken for granted, which may result in adverse effects to a
students overall adjustment (Hussain, Kumar & Husain,
2008).
Purpose of the Project
The purpose of this study is therefore to investigate the
effectiveness of music therapy, and demonstrate how different forms
of music influence stress levels before and after a musical
selection in a college classroom environment. Specifically, this
study aims to investigate how music can affect stress by observing
changes in levels of stress among students before and after
listening to a music selection. It is hypothesized that music
self-selected by the participant will reduce stress levels. The
experimental design was a qualitative descriptive study.
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Playing Music to Relieve Stress in a College Classroom
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Materials and Methods
Design of the Project
Participants
Participants consisted of college students attending California
State University, Los Angeles, enrolled in an annual Alternative
Nutrition class designed to study mind and body medicine, as well
as stress management using music therapy and nutritional
supplementation. This nutritional science course requires a general
nutrition class as an academic prerequisite to qualify as a
participant, and to be a student enrolled in an Alternative
Nutrition class from the years 2008 to 2012. Participants were
separated by cohort for the respective year they were enrolled into
this class. All student participants remained anonymous and
strictly confidential.
Procedures
As a required project of this class, participants were to select
any song, and present it to their cohort during the class period (3
hours, 50 minutes). All participants were informed of the
procedures by the Instructor, and were provided a handout on the
procedures of the project. Songs varied in genre, from classical,
pop, altemative/rock, to cul- tural/ethnic music and more.
Participants were asked to listen to each song, and provide
written feedback at the end. Feedback was provided with the use of
a measurement tool, a 9-question survey, provided by the
Instructor. The Music Therapy Survey Form was created and provided
by the Instructor. A sample of the survey form is presented in
Figure 2.
Figure 2. Music therapy survey form
MUSIC THERAPY SURVEY FORM1. AGE__________YRS
2. GENDER__________
3. WEIGHT__________LBS HEIGHT__________ FT/INS
4. MAJOR____________________
5. SUBJECTIVELY, WHAT IS YOUR CURRENT STRESS LEVEL (WITH 10
BEING THE HIGHEST LEVEL)?CIRCLE ONE: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
6. DID YOU LIKE THE MUSIC?CIRCLE ONE: VERY MUCH [1] GOOD [2]
SOMEWHAT [3] DISLIKE [4]
7. DID YOU FIND ANY MEANING IN THE SONG?CIRCLE ONE: HAS MEANING
[1] NO MEANING [2] DONT KNOW [3]
8. DO YOU FEEL HAPPIER AFTER LISTENING TO THE SONG?CIRCLE ONE:
YES [1] NO [2] DONT KNOW [3]
9. SUBJECTIVELY, WHAT IS YOUR STRESS LEVEL AFTER THE SONG (WITH
10 BEING THE HIGHEST LEVEL)?CIRCLEONE:! 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
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Questions ranged from demographics to the feelings participants
had about individual songs. Self-perceived stress was measured
using a Likert scale, from 1 to 10, with 10 being the highest level
of stress. The two main questions utilized for this experiment were
question 5, and question 9, which asked to subjectively choose
current stress level before and after listening to each song. It is
important to mention, participant data was omitted if a survey was
not completed, in which either question 5 or question 9 were not
answered or there was no information on means. Next, participants
collected completed surveys after presenting their song, and were
required to compute question 5 and question 9 for the mean value.
To examine individual cohorts, the pre-calculated means for
questions 5 and question 9 provided by each participant was
collected, and computed to determine the overall mean value. A
summary of each cohort is shown in Table 1.
These procedures were also repeated using songs provided by the
Instructor. Four songs, chosen by the instructor were: Musical
Selection 1 (contemporary Latin jazz); Musical Selection 2 (1970s
soul); Musical Selection 3 (1990s pop rock); Musical Selection 4
(1950s pop).Data was collected from partcipants during the years of
2008 to 2012.
Data Analysis
Microsoft Excel 2007 Data Analysis, was used to calculate
t-Test: Paired Two Sample for Means at a 5% significance level
(a
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Playing Music to Relieve Stress in a College Classroom
Environment / 487
standard deviation of 0.61 after various songs being played for
2011. The final year 2012, had a mean of 5.22 and a standard
deviation of 0.30 before, and after the mean is 3.94 with a
standard deviation of 0.41. Overall, for each cohort, the p-values
of most results were highly significant (0.0000 being highly
significant), which confirmed a decrease in stress for all songs
played during an entire class period.
The results from the second part of the experiment, (Table 2 to
Table 5), utilized songs
Table 2. Summary for Musical Selection 1
chosen by the Instructor, also demonstrated an overall reduction
in stress with the four different songs in all five cohorts.
However, there was only one song, Musical Selection 1 for the year
2010 cohort that had no significance in stress reduction. The
p-value was 0.27, which is greater than a = 0.05; not statistically
significant. However, the decrease of the mean value from 4.27 to a
mean of 4 after the song was played indicates there was a small
decrease in stress levels.
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
(n = 48) (n = 36) (n = 45) ( = 61) (" = 54)
Before After Before After Before After Before After Before
AfterMean 5.08 4.21 6.06 4.86 4.27 4.00 6.62 5.23 5.59 4.50
Variance 5.18 4.08 4.34 5.44 3.75 3.77 3.64 4.48 3.60 3.46
Correlation 0.71 - 0.69 - 0.67 - 0.69 - 0.74 -
df 47 - 35 - 44 - 60 - 53 -
P(T
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Table 4. Summary for Musical Selection 32008 2009 2010 2011
2012
(n = 47) (n = 54) (n == 46) ( = 57) ( = 55)
Before After Before After Before After Before After Before
After
Mean 5.47 4.62 6.20 5.06 4.61 4.07 6.0 4.36 5.91 4.69
Variance 4.43 5.89 5.34 4.85 3.84 5.80 3.50 5.41 3.79 3.48
Correlation 0.58 0.75 - 0.76 - 0.55 - 0.75 -
df 46 53 - 45 - 56 - 54 -
P(T
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Hochrein, 1994). Thus, music is an easily accessible and
efficient therapy to utilize for college students that is also
cost-effective. Listening to music does not require a licensed
musical therapist, and can be done at the time and location that is
convenient to the individual. The only requirement is equipment for
playing music, which is already accessible to many students.
In some study participants, listening to music did not produce
any effect. Among individual responses, there were some songs that
appeared to have caused participant stress levels to increase or
have no effect at all. But as the results show, for the overall
study population, self-perceived stress levels were reduced in
multiple categories from the pre-selected songs to the songs chosen
by the instructor. One possible explanation for this reduction in
stress levels is that music therapy utilizes the power of the mind
to express emotions, potentially influencing all aspects of health
and well-being. As it shows in the results, listening to personally
selected music had the most impact on stress levels following each
song, ft could be that hearing the various types of music provided
an emotional response.
There were a few limitations for this music therapy
intervention. Because this was a self-administered experiment, the
length of the experimental period for listening to all individual
songs was limited to only a couple of class meeting days. Due to
time constraints, each participant had to introduce and play their
songs consecutively with minimal breaks in between, which could
have prohibited full focus on each musical selection. Limiting the
amount of songs to be played per day to approximately ten or less
could provide additional time to respond to each participants
choice of music before reflecting on ones own self-perceived levels
of stress; fewer songs played per day may also allow for additional
time to prepare for the next
song to be played. Conducting a longer study on a single
population during the entire length of the academic quarter would
demonstrate musics effectiveness over a period of time, and
possibly provide a more truthful perception of stress level from
participants.
In addition, the effect of music genre was not specifically
explored in depth for this intervention. It was mentioned briefly
that music genre did not have much influence; however, most studies
have demonstrated that soothing, pleasant music, such as classical,
has shown to reduce stress levels the most. Further study assessing
music genre would provide insight as to which genre is most
effective against stress and anxiety or to prove if genre selection
makes any difference at all within the same study population. These
limiting factors present an opportunity for future studies to be
conducted.
Overall, listening to music is a functional, inexpensive, and
effortless intervention to utilize in various stressful situations.
As this intervention has evidently proven to be successful amongst
college students, research has sufficiently established the
efficacy and benefit of music for diverse populations in varying
age groups. As more people and healthcare professionals become
aware and accepting of mind-body therapies and other CAM
treatments, music can be widely utilized as a complement to all
areas of conventional healthcare.
The Body s Response to Music
The use of music therapy has been closely associated with
alleviating stress, anxiety, pain, and a myriad of other physical
and/or mental health diseases or disorders. Relieving such health
issues is attributable to how the inherent patterns and structures
of music in its entirety convey meaning to the brain (Miell,
MacDonald, & Hargreaves, 2005). Building upon the basic
understanding that the left brain is the thinking side and the
right brain is
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the feeling side, the left part of the brain was found to be
more stimulated during cognitive analysis of music or during sad or
unharmoni- ous sounds, such as single predicable chords, whereas
the right part of the brain is stimulated more with happy and
pleasurable sounds (Salimpoor, 2013).
The region of the brain involved with conveying meaning and
emotions is the limbic system. It is located deep within the
cerebrum, near the auditory cortex where music and sound are
processed, and is composed of several brain structures, which
include the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus (Office of
Population Affairs, 2012; Lemonick & Bjerklie, 2003). In
addition, the limbic system processes the intuitive, creative, and
imaginative information that induces the bodys psychophysiological
responses (Guzzetta, 1989).
Thaut (1990) stated that feelings of reward, pleasure,
punishment, and pain also occur in the limbic system. Therefore,
listening to music becomes an instant reward, releasing enkephalins
and endorphins to change moods, evoke relaxation, and alter pain
perception. Understanding the role of the limbic system provides
insight as to how relaxation comes about, and where emotions are
processed when listening to music. Furthermore, when the mesolimbic
system (amygdala, hippocampus) recalls a memory triggered by the
sound stimulus, the message is eventually delivered to the
forebrain, which then sends neurochemicals throughout the entire
body to produce tension or relaxation (Brattico & Pearce,
2010).
According to Bunt (1994), there are three essential elements to
music that create its patterns and structures: rhythm, melody, and
harmony. Each of these elements is important in producing different
responses in the body; both the physiological and psychological
responses of a listener can be affected (Chian & Tracy, 1999).
Furthermore, music is unique in
that it can act as a powerful sensory stimulus, engaging the
brain in retraining neural and behavioral functions that can be
applied to non-musical context in everyday life, such as
therapeutic needs (Yehuda, 2011). Emotional states are developed
through music that allows an individual to achieve relaxation.
Music Therapy and Relaxation Response
Music therapy produces a relaxation response, in which Maranto
(1993) states music promotes relaxation by physiological and/or
psychological entrainment. Entrainment, a principle of physics,
occurs where two objects vibrate at similar frequencies causing a
mutual sympathetic resonance that vibrate at same frequencies. This
concept of entrainment is realized with the direct use of music to
generate relaxation (Maranto, 1993). Changes to the bodys
physiologic processes due to entrainment, are the result of
specific musical stimuli, such as rhythms and tempos that act as
synchronizers to cause the change (Saper- ston, 1995). Such
responses include release of endorphins, and changes in
catecholamine levels, facilitating pain relief as well as lowering
blood pressure, heart and respiratory rate, oxygen consumption, and
serum lactic acid levels (Guzzetta, 1989; Gardner, 1990; Mc-
Cafifery & Beebe, 1994; Pert &Chopra, 1999).
Rhythm is an essential element to music because rhythm is the
order in which music moves; it is the most dynamic part (Bunt,
1994). When utilizing music for relaxation under the entrainment
principle, the tempos from the music should not exceed a resting
heart rate (
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Playing Music to Relieve Stress in a College Classroom
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the body to slow down and go along with the musics slower beats,
producing a relaxation response regardless of genre and duration
(Chian, 2009; Lee et al., 2012).
Evidence o f a Positive Effect between Choosing a Musical
Selection and a Reduction o f the Perception o f Stress and
Anxiety
A 2002 study was performed by physicians Wang, Kulkami, Dolev,
and Kain to test music as a method for reducing anxiety in
pre-operative patients. The research results indicated a positive
effect between music of choice and the reduction of the feeling of
stress and anxiety. The pre-operative patients could listen to
music of their choice for a time span of 30 minutes. Patients were
evaluated at three different times including before, during and
after treatment. Blood samples were taken to measure levels of
cortisol and catecholamines as bioindicators of stress. Despite the
fact that no differences were reported in the hormones released
during stress, including epinephrine, norepinephrine and cortisol,
patients required decreased levels of propofol to be sedated before
the operation. There were no positive effects exhibited between
music and stress in all pre-operative patients.
Importance o f Music Preference
Music preference also produces a significant effect on its
relationship with stress. Various studies have shown the extra
benefit of self-selected music by individuals. A study conducted by
Lai and Li (2011), examined the association between music and
stress while paying close attention to music preferences. Newly
employed nurses were able to choose a song from the six
pre-selected songs by the study team (Lai & Li, 2011).
Participants showed lower perceived stress levels, as well as lower
cortisol, heart rate, mean arterial pressure, and higher finger
temperatures when listening to music (< 30 minutes), especially
with a song selected by
the participants themselves (Lai & Li, 2011). Lowered stress
levels were also exhibited among patients undergoing day surgery,
especially when patients were able to select music of their choice
(Leardi et al., 2007). Therefore, the therapeutic power of music,
as evidenced by these clinical trials, may provide an outlet for
stress and anxiety relief among populations subject to high amounts
of stress, for instance, college students.
Beyond Treatment for Anxiety: Singing as Form o f Music
Therapy
Previous studies of music therapeutic caregiving involving
singing have found that persons with dementia may sing along with
the caregiver, interfering with eating. In a 2012 study by Hammar,
Williams, Swall, and Engstrom, the caregiver was instructed to use
humming as opposed to singing in order to observe its influence
upon mealtime situations. The elderly female subject with dementia
appeared to eat and drink more during the intervention sessions.
She also appeared more focused on the food and the caregiver, and
in general appeared to be more alert during the interventions.
Furthermore, in the palliative and/or hospice setting, MT has the
ability to improve quality of life for dying patients (Halstead
& Roscoe, 2002; Hilliard, 2003).
Beyond Treatment for Anxiety: Music and Plant Physiology
The physical effects produced by music can be observed in plants
as well as in humans. A 2004 study by Creath and Schwartz used seed
germination as an objective biomarker, to find that musical sound
produced a highly statistically significant effect on the number of
seeds sprouted compared to the untreated control over all five
experiments. Seeds exposed to musical sound sprouted significantly
faster than the untreated control. Musical sound had a significant
effect compared to noise and an untreated control as a function
of
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time (/K0.03) while there was no significant difference between
seeds exposed to noise and an untreated control. Musical sound is
defined as being dynamically organized to contain variations, as
opposed to noise, which is constant. The noise used in this study
had a fixed frequency band that was invariant over long time
periods.
Sonic Bloom, a new type of plant fertilizer incorporating music,
consists of a sound generator CD and a nutrient spray combining 55
trace minerals, amino acids, and seaweed. The sound generator
produces tones in the four to six kilohertz range, the same range
as many song birds. Photomicrographs of plant leaf surfaces taken
using a scanning electron microscope show that the stomata of
plants treated with Sonic Bloom are more numerous, more developed,
and better defined than the stomata of untreated plants.
Radioactive isotopes were utilized to record an increase in
nutrient absorption exceeding 700%. This increase in plant nutrient
absorption is relevant to human health, as it produces healthier
plants and fruit with higher concentrations of complex sugar
chains, which may act as communicators for the bodys defense
systems (Oliver, 2002).
Future Study
To further investigate the relationship between music and
stress, a possible future study might investigate how distinct
categories of stress levels reported by college students prior to
listening to music can be affected by specific musical
selections.
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