Planning and development of sustainable tourism products in … · 2020-01-26 · Planning and development of sustainable tourism products in local communities Dr. Paul Nkemngu Acha-Anyi

African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure SPECIAL EDITION Vol. 5 (3) - (2016) ISSN: 2223-814X Copyright: © 2014 AJHTL - Open Access- Online @ http//: www.ajhtl.com

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Planning and development of sustainable tourism products in local communities

Dr. Paul Nkemngu Acha-Anyi Department of Tourism Management,

Tshwane University of Technology Email: [email protected]

Abstract Advocacy for community tourism as an indispensable premise of sustainable tourism has gained prominence in recent years. Prompted to a large extent by the ever-increasing gap between the poor and the rich, and growing awareness of the impacts of tourism development, it has become evident that tourism sector growth cannot be sustained without local community participation and beneficiation. However, critics of local community involvement in tourism have argued that while many local communities possess a good tourism resource base, lapses in service delivery, poor management and infrastructure challenges tend to hinder the effective consumption of these tourism products by tourists. This study employs the methodology of research triangulation to explore both the potential demand for community tourism products and the tourism supply environment of local communities. Literature on tourism planning, community tourism and sustainable tourism development provides the theoretical grounding for the ensuing analysis. The study proposes a framework for the management of tourism products in local communities. The key benefits of this study lie both in its affirmation of the rich tourism potential of local communities and the contribution to the effective planning and management of tourism in local communities. Key words: Community tourism, tourism planning, product development, sustainable tourism.

Introduction

Tourism products and services provide the primary pull factors for leisure tourism demand (Fletcher, Fyall, Gilbert & Wanhill, 2013). The development of viable and attractive products can therefore be considered the cornerstone for the sustainable development of tourism in any destination or community. Hence, the motivation of this paper is to provide insight into the planning and development of tourism products in local communities. The planning imperative in tourism is necessitated among other things by the challenging nature of stakeholder management, the diversity of tourism products and the fact that the consumption of any tourism product is often influenced by the provision of other services (Leask, 2010). Therefore, planning will not only ensure efficient coordination, but also facilitate product delivery and service quality. Furthermore, with proper planning and stakeholder management, communities with unique tourism products can attract more tourists and derive greater economic benefits through job creation, increased incomes for community members, stimulate subsidiary industries and attract foreign exchange into the economy (Lee & Chang, 2008; Tao & Wall, 2009). The United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) asserts that natural resources and other community assets constitute a vital resource-base for Local Economic Development (LED), especially when engaged in tourism development (UNEP, 2000). However, Kwaramba, Lovett, Louw and Chipumuro (2012), assert that many developing countries only adopted tourism as a development strategy following pressure from external institutions, notably the World Bank and the International monetary fund (IMF) through the structural adjustment lending mechanism. This is quite ironic considering that the Tourism Action Plan (TAP) instituted by the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) recognises the enormous potential of tourism to contribute to the economic recovery of the continent (Rogerson & Visser, 2004, cited in Frey & George, 2010:622).

mailto:[email protected]


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In this vein, the African Union (AU) in its development document titled “Agenda 2063; The Africa we want”, emphasises the importance of an all-inclusive growth strategy for the continent in order to ensure sustainable development (AU, 2014). Considering that tourism is labour-intensive and society-oriented, many developing countries have embraced tourism as part of their development planning, sometimes with astounding results (Goodwin & Santilli, 2009; Beaumont & Dredge, 2010; Mckercher & Prideaux, 2014). Rural communities often endure the strain of under-development due mainly to their remoteness from the industrial and commercial centres. The consequences of this economic deprivation are generally evident in instances of high unemployment, poverty, hunger and diseases. However, many rural communities are rich in cultural and natural resources which are sought after by tourists seeking “authenticity” and unique experiences (Stokes, 2008). Study background

The aim for this study is to explore ways of ensuring the more efficient planning and management of tourism resources in local communities in order to achieve sustainable development. The strategy is to investigate the potential demand for community tourism products and examine the supply environment in the local communities to establish a tourism planning framework conducive to tourism development. The tourism product environment in two communities is used to contextualise the supply situation, hence the choice of the Soshanguve community in the City of Tshwane in South Africa, and Lenale-ndem community in the Western region of Cameroon. The choice of these two communities in two separate African countries is to diversify the scope of the study and demonstrate the general applicability of its findings across communities with different characteristics. The Soshanguve tourism situation

Soshanguve Township is situated approximately 40 kilometers to the north of the City of Tshwane’s central business district (Setshedi, 2007). The township shares a similar history with other South African townships by virtue of being the product of aparthied legislation enacted in the 1950s to effect racially discrimatory governance (Setswe, 2010). However, the unique historical attribute of Soshanguve Township lies in the fact that it was not designed to accommodate one, but four ethnic groups, thus resulting to the fomation of its name, “So” for Sothos, “Sha” for Shangans, “Ngu” for Ngunis and “Ve” for Vendas. From a tourism product perspective, this unpalatable historical fact has produced a haven of cultural diversity (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Traditional dance group and souvenirs from Soshanguve, (Acha-Anyi, 2014)


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This exceptional cultural endowment has been acknowledged by the City of Tshwane within which Soshanguve community is located (COT, 2005:6). The Soshanguve tourism prowess is further butressed by the presence of the Twaing meteorite crater (Figure 2) within its surroundings.

Figure 2: Tswaing meteorite crater and ecotourism resort, (Acha-Anyi, 2014)

The narrative behind the formation of this meteorite crater and the eco-friendly natural environment surrounding the lake have the potential to mesmerise any tourist. Recent infrastructural developments have equally improved opportunities for availing the Soshanguve tourism products to potential tourists; notably in the road network, electricity supply to 97, 431 out of 106, 056 households, tap water provision to 62, 277 homes (Stats SA, 2013:76) and the opening of shopping centers such as the Soshanguve crossing and Soshanguve plaza. Unfortunately, most of the tourism potential of Soshanguve still lies untapped as evidenced in the fact that currently only a few tourists trickle to Soshanguve, mainly to see the Tswaing crater (Setshedi, 2007). Hence, prompting this study aimed at exploring ways of placing these products on the international tourism map. Lenale-ndem community The second case study for this research is taken from a local community called Lenale-ndem (meaning, predestined by god). This community is situated in the Western region of Cameroon, along the highway linking the towns of Loum and Dschang. The community was founded in 1982 by the traditional ruler, His Royal Majesty (HRM) Fonjiju. The narrative behind the creation of this new community as recounted the traditional leader indicates that, against all the odds and adversity in his enclaved native community of Lewoh, he literally

rebelled against tradition by deciding with about a thousand followers to migrate and settle in this new area, about three hundred kilometres from the place of his birth. However, the chief’s physical separation from his native land did not diminish the love for his culture. On the contrary, he decided to jealously guard and preserve all works of art and traditions of his ancestors. This is the genesis of the present day Lenale-ndem UNESCO museum (Figure 3)

in his palace.


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Figure 3: Entrance to Lenale-ndem UNESCO museum

In other words, the birth of the new community of Lenale-ndem simultaneously gave birth to this great collection and wealth of cultural artefacts nurtured by the chief’s determination to preserve every aspect of his culture and tradition. The location of Lenale-ndem community close to the busy highway linking the Southern regions of Cameroon and the west and north-west regions attracted travellers to stop-by for refreshments consisting of local food (Figure 4) and admire the works of art, and shopping for souvenirs (Figure 5). This gave rise to the

economic engine of the community.

Figure 4: Local food (roast plantain, fish and goat meat) sold to visitors (Economic aspects)

Figure 5: Sale of items for cultural performances and souvenirs (Socio-cultural sustainability)


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An analysis of these two communities reveals some similarities and differences. The first commonality is that both communities have undergone re-settlement. However, while the indigenes of Soshanguve community were forcefully resettled by the apartheid government, Lenale-ndem residents chose to re-settle in search of greener pastures. It is also evident that both communities possess unique resources for tourism development. Literature Tourism planning Using tourism as an instrument for community development necessitates diligent and collaborative planning, involving all important stakeholders (Stokes, 2008; Bhatia, 2006). In this regard, various tourism planning models have been proposed (Inskeep, 1991; Hall, 2008; Saayman, 2013). This study adopts the view that all planning models are only relevant to the extent that they respond to the environmental demands and specifics of the type of tourism in question. Thus, this study refers to the Community Tourism Development Planning Model (Kline, Cardenas, Viren & Swanson, 2015) (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Community tourism development model (Adapted from Kline, Cardenas, Viren & Swanson, 2015)

The premise put forth by Kline et al. (2015) indicates that the tourism development process is initiated by a catalyst such as a need in the supply environment or a demand push from prospective clients. This is followed by the constitution of a tourism development group or committee which in turn alerts the community on the opportunity presented by the tourism industry. Structures responsible for organising the industry, developing the product and ensuring the marketing are then put in place, followed by the implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the impacts of tourism development. Feedback on tourism development impacts is then given to the community with the initiation of changes if and when necessary. It is important to underline that stakeholder education and involvement are pre-requisites for the successful implementation of the tourism development plan (Byrd, Carenas & Greenwood, 2008). Defined as the inclusion of any individual or group that can affect or be affected by the project under consideration (Freeman, 1984), stakeholder theory is widely acclaimed in management literature as its effective implementation can minimise disruptive

Development

group Process

catalyst

Community awareness

raising & value

identification

Organisational structure

product development and marketing

Implementation

monitoring & evaluation

Gearing up

1st

phase

Community

assessment

Organisation &

planning phase

Community need


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conflict and maximise collaboration and output (Gray, 1989). In the tourism sphere, strategic stakeholders have been identified as tourists, business leaders, government departments and the local community (Goeldner & Ritchie, 2012). The community tourism development model proposed by Kline et al. (2015) is employed as a baseline from which the findings of

this study will be analysed. Community tourism Spenceley (2008:230) defines community tourism as “tourism which is owned and/or managed by communities with the aim of generating wider community benefit”. In the same vein, Choi and Sirakaya (2006:1275) argue that the main aim of community tourism should be to improve the residents’ quality of life by maximizing local economic benefits, protecting the natural and built heritage, and providing a high quality of experience for the visitors. However, taking a slightly different view, Petric (cited in Viljoen & Tlabela, 2007:3) emphasizes that community tourism should aim at giving visitors personal contact with the physical and human environment of the countryside, and allow them to participate in the activities, traditions and lifestyles of the local people. Community tourism shall be used in this study to refer to tourism ventures in which local people exercise at least fifty percent of ownership and management, and participate in the provision of quality services to tourists and the tourism industry. The relevance of community tourism

According to Okazaki (2008) community-based tourism (CBT) is a form of sustainable tourism with the specific aim of alleviating poverty in a community setting. Likewise, Oh and Hammitt (2010) point out that the goal of community tourism is the beneficiation of indigenous people and villagers through tourism ventures. Regardless of the angle from which community tourism is viewed, the participation of local communities seems to be pivotal to its implementation. Zahra and McGehee (2013) assert that tourism literature has advocated the inclusion of local communities in tourism since the 1980s. Developing tourism from the local community level is considered crucial to the success of tourism at the national level. This is because communities play a key role in the tourism product sustainability and their positive interaction with tourists helps to build a good image for the destination (Sebele, 2010). Tosun (2006) further adds that involving local communities in tourism helps to ensure a balance between communities, developers and local authorities. In this way, communities benefit from tourism taking place in their local environment, exhibit positive attitudes towards tourists and work towards the conservation of resources. Some researchers have indicated that the sustainability of tourism depends to a large extent on the feeling of ownership, sense of responsibility and practical involvement in tourism issues by local people (UNWTO, 2004; Ballesteros & Ramirez, 2007; Simpson, 2008; Zahra & McGehee, 2013). Sustainable tourism development

The concept of sustainability gained prominence after the publication of the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) report Our Common Future which

defined sustainable development as “[meeting] the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (WCED, 1987:43). Keyser (2009) points out that the attainment of sustainable development necessitates a balance between economic efficiency, environmental integrity and social justice. According to Nelson, Butler and Wall (2007:59) sustainable tourism

“is developed and maintained in an area (community or environment) in such a manner and at such a scale that it remains viable over an infinite period and does not degrade or alter the environment (human or physical) in which it exists to such a


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degree that it prohibits the successful development and well-being of other activities and processes.”

This study adopts the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO, 2005:4) definition of sustainable tourism development as development that

“meets the needs of present tourists and host regions while protecting and enhancing opportunity for the future [and] leading to management of all resources in such a way that economic, social and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, and biological diversity, and life support systems.”

Linking sustainable tourism and sustainable development

Although the Brundtland report hardly made any mention of tourism, the concept of sustainable development has come to engulf the industry and remains at the centre of its operations. Considering the close relationship between tourism and the environment, the strong association of tourism with issues of sustainability comes as no surprise (Byrd, 2007, Hall, 2008). Sustainable tourism is currently seen as a subset of tourism and sustainable development as illustrated in Figure 7 by Hall (2008:27).

Figure 7: Sustainable tourism as a subset of tourism and sustainable development Source: Hall (2008:27)

As a derivative of sustainable development, several attempts have been made to align the sustainable tourism concept with its principal, both in definition and operation (Tao & Wall, 2009). Butler (1993, cited in Keyser, 2009:5) defines sustainable tourism as

tourism which is developed and maintained in an area (community environment) in such a manner and at such a scale that it remains viable over an indefinite period and does not degrade or alter the environment (human and physical) in which it exists to such a degree that it prohibits the successful development and well-being of other activities and processes.

However, definitions of sustainable tourism do not all have the same focus as variations occur based on the stakeholder perspective. According to Eber (1992), sustainable tourism should ensure both present and future productivity by paying particular attention to local people and communities (lifestyles, customs, etc.), making it possible for locals to share equitably from the economic proceeds of tourism. Herein lies one of the major challenges in achieving sustainable tourism development; the shifting focus in its definitions. Since the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED, 1992), many United Nations Conferences have attempted to formulate a consensual approach on how sustainable tourism can be achieved. One of its most elaborate definitions (UNWTO, 2004)

Tourism development Sustainable

development Sustainable tourism

development


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indicates that managers can practice sustainable tourism guidelines in all types of destinations, irrespective of the number of visitors frequenting such locations. Kruger (2005:5) asserts that any attempt to define sustainable development should start by defining the words “development” and “sustainability”. Development implies change, generally evident in a person’s economic circumstances, aspirations or behaviour. It translates to quality of life issues such as life expectancy, infant mortality, access to basic freedoms and spiritual welfare among others. Holden (2008) emphasises the need to distinguish between development and growth. The use of the two words as synonyms is misleading. While growth indicates a quantitative change in size meaning something has become bigger, development points rather to a qualitative change denoting a positive transition to better circumstances or fortunes. Therefore, an increase in GDP or economic growth should not be interpreted to signify development, or worse, sustainable development. Quite often economic growth is achieved at a great socio-cultural and environmental cost (Sharpley, 2002; Keyser, 2009); consequently this cannot be considered as development because of the dire consequences of such growth. To further explore the development question, Sharpley (2009) indicates that three basic questions are fundamental in assessing a country’s development:

What has been happening in terms of poverty? What has been happening in terms of unemployment? What has been happening in terms of inequality?

If an analysis of the three factors above signals a decline, then development can be said to have taken place. If, on the contrary, there has been no change at all or a change for the worse, then development cannot be said to have taken place, even if GDP has risen (Sharpley, 2009). Methodology This study adopts a case study approach in order to explore the unique tourism product endowments of two communities: the Soshanguve community in the City of Tshwane in South Africa, and Lenale-ndem community in the Western region of Cameroon. The motivation for the choice of these two communities is informed by the unique tourism resource base in the communities; namely, the existence of the meteorite crater (Tswaing crater) and ecotourism resort in Soshanguve, on the one hand, and the extensive collection of unique cultural art works in Lenale-ndem UNESCO heritage centre in the other. Furthermore, the study intends to demonstrate the general applicability of its findings through the use of two communities in different countries. This study makes use of research methodology triangulation by employing both quantitative and qualitative approaches (Jack & Amitabh, 2006; Hoque, Covaleski & Gooneratne, 2013). The purpose of using both approaches in this study was to enrich the data by making it inclusive of the views of a wide range (quantitative approach) of potential visitors (demand) for community tourism products, while using the qualitative appraoch to delve into the quality of tourism products in local communities.

Study instrument 1 (quantitative approach)

A questionnaire was developed for use in gathering the perceptions of vistors to attractions in the City of Tshwane Central Business District (CBD) on their disposition to the demand of various community tourism products indicated the background of this study. This questionnaire was divided into three sections: demographic information, travel behaviour and township exposure and perceptions. The demographic characteristics of the visitors


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included aspects such as gender, age, home language, household income, occupation and place of origin. The rest of the questionnaire and the ensuing questions were informed by literature on the behavioural setting of demand for tourism (Hall, 2008:78), and the push factors for tourism demand (Fletcher, Fyall, Gilbert & Wahhill, 2013:7).

Study instrument and data collection 2

Interviews and participant observation were used to gather data on tourism products in local communities. Accompanied by community members, the researcher visited attractions and places of interest in both Soshanguve and Lenale-ndem community. An inventory of the nature of all attractions was established for consideration in the questionnaire. An in-depth interview was conducted with His Royal Majesty (HRM) the chief of Lenale-ndem community. The interview questions were open-ended and structured to be free-flowing during a walk with the chief through various artefacts, the general pattern was guided by the triple bottom-line of sustainable development. Hence, the questions centred on the socio-cultural, environmental and economic aspects tourism development in the Lenale Ndem community.

Sampling frame

Cooper and Schindler (2001:170) define the sampling frame as the exhaustive list of elements or population from which the sample for the study is to be drawn. According to South African Tourism (SAT, 2012:55), Gauteng was the most visited province in South Africa in 2012, capturing 44.6% of all tourist arrivals to the country. Of these, 3.86 million (46.3%) were foreign tourists, while 5.1 million were domestic visitors. However, the City of Tshwane (COT, 2008:1) indicates that five million tourists visit the city annually. The sample frame for this study consisted of all five million visitors to the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality as anyone of them could have been there during the study period from 23 to 27 September 2013.

Sampling method

A convenience non-probability sampling method was used in the selection of the 401 (N) respondents, as every visitor to the City of Tshwane during the study period had a “nonzero” chance of taking part in the study. This number (401) conforms to the sample size required to validate the study (Sekaran, 2003:294; Krejcie & Morgan, 1970:608). These studies validate a sample of 384 (N) for a population of one million and above (Krejcie & Morgan, 1970:608). In order to increase the chances of finding visitors to the City of Tshwane key attractions in the City were targeted. These attractions were the Union Buildings, Freedom Park, the Voortrekker Monument, the South African Police Museum, Burgers Park and Church Square. Once at the attraction, visitors were randomly selected to complete the questionnaire.

Data collection (quantitative study)

The data was collected between 5 and 27 September 2013. Visitors to various City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality (CTMM) attractions were randomly approached and asked if they would like to take part in the study. To ensure that the respondents were visitors and not just residents walking around, a brief explanation of the purpose of the study was followed by a question asking the respondents about their place of origin. Those who were not residents and accepted to participate in the study were handed the questionnaire for completion. However, a number of respondents complained that the questionnaire was very long as it had three pages. Out of the 401 (N) questionnaires successfully completed,


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26% were collected at the Union Buildings, 22% from Freedom Park, 11% from the Voortrekker Monument, 34% from the South African Police Museum, 1% from Burgers park, 3% from Church Square and 3% from various events around the city.

Data analysis (quantitative study)

Data collected using the questionnaires was captured on Excel spreadsheets and sent to the statistical consultation services of the North West University where it was analysed using the SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) software programme. Descriptive statistical methods were then used to portray a general perspective on the issues considered important by visitors (demand-side).

Data analysis (qualitative study) Data collected through the interview and participant observation was analysised against the tourism product demand trends expressed by respondents of the questionnaire and the tourism planning model (Kline, Cardenas, Viren & Swanson, 2015) mentioned above.

Findings from the quantitative (demand-side) study Demographic profile of visitors to the CTMM

Section A of the questionnaire focussed on profiling visitors to the CTMM based on their demographic characteristics. The issues under consideration were: gender, age, home language, income, occupation and place of origin (Table 1). Table 1: Demographic characteristics of visitors to the City of Tshwane

Demographic characteristic Category Frequency (N) Percentage

Gender Male 219 55%

Female 182 45%

Age

< 20 34 9%

21-30 201 50%

31-40 81 20%

41-50 49 13%

50+ 36 9%

Home language

English 93 23%

Afrikaans 49 12%

Tswana 74 19%

Sepedi 30 8%

Zulu 30 8%

Swati 22 6%

Others 103 26%

Province of permanent residence

Western Cape 40 10%

Gauteng 120 30%

Eastern Cape 17 4%

Free State 12 3%

KwaZulu Natal 21 5%

Mpumalanga 36 9%

Northern Cape 3 1%

North West 13 3%

Limpopo 39 10%

Outside RSA 100 25%

Household income

<R25, 000 165 44%

R25, 000-R75,000 61 16%

R76,000-R150,000 35 9%

R151,000-R250,000 38 10%

R251,000-R350,000 25 7%


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R351,000-R500,000 15 4%

>R500,000 36 10%

Occupation

Administration 68 17%

Education 104 26%

Entrepreneurs 40 10%

Professionals 66 17%

Technicians 77 19%

Unemployed 46 12%

The demographic statistics reveal that 55% of the visitors who took part in this study were males, with 50% of all respondents aged between 21and 30 years. Most of them indicated that English was their home language, followed by Setswana with 19%. The fact that 30% of the visitors originate from Gauteng province is hardly surprising, but the fact that 25% of them are international visitors is a pleasant surprise. Also surprising is that the Western Cape province provides more visitors (10%) than many of the other provinces closer to Gauteng province. However, most of the respondents (44%) earn less than R25, 000 per annum, probably explained by the fact that attractions such as the Union buildings, Church Square and Burgers Park have free entrance and thus attract low income earners. Nonetheless, there is a positive indicator in the fact that 16% earn between R25, 000 and R75, 000, 10% between R151, 000 – R250, 000, and another 10% earn more than R500, 000.

Results of visitors’ motivations for taking a holiday These questions were aimed at ascertaining the extent to which the visitors’ motivations for taking a holiday correspond with the tourism products on offer in the communities under study. The top five motivations for taking a holiday, with the respondents “agreeing somewhat” to “fully agreeing” can be summarized as follows:

To do exciting things (62%) To be together as a family (62%) To have fun (61%) To learn more about my/other countries (61%) To relax (58%)

However, the statistics reveal that the strongest motivation among the respondents for taking a holiday, as indicated by the “fully agree” response, is “to relax” with a favourable rating of 40% and the most unlikely reason for the visitors taking a holiday is “to study” with a disapproval rating “fully disagree” of 35%. In fact, this is far above the second least favoured activity “to escape from a busy environment” which has 16% of the respondents opting to “strongly disagree” The implication of these statistics is that the development of sustainable community tourism products should be guided by the interests expressed above.

Factor analysis of visitors’ motivations for taking a holiday The factor analysis serves to give a more comprehensive perspective by reducing a large set of data into a set of fewer but more meaningful variables. This is achieved through the clustering of variables with overlapping measurement characteristics resulting in easier interpretation (Cooper & Schindler, 2001; Sekaran, 2003). The exploratory factor analysis was conducted using the pattern matrix with the principal axis factoring method.


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Table 2: Results of factor analysis of travel motivations of visitors

Visitor travel motivators Impact loadings

Factor label

Socio

-cultura

l m

otivato

rs

Inte

rpers

onal

motivato

rs

Escape

motivato

rs

Educational

motivato

rs

Rest and

recovery

m

otivato

rs

1. Socio-cultural motivators

Experience different lifestyles .570

Learn more about other countries .491

Meet people with similar interests .478

Share familiar/unfamiliar place with someone .407

Explore new destinations .309

2. Interpersonal motivators

Be together as a group of friends .665

Spend time with friends .578

Share a familiar/unfamiliar place with someone .294

3. Escape motivators

Get refreshed -.619

Have fun -.535

Participate in entertainment -.419

Do exciting things -.376

Learn new things -.355

Escape from a busy environment -.296

4. Educational motivators

Study .525

Participate in recreation activities .483

5. Rest and recovery motivators

Relax from daily tension .839

Relax .354

Rest physically .290

Cronbach’s Alpha 0.619 0.524 0.741 0.556 0.639

Inter-item correlations 0.288 0.260 0.295 0.390 0.374

Mean values of travel motivators 3.65 3.49 3.62 2.94 3.72

The pattern matrix factor analysis (Table 2) revealed five factors which indicate the travel motivators of the respondents. These factors were labelled as follows: socio-cultural motivators, interpersonal motivators, escape motivators, educational motivators and rest and recovery motivators. In other words, these are the key push factors of tourism demand among the respondents.

Findings from the qualitative (supply-side) study Through the interview with the traditional leader of Lenale-ndem community and participant observation, various aspects of both the tangible and intangible heritage of the Lenale-ndem people were revealed. The social norms, history and way of life (intangible heritage) of the Lenale-Ndem people is exhibited in various works of art (tangible heritage). When asked why he felt the best way to preserve his culture was through art works, the chief responded,

“From my young age, I have found pleasure in collecting artefacts because each production tells a story in a unique way, from the point of view of the artist. But to be more specific to your question, as soon as we settled here, we decided to make sure that the world recognised us for who we are. More importantly, to ensure future generations of our children would be able to trace their origin and preserve our heritage.


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Hence, the statues at the entrance to the chief’s palace (Figure 3) illustrate his personal development and transition from public servant as a law enforcement official to a traditional leader. In other words, the significance of this “first impression” giant statues as one approaches the chief’s palace is to embrace the epitome of his life story which is when he decided to put an end to his career as a public servant to dedicate his services to his people (Figure 8).

Figure 8: His Royal Majesty (HRM) chief Fonjiju of Lenale-Ndem surrounded by his people arrives at a traditional ceremony.

Further analysis of the over a thousand pieces of art work in the chief’s palace reveals that one of the most significant pieces is the sculpture that captures the arrival of Lelale-ndem people in their new community (Figure 9).

Figure 9: A two-faced Statue symbolising the migration of the Lenale Ndem community.

This two-faced image signals the birth of Lenale-ndem community as young lady carries the entire community on her back. The young lady represented here is the chief’s mother whose photographs are placed beside the giant sculpture. This signals the burden of responsibility that the single mother bore in leading the young chief (her son) and the community on this long adventurous journey. The second phase of the sculpture shows the people of Lenale-ndem community sharing the land in close proximity and harmony with the animals. At the epitome of the cultural works of art is the symbol of the traditional sacred society or king makers (Figure 10) responsible for the enthronement of new kings in case of the departure of the king to the land of the ancestors. It is important to note that in this culture it

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is common believe that chiefs do not die. They simply go on a distant journey to be with their ancestors.

Figure 10: The “troh” or sacred society of King Makers and symbol of traditional authority.

These images of the sacred society is quite significant as members of elite force are hardly seen in public except on rear occasions. Their faces have never been seen in public as they are considered spirits and not humans. They only speak in deep voices, articulating words only from the throat. More-so, these “spirit beings” are feared and revered by all community members as they are thought to have the potent powers to afflict anyone who crosses their path with disease and curses. The final finding from this study regarding the tourism product quality in Lenale-ndem community refers to the variety of art pieces (Figure 10) in Lenale-ndem community.

Figure 11: A selection of artefacts from the chief’s collection

It is evident from the art works (Figure 10) above that every aspect of the Lenale-ndem society and culture has been immortalised in art form. Conclusions

The following conclusions can be made from analysing the findings of this study in the context of the theoretical framework exposed in the literature:

Conclusions in relation to the concept of sustainability

The findings of this study lead to the conclusion that both the past and the future play a significant role in shaping the lives of community people. There is a past (both painful and nostalgic) that community people want future generations to know and allude. This, as seen

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in the literature is the foundation of the concept of sustainability which emphasises that resources be preserved for future generations.

There is also evidence to conclude that local communities actively work towards environmental sustainability as demonstrated in the preservation of the Tswaing crater and ecotourism resort in Soshanguve and the art works illustrating respect for wildlife in Lenale-ndem community.

Socio-cultural sustainability is assured through the way of life of community people. While residents of Soshanguve community showcase their culture through dance and souvenir sales, the people of Lenale-ndem community demonstrate a strong focus on preservation through works of art. In this way, future generations are assured of a cultural resource base.

Furthermore, it can be concluded that community people work towards economic sustainability, even though there seems to be limited success in this regard. This can be attributed to the fact that very few tourists visit the communities and the limited economic opportunities.

Finally, findings from the demand-side perspective of this study reveal a strong inclination towards taking holidays for socio-cultural, escape and rest and recovery motives. It can therefore be concluded that there is a strong potential demand among these respondents considering that community tourism products avail these interests.

Conclusions regarding tourism planning

In the context of the community tourism planning model (Adapted from Kline, Cardenas, Viren & Swanson, 2015), the following conclusion can be drawn from this study:

This is little evidence to conclude that formal tourism planning has taken place in any

of the two communities under study. On the contrary, tourism initiatives seem to have been orchestrated by private individuals with little involvement of other stakeholders. This seems to be the major weakness in tourism development in the two communities under study. As evident in literature, without proper planning tourism products cannot be developed to their full potential considering the fact the consumption and quality assessment of a tourism product is often done in conjunction with total experience at the destination.

PTO….


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Recommendations

Based on the foregoing, the following framework is proposed for sustainable development of tourism products in local communities:

Figure 12: Tourism product planning and development model for local communities

Planning for tourism product development should be triggered by a community need such as the desire for an improved quality of life or cultural identity. This should be followed by the setting up of a working group composed of tourism and development experts who would undertake a feasibility study of not just the product but also the destination. The conclusion of the feasibility study will be followed by the convening of an enlarged assembly made up of all community tourism stakeholders including the community leader(s), government, business leaders and representatives of Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs). With a consensus reached on the need to develop both the destination and the product for tourism, the development process kicks in accompanied by tourism marketing. The final stage involves monitoring and evaluation of tourism impacts to ensure that negative impacts are mitigated while positive impacts are encouraged and spread to all stakeholders. Hence, sustainability is assured by the fact that each party or stakeholder has some benefit to protect. Limitations and further research

This study acknowledges the fact that not all respondents interested in community tourism products will effectively demand these products based on limitations in affordability or other reasons. This is therefore seen as a limitation to the conclusions from the study. Another limitation can be found in the fact that not all stakeholders in community tourism development have been consulted in this study. It is therefore recommended that further research be conducted on the willingness of other community tourism stakeholders to participate in the development of tourism products in the community.

Process catalyst Development

group

Product

Development &

marketing

Community Awareness

Raising & value

identification

Improved

quality of life Cultural identity Technical group

of development

experts

Chief and

elders

Lenale Ndem

falls at the centre

of the natural

environment Chief as the

epitome of

culture

Traditional

catering

services

Variety of art work

depicting every

facet of cultural

heritage

Monitoring &

evaluation

Stage 1

Feedback and changes

where necessary

Stage 2

Stage

3

Stage 4

Stage 5


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