PLANNING FOR ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE

THE UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTERSCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT

PLANNING FOR ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGEPLAN 60741

DR ANNA GILCHRIST17TH JANUARY 2013

8528550

LANDSCAPE

DEFINITION OF LANDSCAPE, EXPLORED CONTEMPORARYREVELANCES OF PLANNING THROUGH THE LANDSCAPE TO

MANAGE ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE

WORD COUNT: 3,542

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INTRODUCTION

Ata purview of European countries, this essay is

focused on key features of landscape planning and

environmental changes. It defines landscape; explores

prevalent environmental changes and further gives a

logical analysis on the connectivity of planning

through landscape to manage these changes through the

perceptions of landscape.

DEFINITION OF LANDSCAPE

Landscape is a concept of multiple definitions; its

definition by one person is not the same as the

other, even within the same culture (Whyte,

2002).Planners, economists, artists,

scientists,agriculturalists, environs of a location,

and a host of perceptions too many to be enumerated

interpret the term “landscape” differently.

European Landscape Convention (ELC 2000) defines

landscape as “An area as perceived by people whose

character is the consequence of the action and

interaction of natural and/or human factors”. This

convention further elucidates the importance of2

landscapes policies for the preservation of

landscapes and participation of individuals in its

implementation. Country Side Agency and Scottish

Natural Heritage (CA/SNH 2002)also gives meaning to

landscape as a small patch of urban wasteland as much

as a mountain range, and an urban park as much as an

expanse of lowland plain, involving how we smell,

hear and feel our surroundings and the feelings and

memories that we evoke.Selman (2006) perceives

landscape as a concept of three flows, first two

relating to physical environment – energy and

materials and the third flow relating to people’s

perceptions, usage and values.Turner (1998) defines

“landscape as the science and arts of making spaces

which are biologically wholesome, socially just and

spiritually rewarding”. Roe and Benson (2000)

construe landscape as a noun, an adjective and a

verb; a tract of land shaped over time by geological

and biological processes and by human occupation and

agency by human imagination. They further saw it

through the eye of a describer to qualify the shape

or scene of almost anything pertained to exploration

of human interrelationships.

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Moreover, Landscape is more than just an assemblage

of natural and manmade features: landscape is

composed of not just what lies before our eyes but

what lies within our heads. (Whyte, 2002).Meinig

(1979) visualizes landscapes as an ambiguous term

whose definition needs clarity; landscape is related

to certain concepts but not identical with them like

scenery, environment, places and geography. He

further proposes that it is the “unity we see, the

impression of our senses rather than the logic of the

sciences” (Marcucci,2000) sees landscape as a

‘contextual phenomenon, embedded in a world that is

both spatial and temporal, or geographical and

historical’. Handely(2012) sees it as “a chest of

treasure”- captures history.

WHAT IS LANDSCAPE PLANNING?

Landscape planning is defined as an activity

concerned with reconciling competing land uses while

protecting, enhancing and restoring natural processes

and significant cultural manmade and natural

resources.(Selman, 2006)

It brings landscape architecture, urban and regional

planning, landscape and ecological engineering, and

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other practice-oriented fields to bear in processes

for identifying problems and analysing, synthesizing,

and evaluating desirable alternatives for landscape

change

Landscape planners tend to work on projects which of

through landscape character assessment they are able

to plan for a sustainable landscape which is based on

the distinctiveness of character not which is better

or worse(Porter 2012) these projectsare of wide

geographical scope ;concerned with many landscape

concepts and a view beyond its boundaries. (Turner,

1998).

Concept of Spatial Planning

This is a mediation of space and place. It is a

consequence of statutory remit focused on change in

the built environment, more explicitly integration of

sectorial responsibilities in the pursuit of quality

of life. Planners achieve landscape scale planning

through spatial planning for notability of validity

of spaces, in depth knowledge of territorial

justification. (Selman,2006).

Spatial planning has been identified as a critical

mechanism through which adaptation in environmental

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changes can be facilitated.These principally relate

to spatial planning's ability to: act on matters of

collective concern; manage competing interests; cut

across scales; reduce and act on uncertainty; and be

oriented to the future while integrating a range of

diverse systems. Tools for planning which have the

capacity to address climate change adaptation are

presented and discussed through the concept of

“planning through landscape”.(ibid)

PLANNING THROUGH/ FOR LANDSCAPE

Planning through landscape or using landscape to plan

for management of environmental change if

superficially addressed could lead to myopic and

shallow results (Xiang 2012). (Selman 2006) clearly

distinguishes planning for landscape form planning

through landscape, stating that the former is a

consideration of emerging practices for stewarding

the landscape itself, and the latter as the potential

for landscape to provide an integrative framework for

wider practices of spatial planning. He further

placed concrete identification of these notions of

“landscape planning” as planning for landscape and

“landscape scale planning” as planning through

landscape.

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Temporal dimension

Past

Present

Future national regional localSpatial dimension

Pristine

(Agri)cultural

Urbanic

Modification dimension

Figure 1 landscape scale planning dimension

“Source: Adapted fromSelman (2006)”

Figure 1 illustrates different dimensions of planning

through landscape-Spatial dimension; most commonly

cited which is based on a logical and intuitive

recognition of peculiar physical units

Temporal Dimension: This dimension suggests a

continuous sequence from earliest use of landscape

into a sustainable use by future generation.

Modification Dimension: ranging from intensely

urbanised area, through farmland and other resource

use to pristine areas, with some areas having such

intense degrees of alteration that the landscape

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requires human assistance to regain its

“regenerative” properties(Selman 2006)

How can planners plan through landscape?

Landscape is at the heart of planning for

environmental change (Handley 2012).Planners have

been able to understand scale to mean land that goes

beyond strictly protected reserves and a complicated

system of systems (Meinig 1979). Thus comprehending

that land beyond protected areas is more inclined

to the fact that the rest and not only the best of

the countryside have important functions, values and

culture: matrix of land surrounding patches and

improving their interconnectedness. (Selman 2006)

Landscape scale as a framework for spatial planning

as a holistic view and its capacity to integrate

human and environmental systems within identifiable

and distinct places. Professionals are able to

identify ingredients of landscape as ecological,

hydrological and scenic; identify practices of

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landscape scale planning presented in three folds

(Selman 2006)

1 The protection of areas that display “special” and“non special” features

2 The regeneration of damaged and degraded terrains

3 Reconnection of linear structures to attaina morefavourable and complementary.

Landscape scale planning is advancing systematically

and no longer concerned with simply collecting a

selected number of protected sights, far clearer

strategies are emerging to the condition, character,

functionality and vibrancy of landscapes and the

appropriate balances between conservation, creation,

strengthening or restoration which are necessary to

address tendencies towards dysfunction and

obsolescence. It is a distinctive contribution of a

landscape perspective to scale, it possesses innate

scalar properties and this divides the earth’s

surface into spaces and linkages that have

measurements for both human and natural systems It is

noteworthy that at the extreme, some landscapes will

need remediation before they can deliver multiple

functions that sustain environmental management and

hence, human quality of life.

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There has been recognition that the distinctiveness

of places, regions and even countries relies heavily

on landscape characteristics and that universality is

strong forces eroding this notion.(Porter 2012)

Planning has been seen as an instrument for spatial

justice and for listening to the voices of all stake

holders whose quality of life may be affected by

development decisions. Its role in regeneration has

become increasingly important within a context of

urban renaissance, as declining industrial cities

have endeavoured to reassert themselves as vibrant

nodes within global networks of intelligence and

cultures.

CONCEPT OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES

Important questions arise when dealing with factors

of environmental changes. (Turner 1998) says that the

environment has both a wicked and fairy god mother

being that the environment is greatly impacted by

good and bad effects. Planners and environmentalists

have relentlessly sought for the causes of

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environmental changes (wicked god mother’s effects)

their direct and indirect consequences, resolutions

are no exceptions to their studies and findings.

There are triggering factors or drivers for

environmental change (Gilchrist 2012: Environmental

agency 2006) expatiated on environmental drivers

which includes: rise in global population; genetics,

robotics, IT and nanotechnology (GRIN), pollution;

role of self interest in responding to climate

change. Thus, having effects on climate, fauna and

flora species, poor human health, extinction of

aquatic species, global warming, sea level rise,

flooding etc. Environmentalists and planners have

been able to use the concepts of “mitigation and

adaptation for the continuous management of these

issues.

Furthermore, they have employed methodologies for the

measurement and forecast of causes of environmental

changes which has been a menace that has paraded for

too long. Planning or managing environmental changes,

there is the need to understand “what is changing”,

Why the change” what impacts and power to change,”

Are planners just going to address all causes or just

the easier problems posed for concern? This write

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up, suggests that planners can think ‘outside the

box’ by minimizing conventional methods for the

management of environmental changes and embracing

contemporary practices of planning through landscape

planning to achieve this goal.

CONTEMPORARY RELEVANCE OF PLANNING THROUGH LANDSCAPE

FOR MANAGEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES

As clearly stated above the prevalent environmental

issues that are leading to changes; planners through

their knowledge of environmental concerns which are

at local,national and global ramifications as

indicated by (Selman2000).Moreover, landscape scale

could be framed through the mainstream of spatial

dimension and time scale at different perspectives of

landscapecan use landscape to manage changes. This

will form the bedrock on how to decipher what area is

to be tackled.

Landscape planning tells history

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Growing concern for environmental drivers

(Gilchrist 2012) leading to environmental changes

require advanced methods for city planners and

ecologists, to support sustainable development in our

rapidly changing earth. In order to make intelligent

decisions, and to take timely and effective action,

Plannersneed extensive, comprehensive knowledge about

the causes, chronology, andeffects of these

processes. A landscape history exposes the

evolutionary patterns of a specific landscape by

revealing its ecological stages, cultural periods and

keystone processes, such history can be an

indispensable tool as it has the potential to improve

description, predictions and prescription of a

landscape example is the Pocono Mountains of

Pennsylvania, United States. (Marcucci, 2000).

(Makanye, 1962: Marcucci, 2000) sees environment as

the product of history further breaking England into

three periods; the primeval, the colonial and

metropolitan periods.Planners are able to use

temporal and spatial dimension of landscape scale

planning to delve into the future using the past and

present to adapt and mitigate against deforestation

which is of great consequences to the environment,

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causing changes in the environment likeclimate

change.

As an activity planning is time bound and futuristic,

planners for environmental change intend to project

an environment that provides the materials for

sustenance and a meaning and eco-friendly life.

(Tonn1986) states that the nature of environmental

problems should force us to undertake a 500 year

planning. Planning without landscape history has

little prospectof engendering realistic long-term

planning. Wecannot sustain our environmental options

withoutknowledge of keystone processes and patterns

ofchange over multiple temporal scales (Marcucci

2000). Planning wouldeven suffer in the short term as

our ability to understandthe current landscape as

history of previousones is compromised.By using

landscape history as a planning tool,planners can

plan for changes more accurately andengage in

meaningful relationship with citizens. In turn,this

will lead to more effective and accurate

prescriptions.Ultimately, our intentions are to plan

for the future will be valued legacies to posterity.

Planning through the landscape for climate change

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United nations environmental program (UNEP),USA

environmental protection agency(EPA);Environment

Agency(E.A),Natural environment research council

(NERC) ;Green peace and survey of US youths have

stated the official 2012 line of environmental

concerns(Gilchrist2012a), athorough consideration of

these concernsshow a repetition of climate change at

every legislative framework. In other words, climate

change is animperative issue to beconsidered when

environmental changes are managed.

A recent report from the United Nations

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

states that “warming of the climate system is

unequivocal.” Climate is a crucial variable of

landscape changes especially as it relates to the

cycles of glaciations and the long-term migration of

species. There is considerable scientific debate

about the human role in climate change through

alteration of the atmosphere- such may require short

term as well as long term processes. Selman 2006)

lays emphasises on landscape scale planning in

dimensions- spatial dimension, temporal and

modification dimension. Planning through landscape

for climate change using historical framework as a

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basis for planners, it is pertinent to place temporal

dimension as its focal point. (Wilson et al...2010)

and (Barnett, 2009) made a projection of United

Kingdom rate of increase of emission resulting in

climate changes diseases considering the past,

present and into the future (figure 2). They further

argued through the Climate change Act, that it is

useful to consider the rate of emission and factors

influencing it, to consequently plan for climate

change which has been prevalent in United Kingdom.

An analyses of landscape planning gives planners a

foundation for what, how and when resolutions and

management skills are required to plan for climate

change either by adapting or mitigating (Gilchrist

2012b).Lastly, through landscape planning planners

are able to work with parks departments ,

environmental and conservation organizations to

manage sustainable and healthy forests within cities,

national parks, and rural areas, thereby enhancing

the long and short term capability of forests to

serve as carbon sinks.The Intergovernmental Panel on

Climate Change (IPCC) defines adaptation as the

"adjustment in natural or human systems in response

to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their

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effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial

opportunities." Regardless of how extensive climate

change mitigation efforts are in the near future,

environmental policymakers argue that some degree of

adaptation to climate change is required in order to

handle the worst anticipated effects through

landscape planning. Human and natural systems must

become more resilient to expected changes. In fact,

the smartest communities are using the threat of

climate change to invest in long-term environmental,

economic, and social sustainability while protecting

their infrastructural assets and housing stock.

Scaling in landscape planning as identified by

(Selman 2002) have improved the overall accuracy of

climate change impacts assessments used to guide

local policies and infrastructure choices.In

preparation of anticipated changes, planners are

already working with policymakers and other design

professionals to create "climate resilient

communities," which have increased capacity to cope

with the increased incidence, duration, and magnitude

of events like sea level rise and flooding; rising

urban temperatures or "urban heat islands;" sprawl,

which only increases transportation emissions; and

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reduced availability of water. Lastly, planners and

environmentalists relentlessly work to develop an

ecologically-sound plant and animal migration

strategies and programs that help ensure all species

can adapt to a rapidly changing environment.(ASLA,

2012).

Most European countries, Landscape planning propels

the development of ecologically-sound urban forestry

campaigns and green roofs and walls that help cool

cities by shading people and building roofs and

sidewalks. Through their leaves, trees evapotranspire

or provide evaporative cooling, which increases air

humidity. Shaded surfaces may be 20-45 degrees

cooler, and evapotranspiration can further reduce

peak summer temperatures by 2-9 degrees. Green roofs

and walls also provide significant evapotranspiration

benefits.(ASLA,2012). In addition, the landscape

character assessment (characterisation and making

judgement) furtheraids in adequate and efficient

planning of climatic alteration- environmental

change(Porter 2012).

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Figure 2Oxfam projection of climate change in UnitedKingdom

“Source: Barnett(2009)”

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Landscape planning tells culture

Nassauer(1995) proposes that each culture or a group

of culture modifies landscape planning and landscape

planning inculcates culture, landscape planning

embodies a sequence of culture occupying space and

creating their own succession. Landscape is a clue to

a region’s human personality, it suggest that there

are interwoven relations and values that cannot be

seen (Meinig,1979)

Planning through the Landscape for

Environmentalinjustice

The very term “planning” implies that society should

find a means of handling the uncertainties it is

faced with (Gilchrist, 2012;Ryclin 2004). (O’Hare

2012; Bullard,1994) defines environmental injustice

as regions of a society or community more exposed or

vulnerable to environmental hazards and unfortunately

denied access to resources and decision making

affecting their lives and culture.Thenotion that

states that landscape planning portrays people’s

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culture, ELC stresses that ‘landscape has an

important public interest role in the cultural,

ecological, environmental and social fields and

constitutes a resource favourable to economic

activity’.Landscape planningis a non-confrontational

way of initiating and involving citizenry in the

planning process. Citizens are eager and willing to

be involved in activities that affect their culture,

thus making planning for environmental justice a

package of excellence because it directly involves

the people whose environmental rights are infringed

or violated upon.Planners too often focus on narrowly

or easier defined problems and fail to see the

connectionsamong seemingly unrelated phenomena.

(Spirn2005). Viewing Landscape as culture, planners

can plan against illegal and indiscriminate use of

rural or urban land which is fit for agricultural

purposes, grazing, aesthetic transformation, and room

for wildlife habitation – modification dimension.

Landscape perceived as culture also sparks those who

plan, design and build a city tofocus on a

neighbourhood’s problems and recognise that any

proposed project may alter the feeling of belonging

seen as the peoples norms and tradition and creates a

better understanding of what is desired of the people

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involved and thereby achieving environmental justice.

(Spirn,2005).

There is the existence of some regulations that

requires that environmental justice principles are

incorporated into decision-making and practices in

order to: (1) identify and address discriminatory

public health or environmental effects.2) prevent

discriminatory or negative public health or

environmental effects of the same actions ;and (3)

maximize the promotion of environmental justice while

minimizing or eliminating adverse or disproportionate

cultural or environment impact.(Michigan

environmental justice2000)

Environmental protection agency (EPA) has identified three overarching goals for its work on environmental justice:

Protect the environment and health in overburdened communities.

Empower communities to take action to improve their health and environment.

Establish partnerships with local, state, tribal, and federal governments and

Organizations to achieve healthy and sustainable communities.

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In conclusion, Landscape breeds culture as culturebreeds environmental justice.

Landscape expresses systems

Landscape discerns the interrelationship in

biodiversity and ecosystem, it portrays an intricate

system of systems (Meinig 1975).It sees tress, roads,

building and man as surficial clues of underlying

processes, Rivers as a link in hydrological circuit,

medium of transport carrying certain volumes of

material at a certain rate with a fraction of a

cycle. Trees aschemical factories powered by sunlight

lifting stations in the hydrologic cycle. Landscape

being a vigorous developmentof dynamic equilibrium of

interaction process looks into a matter to

understand the things not apparent; With analysis,

disintegration of things into their parts, turning

increasingly to synthesis, putting things together in

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such a way as to give us a new level of understanding

interrelationships.

Planning through the Landscape for biodiversity loss

Biodiversity is the variety of species, their genetic

make-up and diversity, and the natural communities in

which they occur that is complex ecosystems. It

includes all of the native plants and animals

including the processes that sustain life on Earth.

As noted earlier, it is imperative to identify the

drivers of an environmental change, preceded by the

management of such consequences. Planning through the

landscape for biodiversity degradation or loss is

another contemporary action to be taken into

consideration. Stedman et al… (2000) states the

direct causes of biodiversity loss as land use

change; pollution; unsustainable natural resources

and invasion of alien species. They further put

forward the drivers as economic, demographic and

institutional. At a regional level, legislative

policies like the Common Agricultural Policy(CAP) are

responsible for “duty of care”for the loss of

biodiversity (Earl et al…2012).They ascertained that

the principle driver for biodiversity loss

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agricultural development and regarded this

environmental change as “sixth mass extinction”.

Selman(2006) describes landscape scale planning as an

integrative nexus for sustainable landscape scale

planning as comprising of dimensions relatively

associated with how planning through landscape can be

achievedfor the management of environmental changes

like biodiversity loss in figure 1.

Landscape as perceived as a system with intrinsic

value of a system and having components of

spatial,temporal and modification dimensions,

planners are geared towards achieving a more

sustainable environment by taking into consideration

the dimensional components of landscape and

effectively plan ahead underpinning if its regional,

national or global issue of diversity loss or

decisive moderation of temporal changes in

biodiversity with regards to mitigation or loss in

ecological species.

CONCLUSION

Planning through landscape to manage environmental

changes is still in its rudimentary stage and as a

result of this; there is scope for future researches.

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Superficially the aim to plan through landscape could

be seen as unattainable or impracticable. However a

closer observation of how it is differently viewed

by individuals and dimensional perception serves as a

pathway for effective implementation in planning

through landscape hence, sustaining the beautiful

features of mother Earth for the present generations

and those yet unborn.

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1479706000399

Nassauer, J. 1995Culture and changing landscape

structure, Landscape Ecology, 10 (4), pp. 229-237.

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Salkin,P. 2006 Tools for planning Intersection

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Wilson,E.and Piper,J. 2010Spatial planning and climate

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urban-planning/

LECTURE HANDOUTS

Gilchrist, A. 2012a Nature of Environmental concernhandout,

planning for environmental change course unit, School

of environment and development, University of

Manchester.

Gilchrist, A. 2012bPlanning for a changing environment:

Managerial intervention in Uncertain Times.Planning for

environmental change course unit, School of

environment and development, University of Manchester.

Handley, R. 2012 Landscape Dynamics and the Management of

Change.Planning for environmental change course unit,

School of environment and development, University of

Manchester.

30

Ohare, P. 2012 Planning for Environmental Justice.Planningfor

environmental change course unit, School of

environment and development, University of

Manchester.

Porter, J. 2012 Landscape character assessment principles and

practice.Planning for environmental change course unit,

School of environment and development, University of

Manchester.

REGULATIONS

European landscape

convention2000(ELC)http://www.naturalengland.org.uk/o

urwork/landscape/protection/europeanconvention/

default.aspx

Countryside Agency and Scottish Natural Heritage 2002

(CA/SNH)http://www.naturalengland.org.uk/ourwork/land

scape/englands/character/lcn/resources/lcaresources/

lcaguidance.aspx

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

(IPCC)http://www.ipcc.ch/

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United Nations Environment Programme

http://www.unep.org/

Environmental protection Agency

http://www.epa.gov/

PROFESSIONAL BODIES

American Society Of Landscape Architects 2012 (ASLA)

Annual Meeting And Expo

Phoenixhttp://www.asla.org/2012meeting/

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