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Musichttp://ijm.sagepub.com/content/os-39/1/3The online version of
this article can be found at:DOI: 10.1177/025576140203900102 2002
os-39: 3 International Journal of Music EducationLelouda
StamouPlato and Aristotle On Music and Music Education: Lessons
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3PLATO AND ARISTOTLE ON MUSIC AND MUSIC EDUCATION:LESSONS FROM
ANCIENT GREECEbyLELOUDA STAMOUUniversity of Macedonia,
GreeceABSTRACTThe purpose of this paper is to discuss the Athenian
views of music and music education asthese are presented in the
works of the ancient Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle and
tosuggest ways in which the issues raised by them are still
relevant for music education today.Their philosophical and
practical views on music education, apart from being an excellent
andvery up-to-date source for advocacy, can also initiate thoughts
and promote solutions on problemsthat still remain unsolved. During
the study, of their works, the reader surprisingly realizes
thatthese philosophers had stated 2,500 years ago what the music
education community has, justrecently, come to realize concerning
the value of music education, childrens musicaldevelopment, and
instructional strategies in music.INTRODUCTIONIn ancient Greece,
music was not the discrete art form that we, today, consider as
music.It was the complete combination of poetry, melody, and dance
in one unity; an incomparablyholistic power which defined people as
personalities who think, act, and feel (Henderson,1957). Music was
considered to be the gift of &dquo;Mousai&dquo;,goddesses
of arts and letters, toman, and was strongly associated with
ritual,educational, and recreational practices,pervading every
aspect of private and social life.After the second half of the 5th
centuryBC, the component arts of music were on occasion separated,
although less often and lesscompletely than one might think. If
unaccompanied dance existed at all, itwas perceivedto be not of
much importance, while pure instrumental music was often criticized
as relativelyunimportant. The drama was sung to a great extent,
incorporating both solo and choralsong along with dance. Every
singer, solo or choir, had to sing while moving his or herentire
body in obedience to intricate patterns that required weeks of
full-time training.Singers were also dancers and often players of
the instruments that accompanied their singingand dancing (Lippman,
1963).Singing and speaking were close in the ancient Greek culture.
The Greek language wasremarkably physical and measured with an
inherent music characterized by precisely defineddurations
(Anderson, 1966). In many literary descriptions, the words singing
and speakingare coupled or used interchangeably, and one cannot
tellwhether speech or song isinquestion. The indeterminate nature
of much preserved Greek poetry is also a result of the at UNIV OF
UTAH SALT LAKE CITY on July 23, 2013 ijm.sagepub.com Downloaded
from 4fact that melody, like dance, was unrecorded. Performance
intermediate between speechand song was usual in the form of chant
or recitative or intonation.According to Anderson (1966), the music
setting demanded from performer and listenermore profound responses
than the ones that are known to Western persons today;
thus,&dquo;the attempt to recreate any total experience from a
reading of Greek literature is boundto fail&dquo; (p.l ). The
recapture and recreation of the forms and character of the ancient
Greekmusic is difficult because there is little evidence on how
ancient Greek music actually sounded.The music writings that exist
today are few and incomplete and continue to be interpretedin
sharply varying ways. There exist, however, valuable indirect
sources of information, suchas the study of archaeological material
and the literary writings of the ancient Greeks. Theseare the most
reliable guides to the structures and genres of the ancient Greek
musicalcompositions, and to the emotions and ideas with which the
Greeks approached their music,reflecting their conceptions of its
significance in their lives (Barker, 1984).The writings that have
come down to us fall broadly in three major categories
(Winnington-Ingram, 1954). First are those that describe features
of the practice of music making andcomposition, like passages from
poets and dramatists and casual remarks made by historiansof that
era, as well as deliberate attempts of analysis and historical
reconstruction made byscholars and compilers of later antiquity.
Second are the technical works of the ancientharmonic and acoustic
theorists, who deliberately set out to describe, analyze and reduce
toorder the data presented in musical practice. Finally are the
works of philosophers and critics,who attempt a broader and more
reflective investigation of the social, psychological, and
moralfunctions of music. This type of source is of special interest
for the purpose of this paper.Ancient Greece was organized in
autonomous cities ( &dquo;polis&dquo;), each one of which
developeditsown unique features in social life,laws, art, and
education. The city of Athens in the5th and 4th century B.C.
reached a high point of development in arts, sciences, politics,and
philosophy, which contributed afterwards to the development of
allof Westerncivilization. The purpose of this paper is to discuss
the Athenian views on music and musiceducation as these are
presented in the works of the ancient Greek philosophers Plato
andAristotle. The ideas of Plato and Aristotle strongly influenced
philosophical thought onmusic and education in the later Western
world and have often been used as philosophicalarguments in the
advocacy for music education.PLATOS VIEWS ON MUSICPlato lived from
about 428 to 347 BC. His career as a writer and teacher belongs
entirelyto the fourth century, after the death of his teacher
Socrates (399 B.C.) Almost allof hispublished writings survive
today and, with the exception of some letters, take the form
ofphilosophical dialogues in which Socrates isthe principal
speaker. Although itis possiblethat the
&dquo;Socrates&dquo;of Platos early dialogues represents
the ideas and teaching of thehistorical Socrates, Platos later
works probably express his own ideas, no matter whichcharacter is
given the leading role (Barker, 1984).The Republic (Plato, trans.
1900) that was written in the middle period of Platos workinglife,
together with the Laws (Plato, trans. 1980), his last piece of
writing, deal mostly with at UNIV OF UTAH SALT LAKE CITY on July
23, 2013 ijm.sagepub.com Downloaded from 5social ethics and
educational matters. The major theme of the Republic isthe nature
ofjustice, which is considered to be of the highest value for the
unity of human societies andthe harmony of the individual
souls.Most of the work is presented as the imaginativeelaboration
of requirements for a hypothetical ideal city, ruled by
philosophical guardians,in whose entire organization justice would
be perfectly embodied. While Republic teachesabout politics by
examining the nature of justice, Laws studies what can be actually
achievedthrough political action. In the Lcttns, Plato shows how
the man of reason, the philosopher,can work with and within the
pious traditionalism that dominates most political life(Anderson,
1966).Both Republic and Lazns provide important information on the
role of music in educationand social life.In Book II of the Laws,
Plato defines education as the virtue that first comesinto being in
children. Accordingly, education is the means by which
&dquo;pleasure and liking,pain and hatred, become correctly
arranged in the souls of those who are not yet able toreason, and
then, when the souls do become capable of reasoning, these passions
can inconsonance with reason affirm that they have been correctly
habituated in the appropriatehabits&dquo; (Laws, 653b, p.32).
Plato believes that education in music, meaning the unity ofmelody,
poetry, and dance, is important, because rhythm and harmony
penetrate deeplyinto the inmost soul and exercise strong influence
upon it.In ancient Greece, itwas generally believed that music had
the power to affect peoplesthoughts and actions in several ways
(Anderson, 1966). The ancient Greeks signify the moralcharacter
that the music tends to inspire in the soul as
&dquo;ethos&dquo; (Winnington-Ingram, 1954).According to
the Laws, a man enjoys the music to which he has become accustomed.
Thisis why Plato considers the teaching of appropriate songs
crucial, in order to &dquo;prevent thechilds soul from becoming
habituated to feeling delight and pain in a way opposed to thelaw
and to those who are persuaded by the law, to make the childs soul
follow and feelthe same joys and pains as an old man&dquo;
(659d6-10). According to Plato, the ability to feeldelight and pain
in the appropriate way can be developed by teaching children those
melodiesand rhythms that have been decided by the wise men of the
city to be the appropriateones for childrens education. Thus,
children will eventually develop a taste toward goodand bad,
similar to the musical tasteof the wise men inthe city. In the
Republic, heemphasizes that one must distinguish between the types
of songs suitable for men and thosesuitable for women, and modes
and rhythms must be fitted to them; what is grand andconduces to
bravery necessarily characterizes the male, while what tends to
orderliness anddiscreteness willbe more like the character of
womankind (Monro, 1894). According toPlato it would be a mistake to
set a mans words to a womans color and tune, or harmonizethe tune
and postures of freemen with the rhythms of slaves, or give free
rhythms andpostures to a tune or speech that contradicts the
rhythms.Different instruments are also considered to have different
effects on the emotions andcharacter of the individuals. According
to Plato, plucked stringed instruments, like the kitharaand the
lyre, inspire and exalt the soul of man and are honored by all
nations as the favoritesof gods. In contrast, music produced by
reed-blown pipes, such as the aulos, has no placein Platos ideal
city because of its orgiastic effect directly opposed to the
ordered and stately at UNIV OF UTAH SALT LAKE CITY on July 23, 2013
ijm.sagepub.com Downloaded from 6worship of the city. Reed-blown
pipes lead to a more intimate musical experience, whichmay become
devotional, according to the individual (Anderson, 1966). Wind
instrumentsare generally criticized by Plato because they also
prevent the performer from singing orspeaking while playing, thus
violating the unity of speech or song, instrumental playing,and
dance. Plato condemns solo instrumental music as useless and
harmful and as havingno discernible ethos. Kithara and lyre when
played alone, should, according to him, &dquo;beregarded as
unmusical virtuosity&dquo; (Laws, 670a2-3).The judgment of new
musical works is considered by Plato to be a highly significant
task.According to him, the judges of musical works presented in
musical contests need to beexceptional in virtue and education,
since &dquo;musicmust be judged by pleasure, but not
thepleasure of any chance listeners&dquo; (Laws, 658e8-9).
Plato believes that fine music is the onethat pleases the best men
and the adequately educated men, and especially finest is the
onethat pleases the one man who is distinguished in virtue and
education. The judges of musicneed to be men of this kind so that
they have the courage not to be swept away by thenoise and taste of
the many people or pronounce a soft-spirited judgment. Plato
admirestimes in the past when musical exhibitions in Athens were
judged worthy of prize or penaltyby means other than the whistling,
clapping, and rude noises of the contemporary theatre-going rabble
(Anderson, 1966).Platos concept of the relationship between musical
laws and legislation is characteristic. Ashe notes in his Laws,
&dquo;itisto be remembered above allthat our songs are our laws
- aparadoxical assumption, but one which we should
accept&dquo;(799e10-11). This is why hebelieves that one must
be careful when introducing a new kind of music. As Plato
says,&dquo;thisis to be the dogma about it:let no one voice
anything or make any dance movementcontrary to the public and
sacred songs, or the whole choral exercise of the young, anymore
than he would go against any of the other laws&dquo; (800a5-9).
Egypt, Crete, Sparta,and Athens as they once were, are Platos
models. He admires the absolute conservationof Egyptian art and
music and also the fact that ithas been proved possible to
legislatethose melodies that possess natural
&dquo;rightness.&dquo;According to Platos beliefs, there
shouldbe no hesitation to pick out from the traditional songs and
dances what is fitting andharmonious for the city. To make the
choice among these, examiners should be selectedwho are exceptional
in virtue and are not younger than 50 years old. Also, the poets
are tocreate nothing that differs from the citys conventional and
just version of the beautiful orgood things; they should not show
their creations to any of the non-experts before theyshow them to
the judges appointed in these matters (Anderson, 1966).MUSIC
EDUCATION IN PLATOS IDEAL CITYPlatos works mentioned above (Laws
and Republic) present his two main concepts ofeducation. Education,
according to him is, on the one hand, a technical term referring
tothe systematic training of children in liberal subjects, and on
the other hand, an idea rapidlyextending to every aspect of
intellectual and ethical experience. It is the drawing and
leadingof youth toward &dquo;right reason&dquo;as set forth
in the law and as judged by the experience ofthe most distinguished
elder people of the city (Anderson, 1966). at UNIV OF UTAH SALT
LAKE CITY on July 23, 2013 ijm.sagepub.com Downloaded from
7Education in Platos ideal city has different stages organized on
the basis of age. Educationin music, should, according to him,
start from infancy, with mothers singing for and dancingwith their
children. As Plato says in the Laws, &dquo;nursing and motion
should be as continuousas possible&dquo;(790c8-9), and it
isbeneficial when mothers &dquo;dont provide stillness but
justthe opposite, motion; they rock them constantly in their arms,
and not with silencebutwith some
melody&dquo;(790d9-790e2).Plato recognizes the importance of
the first three years of lifefor childrens development.As he notes
in his Laws, &dquo;thatisthe age when, through habituation, the
most decisivegrowth in the entire character occurs for
everyone&dquo;(792e2-4). Plato also realizes theimportance of
play and music in the education of the young child. According to
him, &dquo;sincea childs mind cannot handle serious material,
the precepts of the law will be conveyed tohim through terms he
understands, namely those of play and song&dquo;(Lccms,
659e2-5). Thisis why Plato recommends that as soon as the child
isable to walk, itistaken in theplayground where it learns by
playing partly by itself and partly with other young
children.Formal schooling should, according to Plato, start at the
age of 6 and should be compulsory,even if the childs father does
not wish him or her to go to school. Instruction should
becoeducational, uniform, and &dquo;asfar as possible
universal, on the principle that the pupilbelongs to the state
first and to his parents second&dquo; (Laws, 804c2-e 1 ). Plato
believes inwomens education but in a spirit different from that of
mens. This is why boys and girlsshould, according to him, attend
different schools. What a young girllearns, whilesuperficially not
unlike what her brothers are learning in their boys school, is
acquired ina different spirit. As Lodge (1947) says, &dquo;her
voice, carriage, manners, and outlook becomedefinitely feminine,
suited to the capacities of her sex and expressive of its
nature&dquo; (p. 293).This period of schooling should end at
the age of 20 and should focus on dance, music,and gymnastics.
Gymnastics have to do most immediately with bodily excellence,
while musicaims for the cultivation of the soul.In the ideal city,
vocal music education appears to occupy a central part in
childrenseducation. According to Plato, education iscoextensive
with choric song, a combinationof vocal rhythms and modes with
rhythm in bodily movement. The aim of training in music,however,
isnot musical expertise but the cultivation of the soul. As he
says, &dquo;thevocalaspect reaching the soul we regarded as
education in virtue and we named itmusic &dquo; (Lazns,673a4-5
).According to Plato, three years of compulsory study on the lyre
(a plucked string instrument)should begin when the child isthirteen
years old. Teacher and student must make theirinstruments sound in
unison with the voice, using no heterophony or ornamentation.
Theaccompaniment should not include melodies different from the
vocal line that was createdby the composer, and should not include
any contrasts of close and wide spacing of notes,of fast and slow
tempi, or of high and low ranges. Plato believes that the above are
unsuitablefor young people for whom we want to acquire a rapid
practical knowledge of music, becauseopposite principles are
confusing and create a difficulty in learning (Anderson, 1966).This
stage of education, would, according to Plato, end at about 20
years of age and would,as he (Republic, trans. 1900) suggests,
&dquo;leavethe boy (or the girl) of 20, a hardy, active, at
UNIV OF UTAH SALT LAKE CITY on July 23, 2013 ijm.sagepub.com
Downloaded from 8and disciplined young creature, versed in the best
literature and music, and fairly thoughslightly grounded in the
mathematical sciences&dquo; (p.15). For three years, between 17
and20 years of age, boys would serve the military in the area
around Athens. Then, from theage of 20 to 30, the young men that
developed good character and virtue, would enterupon the serious
study of sciences, beginning with arithmetic, and preceding, on a
scale ofincreasing concreteness, through plane and spherical
geometry, theoretical astronomy, andphysical harmonics or
acoustics. From the age of 30 until the age of 40, the young menwho
excelled in those studies would be admitted to the highest and most
complete of allpossible studies, the study of philosophy.As
itisevident from the above, Plato views education as a lifetime
process. He actuallybelieves that if good times are to come either
to the city or to mankind, political power andthe best and highest
intelligence need to, somehow, be brought together to the exclusion
ofmere empirics from statesmanship and mere theorists from
philosophy (Barker, 1959).ARISTOTLES VIEWS ON MUSIC AND MUSIC
EDUCATIONAristotle was born in the Macedonian city of Stagira in
384 B.C. He went to Athens in367, where he studied with Plato for
20 years. After his teachers death, he left Athens,and was for a
brief period tutor to the young Alexander the Great of Macedon. His
writingscontain a closely reasoned and in many respects systematic
study of the world in a multitudeof its aspects, which is so
impressive, as Barker says, &dquo;thatit formed for centuries
the basisof all educated Europeans conceptions of the universe and
mans place within it&dquo; (p. 170).Little of Aristotles views
on music aesthetics have survived. A substantial part of his
viewson the educational and social aspects of music, however,
exists in Politics (Aristotle, trans.1984), one of Aristotles major
works. His contributions to the study of musical phenomenaare
rooted in the evidence of the senses and occupy the fields of
physical acoustics, physiologyand psychology of hearing, and
physiology of voice production.Compared with Plato, Aristotle
ismore catholic. As Barker ( 1984) notes,
&dquo;heconsidersdifferent views and sets them in relation to
one another, rejecting them only if he can pointto their basis in
plain misunderstandings or mistakes of fact&dquo; (p.171). He
is also willing toembrace, in the role appropriate to it,anything
that people have found to be good andvaluable. Instead of rejecting
anything that is not conducive to a &dquo;moral&dquo;
education, Aristotletries to find proper places for the convivial
harmonies, exciting instruments, and professionalmethods of
training and performance within the lifeof a well-adjusted
society.By notrejecting outright different music practices,
Aristotle isa valuable source of information onthe practices and
the views of the ordinary educated Greeks of histime. Plato, on
thecontrary, offers some information on his contemporary music
practices only through hisattacks against them. As Barker says,
&dquo;the positive proposals that he [Plato] develops bearno
resemblance at all, as he himself makes clear, to any state of
affairs that has ever reallyexisted&dquo; (p. 171).Aristotle
agrees with Platos definition of proper education as being the
training to experiencepleasure or pain properly, which means the
development of an attitude of fondness for what at UNIV OF UTAH
SALT LAKE CITY on July 23, 2013 ijm.sagepub.com Downloaded from
9isnoble and good and distaste for what is immoral. Like Plato,
Aristotle believes that theproper curriculum should include the
usual subjects of general instruction inhiscontemporary
Greece-music, gymnastics, letters, and drawing. By gymnastics he
means awhole system of physical training, and by letters he means
reading, writing, and the studyof the poets. Of the four subjects,
Aristotle suggests that gymnastics should be taught fromthe age of
seven to that of fourteen, an age at which instruction in letters,
music, and drawingwould begin. Music instruction should not begin
before the age of fourteen, because,according to Aristotle, young
children are not able to understand music sufficiently in orderto
derive pleasure or edification from listening to it when they
become older.As Barker (1959) notes, one may find that in the
educational system proposed by Aristotle,&dquo;the period of
physical development seems long protracted, and the training of the
mindlong delayed&dquo;(p. 432). Actually, Aristotle believes
that education is a developmental process,in which each stage duly
corresponds to the growth of the human being. The
educationalprocess must begin with the training of the body,
proceed to the training of appetite (tastefor what is noble), and
culminate in the training of reason. According to Aristotle,
&dquo;attheage of the body, of desire, or reason, must come the
training of the body, of desire, orreason&dquo; (p. 433). It
must not be forgotten though, that each stage prior to reason, if
anend in itself, is also a means to the next stage. In the period
of the growth of the body, forexample, the body must be trained but
in such a way as to subserve and prepare the trainingof desires,
the stage to come.Concerning instruction in the liberal arts of
music, letters, and drawing, Aristotle believesthat, although their
primary goal isthe promotion of virtue, some studies can be
pursuedwith a view to their utility and because they are necessary
for the management of a householdand for many branches of political
administration. Such studies are reading, writing, and acertain
amount of arithmetic and geometry. According to Aristotle, these
studies shouldnot be pursued to excess, because excessive attention
to any one part disturbs the proportionand balance of the whole
mind, and results in that &dquo;professionalism&dquo; which
a freemanshould avoid (Barker, 1959).In Politics, Aristotle deals,
among others, with the function of music as a means of
relaxationafter work. According to Aristotle, music isone of the
greatest pleasures and means ofrelaxation after the pain with which
allwork isattended. However, the danger of thisfunction of music
is, according to him, that some people may find in this type of
amusementan end in itself and miss the opportunity of a higher
spiritual activity. The second functionof music is as an employment
of leisure. According to Aristotle, it is important for men toknow
what use to make of their free time. He suggests that leisure be
spent in contemplation,a condition of the highest spiritual
activity, which isdefined as the seeing of all things inthe light
of a final purpose towards which one is always moving (Politics,
1341).The third function of music is as an agent of moral
instruction. The kinds of music used intime of leisure must be such
as not only to afford pleasure but also to carry a moral messagein
themselves and to educate the listener in enjoying, loving, and
disliking things correctly.An education in virtue must aim at
producing this adjustment of the emotions; itmustendeavor to
produce a temperament that feels pleasure when and as it should.
Finally, music at UNIV OF UTAH SALT LAKE CITY on July 23, 2013
ijm.sagepub.com Downloaded from 10can function as a means for the
purification of such excessive feelings as exalted excitementor
strong feelings of pity or fear.This function of music isto purge
the excess of passionand to leave the person with a quiet normal
feeling. Moods of exalted excitement, pity, orfear can be relieved
by the music of sacred melodies (Politics, 1342a).Related with the
last function of music isthe issue of the moral character
(&dquo;ethos&dquo;) of thedifferent modes. Aristotle, like
Plato, recognizes the different ways in which differentharmonies
may affect the human soul, but he does not reject any of those
harmonies. Henotes that people respond to some modes with grief and
anxiety, to others with mellownessof mind, and to others with a
special degree of moderation and firmness. The Dorian
modeis,according to Aristotle, the only mode that has this effect
of moderation and firmness(Politics,1340b). Aristotle identifies
similar effects of the rhythms. Some of them have acharacter that
produces stability, others one that produces movement (of the
latter somemovements of a more degenerate sort), while others have
characters fit for free men. Aristotlebelieves that education
should take advantage of these powers of music in order to guidethe
youth appropriately. According to him, because music is naturally
among the thingsthat give delight, instruction in music is
particularly well-fitted to young peoples nature,who, because of
their youth, do not willingly put up with anything unpleasant
(Barker,1984).Raising the question whether or not the young ought
to learn music by singing and playinginstruments themselves,
Aristotle argues that it is very difficult, if not impossible, for
thosewho have not taken part in musical activities to become
adequate judges of them. One ofthe goals of music instruction isto
make young people able to judge the quality of anymusic they listen
to, and to feel pleasure in the sound of good music and distaste in
thesound of bad. Additionally, Aristotle believes that by learning
how to play music childrenhave some way of occupying
themselves.Aristotle, like Plato, is not an advocate of technical
excellence as a goal of music instruction.As he notes in Politics,
students should not &dquo;learneither what contributes to
contestsinvolving expertise in the art or those works that are
difficult and extraordinary, ... butlearn such things up to the
point where they are capable of enjoying noble tunes
andrhythms&dquo;(1341al0-14). Aristotle argues that instruments
that are difficult to learn areinappropriate for music instruction
and agrees with Plato in that reed-pipe instruments,like the aulos,
should not be taught because of their frenzied character and
because theyprevent speaking or singing while playing. Aristotle is
not, however, opposed to pureinstrumental music, unlike Plato who
finds no value in it.Aristotles theory of education isbuilt more in
the light of the contemporary practices ofhis time than in the
light of Platos ideal city. He views music more widely than Plato
interms of the functions it serves. Although the purpose of music
is for him, as it is for Plato,the development of virtue, he does
not reject other more &dquo;utilitarian&dquo;functions. He
islesssystematic and complete than Plato in the educational system
that he proposes and doesnot offer a lot of details on itsstructure
and function. Barker (1959) says that &dquo;he givesscattered
hints, rather than an ordered whole; and the system of philosophy
into whichthey fit is but briefly mentioned&dquo; (p. 443). at
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Downloaded from 11 DISCUSSIONDuring the 20th century, the
importance of music has been a central issue in the advocacyfor
music and the artsin public education. Placing the justification of
school musicinstruction in a historical perspective, one recognizes
that, across time, several writers,philosophers, aestheticians,
musicians, and music educators have referred to the ideas
ofclassicalGreece. The writings of Greek philosophers such as
Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotleand others have strongly influenced
thought in Western civilization. As Rogers ( 1992 )
notes,&dquo;in any discussion of Western thought, it is
difficult to ignore the contributions of the
ancientGreeks&dquo; (p. 25). According to Alperson (1994),
&dquo;platonicsuggestions were pursued withvigor by generations
of philosophers, astronomers, musicians and
mathematicians,&dquo; and haveoften been used to support
several arguments on the significance of aesthetics
education(Robinson, 1994; Reimer, 1992; Wolterstorff, 1994).
Sparshott (1994) says that &dquo;ourmusicand our ways of
thinking about itare (often quite self-consciously) variants of
practicesand positions that began to be worked out in the Sixth
Century BC&dquo; (p.37). The notionsof Plato and Aristotle
about music and education were passed on to generations of
thinkersthat followed, and one may stillevidence their direct or
indirect influence in the writingsof contemporary philosophers,
aestheticians, and music educators.The &dquo;ethos&dquo;
theory, central in Platos and Aristotles philosophical thought
about music,according to which particular musical modes are thought
to evoke characteristic movementsof the soul, and thereby to affect
both the emotions and characters of individuals and thewell-being
of society, has had significant impact on philosophical arguments
on theconnection of music with emotion. Alperson (1994) notes that
&dquo;theethos theory resurfacesin such diverse guises as the
Boethian notion of musica humana, the Baroque Doctrine ofthe
Affections, and Adornos assessment of modern music in which the
choice of musicaltechniques by Schoenberg and Stravinsky is seen to
reflect a fundamental difference betweenprogressive and reactionary
forces in society&dquo;(p. 201). According to Reimer ( 1992),
&dquo;fromthe writings of Plato to the latest issues of the
various scholarly journals devoted to thearts, the relation of the
arts to feeling remains an ongoing point of contention&dquo;
(p.36).The notion of the power of music to influence or shape
feelings and the human characteris found, although significantly
adapted, in Woodbridges arguments, which became theprevailing
rationale for music instruction in the United States during the19th
century.Jorgensen (1994) notes that Woodbridge, considering music
to be a gift from the Creatorto humans, argued that
&dquo;everyfeeling expresses itself by a tone, and every tone
awakensagain the feeling from which it sprung&dquo;(p.17).
Thus, &dquo;appropriately chosen music caninspire religious
devotion, elevate and invigorate the individual morally and
physically&dquo;(p.17). The platonic ideas on the effect of
music on moral and spiritual development arealso found in Martin
Luthers writings, particularly his preface to Georg Rhaus
Symphonic~eIncundae (Jorgensen, 1994).One of the basic questions
that arises when discussing the role of music in education isthat
of the scope of music instruction in the public school system.
Plato believed that everyperson should be taught music, meaning the
unity of melody, speech, and dance, but thatthe aim of such
training would not be musical expertise but the cultivation of the
soul at UNIV OF UTAH SALT LAKE CITY on July 23, 2013
ijm.sagepub.com Downloaded from 12according to the values and
ideals of the community. That the cultures values shoulddetermine
its education is, also according to Reimer (1989), entirely proper,
and &dquo;totheextent education is successful in both
inculcating and refining a cultures values, educationmay be
considered successful&dquo; (p.148).Aristotle, like Plato, was
not an advocate of technical excellence as a goal of music
instruction,and he differentiated between professionals and
amateurs in music. Sparshott (1994) explainsAristotles distinction
between professional and amateur music by noting the following:The
former isa virtuoso music for the amusement of an audience and has
no place ingeneral education. But there is a music that everyone
should learn, the sort one playsor sings to oneself as part of ones
moral life, in meditation and consolation. (p. 78)The question
stillremains. As Jorgensen (1996) notes, &dquo;dowe go as far
as... to positthat the training of artists should be the objective
of general education in a democracy, ordo we opt for the less
radical posture that all students should receive training in the
arts aspart of their general education?&dquo; (p. 46). Reimer (
1992) argues that instruction in musicand the arts in general,
should exist in the form of general and special programs.
Generalmusic programs are comprehensive and inclusive programs
required of all students, whilespecial programs are electives,
essentially selective and intensive, designed for
particularlyinterested individuals or groups.Aristotle argued that
students should not &dquo;learneither what contributes to
contests involvingexpertise in the art or those works that are
difficult and extraordinary, ... but learn suchthings up to the
point where they are capable of enjoying noble tunes and
rhythms&dquo; (Politics,1341a10-14). Such a notion is often
reflected in arguments for the improvement of publicschool music
education. Reimer (1989) claims that &dquo;the major error in
general musicprograms and the major reason for their ineffectuality
is their overemphasis on the technical-mechanical aspects of
performing&dquo; (p.169). According to him, &dquo;somuch
time is spent byso many teachers on the mechanical dimensions of
performing, including all the intricaciesof notation, that music
experience-the involvement of both mind and feelings withexpressive
sound events-is often not enhanced by performing but is instead
diminished&dquo;(p. 169).Plato had clearly stated the
importance of early childhood music education. He noted
thateverything done for infants makes a lasting impression upon
them. Advocates of earlychildhood music education today emphasize
the importance of early musical stimulationin the form of singing
to the baby and moving with it (Brand, 1985; Fox, 1991; Heyge
&Sillick,1998; Stamou, 1999; Stamou, 2001; Valerio et
al.,1998). Brain researchers havefound that the most important time
for learning in childrens life isfrom the day they areborn (if not
before) until they are three years old (Begley, 1996). Gordon
(1990) considershome to be the most important school that young
children will ever know, and their parentsthe most important
teachers that they will ever have. According to him
&dquo;parents who simplysing with relatively good intonation
and move their bodies with flexible and free flowingmovement, even
though they may not play a music instrument, meet the basic
requirementsfor guiding and instructing their children in
developing music skills&dquo; (p. 2). at UNIV OF UTAH SALT LAKE
CITY on July 23, 2013 ijm.sagepub.com Downloaded from 13Both Plato
and Aristotle argued for the importance of vocal and movement
instructionin music education. The importance of instruction in
singing and moving also holds truetoday. Many researchers and music
educators find that unless a child can sing or move toa song, he or
she will not be able to play that song with correct intonation and
rhythm(Bertaux, 1989; Gordon, 1990; Jordan, 1989; Stamou,
1998/1999; Stamou, 1999).Experiencing music primarily through
singing and moving is also a characteristic of musicteaching
approaches (e.g.,Orff-Schulwerk, the Dalcroze approach, etc.) that
emphasizeexperiential understanding of music as a prerequisite for
developing performance skills andmusic literacy.Plato and Aristotle
considered that one of the main goals of music instruction isto
makeyoung people able to judge the quality of any music they listen
to, so as to feel pleasure inthe sound of good music and distaste
in the sound of the bad. According to them, it is,however, very
difficult if not impossible for someone who has not taken part in
musicalactivitiesto become a perceptive listener and adequate judge
of music. A number ofphilosophers, aestheticians, and, of course,
music educators share this notion. Research hasshown that music
training isa factor influencing musical taste (LeBlanc, 1980,
1982;LeBlanc, Jin, Stamou, & McCrary, 1999). Reimer ( 1989),
while stating that &dquo;the primaryobjective of general music
should be to improve every students capacity for
musicallistening&dquo;(p.168), argues that &dquo;ones
ability to think art istied directly to ones abilityto control the
material within which one is thinking&dquo;(Reimer, 1992, p.
41) The positionthat music education requires a philosophical
formulation rooted in music praxis is reflectedin the notions of
praxialists, like Sparshott ( 1994), Alperson ( 1994), and Elliott
( 1995 ),who argued that to gain insight into the content of music
and self-knowledge, music making- what Elliott (1995) calls
musicing - is essential. Elliott (1993), following up on Gardner(
1991 ) and Kivy ( 1991 ), notes that - &dquo;tounderstand and
appreciate an expert performanceof some kind, a spectator (or
audience member) requires the same kinds of knowing as
theperformer, which includes a reasonable level of procedural
competency in performances ofthat kind&dquo; (p. 69). Based on
the above, Elliott (1993) argues that &dquo;educating
competent,proficient and expert music listenersfor the future
depends on educating competent,proficient and artistic music makers
in the present&dquo;(p. 81).Jorgensen (1996), like Plato,
believes in the power and the responsibility of education toseek to
realize such ideals as freedom, justice, civility, and a more
virtuous and human society,ideals which &dquo;put a high
premium on the dignity and value of human life&dquo; (p. 37).
Accordingto Jorgensen, these ideals &dquo;areworth pursuing,
even if they are only ever incompletely orimperfectly
realized&dquo; (p. 37). Jorgensen refers to Schiller, who
shares this belief in the linkbetween ethical and aesthetic. As she
says, Schiller envisioned a society &dquo;inwhich membersplay
and work, imagine and reason, corporately express and individually
experience life, andthrough participating in artistic enterprises
begin to hope for and struggle toward a bettersociety&dquo;(p.
39).While tracking the history of the justification of school music
instruction, Jorgensen (1994)notes that &dquo;itseems that we
have again reached a point in music education history wheremusic
education occupies a fragile place in the public schools&dquo;,
but &dquo;maybe, to some degree, at UNIV OF UTAH SALT LAKE CITY
on July 23, 2013 ijm.sagepub.com Downloaded from 14this has always
been so&dquo; (p. 26). According to Jorgensen, the
justification of music on thebasis of aesthetic education has
partly failed to clearly communicate to policymakers theimportance
of music instruction in public education. Therefore,
&dquo;ifmusic isto assume acentral place in the public schools
from elementary to advanced levels of instruction, apolitical
philosophy of music education must be forged -one that speaks to
ideas of freedom,democracy, community, and the importance of social
values of music&dquo; (p.28). This doesnot, of course, mean
that the profession will cease to articulate its arguments on the
aestheticand artistic qualities of musical study. It will just
fashion its arguments in a way that is moreunderstandable and
attractive to education policymakers and the public, who, as
Jorgensennotes, are &dquo;sometimes ignorant of, or insensitive
to, the arts&dquo; (p. 26). Under this need, itseems that the
study of Platos and Aristotles thoughts on the role of music may
offer tomusicians, educators, and philosophers the impetus for the
formation of new ideas andarguments to support the justification of
music in the public educational system on politicaland social
grounds as well as others.REFERENCESAlperson, P. (1994). Music as
philosophy. In P. Anderson (Ed.), What is music: An introduction
tothe philosophy of music (pp. 193-210). University Park, PA: The
Pennsylvania State University Press.Anderson, W. D. (1966). Ethos
and education in Greek music. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
UniversityPress.Aristotle. The politics. Translated and with an
introduction, notes and glossary by Carnes Lord. (1984).Chicago:
The University of Chicago Press.Barker, E. (1959). The political
thought of Plato and Aristotle. New York: Dover
Publications.Barker, A. (1984). Greek musical writings, volume
I:The musician and his art. Cambridge, GreatBritain: Cambridge
University Press.Begley, S. (1996, February 19). Your childs brain:
How kids are wired for music, math and emotions.Newsweek, 327 (8),
54-62.Bertaux, B. (1989). Teaching children of all ages to use the
singing voice, and how to work without-of-tune singers. In D. L.
Walters, &C. C. Taggart (Eds.), Readings in music learning
theory(pp. 92-105). Chicago, IL: G.I.A. Publications.Brand, M.
(1985, March). Lullabies that awaken musicality in infants. Music
Educators Journal, 71 (7),28-31.Elliott, D. J. (1993). Musicing,
listening, and musical understanding. Contributions to Music
Education,20, 64-83.Elliott, D. J. (1995). Music matters: A new
philosophy of music education. NY: Oxford University Press.Fox, D.
B. (1991). Music, development, and the young child.Music Educators
Journal, 77(5), 42-46.Gardner, H. (1991). The unschooled mind. New
York: Basic Books.Gordon, E. (1990). A Music Learning Theory for
newborn and young children. Chicago, IL:
G.I.A.Publications.Henderson, M. I. (1957). Ancient Greek music. In
the New Oxford history of music, I.London.Heyge, L. & Sillick,
A. (1998). Music: A natural way to play with babies. Early
Childhood Connections,4(4), 8-13. at UNIV OF UTAH SALT LAKE CITY on
July 23, 2013 ijm.sagepub.com Downloaded from 15Jordan, J.(1989).
Laban Movement Theory and how it can be used with Music Learning
Theory.In D. L. Walters, &C. C. Taggart, (Eds.), Readings in
Music Learning Theory (pp.316-333).Chicago, IL: G.I.A.
Publications.Jorgensen, E.R. (1994). Justifying music instruction
in American public schools: An historicalperspective. Council for
Research in Music Education, 120, 17-31.Jorgensen, E. R (1996). The
artist and the pedagogy of hope. International Journal for
MusicEducation, 27, 36-50.Kivy, P. (1991). Music and the liberal
education. Journal of Aesthetic Education, 25 (3), 79-93.LeBlanc,
A. (1980). Outline of a proposed model of sources of variation in
musical taste.Bulletin ofthe Council for Research in Music
Education, 61, 29-34.LeBlanc, A. (1982). An interactive theory of
music preference. Journal of Music Therapy, 19, 28-45.LeBlanc, A.,
Jin Y. C., Stamou, L., & McCrary, J.(1999). Effect of age,
country, and gender onmusic listening preferences. Bulletin of the
Council for Research in Music Education, 141, 72-76.Lippman, E. A.
(1963). The sources and development of the ethical view of music in
ancient Greece.The Musical Quarterly, XLIX (2), 188-209.Lodge, R.
G. (1947). Platos theory of education. London: Routledge &
Kegan Paul.Monro, D. B. (1894). The modes in ancient Greek music.
NY: Oxford University Press.Plato. Republic. Translated into
English with notes and introduction by Bernard Bosanquet.
(1900).Cambridge: University Press.Plato. Laws. Translated, with
notes and an interpretive essay by Thomas L. Pangle.(1980).
NewYork: Basic Books.Reimer, B. (1989). A philosophy of music
education (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Reimer, B.
(1992). What knowledge is of most worth in the arts? In B. Reimer
&R.A. Smith (Eds.),The Arts, education, and aesthetic knowing
(pp. 20-50). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Robinson, J.
(1994). Music as a representational art. In P. Anderson (Ed.), What
is music: An introductionto the philosophy of music (pp.165-192).
University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University
Press.Rogers, G. L. (1992). Why teach music? A historical overview
of aesthetics. Update, 10 (2), 25-29.Sparshott, F. (1994).
Aesthetics of music: Limits and grounds. In P. Anderson (Ed.), What
is music:An introduction to the philosophy of music (pp. 33-98).
University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania StateUniversity Press.Stamou,
L. (1999). The effect of Suzuki instruction and early childhood
music experiences ondevelopmental music aptitude and performance
achievement of beginning Suzuki string students(Doctoral
dissertation, Michigan State University, 1998). Dissertation
Abstracts International, 59/10, 3769A.Stamou, L. (1999, April).
Early childhood musical development: How research helps us create
the optimalmusic environment for infants and young children. Paper
presented at the Research inMusicEducation International
Conference, University of Exeter, Devon, England.Stamou, L. (2001,
Fall). Brain and musical development before and after birth.
Cadenza, 46 (1), p.47-48.Valerio, W., Reynolds, A., Bolton, B.,
Taggart, C., and Gordon, E. (1998). Music play: The earlychildhood
music curriculum. Chicago, IL: G.I.A.
Publications.Winnington-Ingram, R P. (1954). Greek Music, ancient.
In Groves Dictionary of Music and Musicians,3. London:
McMillan.Wolterstorff, N. (1994). The work of making a work of
music. In P. Anderson (Ed.), What is music:An introduction tothe
philosophy of music (pp.101-129). University Park, PA: The
PennsylvaniaState University Press. at UNIV OF UTAH SALT LAKE CITY
on July 23, 2013 ijm.sagepub.com Downloaded from 16ABSTRACTSPlaton
et Aristote sur la musique et la pedagogie musicale: lerons de la
Grece antiqueLe but de cet article est de discuter la vue
ath6nienne sur la musique et la pedagogie musicaletels que
presentees dans lestravaux antiques grecs des grands philosophes
Platon et Aristoteet, pour sugg6rer des moyens par lesquels les
points quils soul6vent sont encore pertinent ~16ducation musicale
daujourdhui. Leurs vues philosophiques et pratiques sur la
p6dagogiemusicale sont une excellente ressource pour plaidoyer
lacause.Elles peuvent 6galementpromouvoir la r6flection et
encourager des solutions aux problemes qui demeurent toujoursnon
r6solus.Pendant 1etude de leurs travaux, lelecteur realiseavec
6tonnement que cesphilosophes avaient 6nonc6, il y a d6j~ 2,500
ans, ce que lacommunaut6 p6dagogique arecemment realiseau sujet de
lavaleur de 16ducation musicale, du developpement musicalchez
1enfant, et des strategies dinstruction au niveau de la
musique.Plat6n y Arist6teles en la musica y en la educaci6n
musical: Ensenanzas de la antiguaGreciaEl prop6sito de este trabajo
es discutir los puntos de vista atenienses sobre lamusica y
laeducaci6n musical talcomo son presentados en los trabajos de los
antiguos filosofos griegosPlat6n y Arist6teles, y sugerir modos en
que los temas por ellos planteados sean todaviarelevantes para la
educaci6n musical actual. Sus puntos de vista filos6ficos y
pricticos sobre laeducaci6n musical, ademas de ser una excelente y
muy actualizada fuente de promoci6n, puedentambi6n propiciar
pensamientos y promover soluciones a problemas que aun permanecen
sinresolver. Durante el estudio de sus trabajos, ellector
sorprendentemente se da cuenta de queestos fil6sofos han
manifestado, 2500 anos atris, lo que lacomunidad
educativo-musicalrecientemente ha comprendido en cuanto al valor de
la educaci6n musical, al desarrollo musicalde los ninos, y a las
estrategias de instrucci6n en musica.Platon und Aristoteles iiber
Musik und Musikerziehung. Lektionen aus dem altenGriechenlandZiel
des Artikels ist es, antike Ansichten iber Musik und Musikerziehung
zu diskutieren, wiesie in den Schriften der griechischen
Philosophen Platon and Aristoteles iiberliefert sind, undBereiche
aufzuzeigen, die auch heute noch fiir die Musikerziehung von Belang
sind.Derenphilosophische und praktische Sicht der Musikerziehung
kann unabhdngig von der Frage nachder Aktualitdt ihrer
Argumentation Gedanken anregen und Lbsungen fiir Probleme
anbieten,die unerledigt geblieben sind. Der Leser wird dabei
uberrascht feststellen, daB diese Philosophenschon vor 2.500 Jahren
erkannt haben, was Musikpddagogen eben erst wieder hinsichtlich
desWerts der Musikerziehung, der kindlichen Entwicklung und der
Vermittlungsstrategienfestzustellen beginnen. at UNIV OF UTAH SALT
LAKE CITY on July 23, 2013 ijm.sagepub.com Downloaded from