OECD Programme for International Student Assessment 2012 2012 Macao-PISA Macao-PISA 2012 Report Digital Assessment of problem solving, mathematics and reading literacy performance of 15-year-old students from an international comparison perspective Educational Testing and Assessment Research Centre Faculty of Education University of Macau December, 2014 Project Consortium: Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER, Australia) cApStAn Linguistic Quality Control (Belgium) Deutsches Institut für Internationale Pädagogische Forschung (DIPF, Germany) Educational Testing Service (ETS, USA) Institutt for Læ rerutdanning og Skoleutvikling (ILS, Norway) Leibniz - Institute for Science and Mathematics Education (IPN, Germany) National Institute for Educational Policy Research (NIER, Japan) The Tao Initiative: CRP - Henri Tudor and Université de Luxembourg - EMACS (Luxembourg) Unité d'analyse des systèmes et des pratiques d'enseignement (aSPe, Belgium) Westat (USA)
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OECD Programme for
International Student Assessment 2012
BOOKLET #
Macao-China Main Study PISA 2006
Date of Test /
/ 2006 Day Month
2012 M
aca
o-P
ISA
Macao-PISA 2012 Report
Digital Assessment of problem solving,
mathematics and reading literacy performance
of 15-year-old students from an international
comparison perspective
Educational Testing and
Assessment Research Centre
Faculty of Education
University of Macau
December, 2014
Project Consortium:
Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER, Australia)
cApStAn Linguistic Quality Control (Belgium)
Deutsches Institut für Internationale Pädagogische Forschung (DIPF, Germany)
Educational Testing Service (ETS, USA)
Institutt for Læ rerutdanning og Skoleutvikling (ILS, Norway)
Leibniz - Institute for Science and Mathematics Education (IPN, Germany)
National Institute for Educational Policy Research (NIER, Japan)
The Tao Initiative: CRP - Henri Tudor and Université de Luxembourg - EMACS (Luxembourg)
Unité d'analyse des systèmes et des pratiques d'enseignement (aSPe, Belgium)
Westat (USA)
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Macao-PISA 2012 Report:
Digital Assessment of problem solving, mathematics and reading
literacy performance of 15-year-old students from
an international comparison perspective
Kwok-cheung Cheung, Pou-seong Sit, Soi-kei Mak & Man-kai, Ieong
Educational Testing and Assessment Research Centre
University of Macau
Macao, People’s Republic of China
December, 2014
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Foreword
The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) was launched by the Organisation
for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). It is a worldwide study conducted on a
regular basis, designed to understand 15-year-old students’ basic competencies and the factors
that influence their learning, as well as to compare and evaluate the relative effectiveness of the
education provided by the participating countries and economies.
Having participated in PISA 2003, PISA 2006, PISA 2009 and PISA 2012, the Macao Special
Administrative Region will again take part in PISA 2015. As of PISA 2006, the Education and
Youth Affairs Bureau of the Macao SAR Government has commissioned the University of
Macau to conduct academic research on PISA and the work related to the execution of PISA in
Macao.
By gauging the scholastic performance of students, the PISA results serve as a reference for
educational administration authority when formulating education development plans and
policies, as well as carrying out education reform and other related work, in order to improve
the quality of the education being provided. The results also provide important information for
participating schools in review of their curriculum, teaching, student evaluation work, and the
like, so as to enhance the effectiveness of their education management.
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Acknowledgements
Successful completion of the Macao-PISA 2012 Study was contingent on:
Commissioned with financial support by the Education and Youth Affairs Bureau of
Macao Government;
Guidance and resource support by the University of Macau authority, especially
Research and Development Administration Office of University of Macau;
Academic and technical support by the Educational Testing and Assessment Research
Centre, Faculty of Education, University of Macau;
Cooperation of secondary schools participating in the PISA 2012 Study;
Active participation of students and their parents in responding to PISA 2012 tests and
questionnaires;
Cooperation of schools providing the testing venues: Colegio de Santa Rosa de Lima
(English Secondary), Escola Luso-Chinesa Técnico-Profissional, Escola Primaria
Oficial Luso-Chinesa Sir Robert Ho Tung, Keang Peng Middle School, Pui Ching
Middle School, Sheng Kung Hui Choi Kou School (Macau), The Affiliated School of
the University of Macau, and Yuet Wah College.
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements 3
Table of Contents 4
List of Tables 6
List of Figures 8
List of Appendices 9
Executive Summary 10
Chapter 1 Conduct of Enquiry 13
1.1 Introduction 13
1.2 Sample design 14
1.3 Digital problem-solving assessment framework 15
1.4 An example of a test unit of digital problem-solving assessment tasks 17
1.5 Description of the proficiency levels of the digital problem-solving, mathematics,
and reading scale 18
Chapter 2 A Profile of Digital Literacy Performance for 15-year-olds in Macao 25
2.1 Macao 15-year-olds’ digital literacy performance 25
2.2 An international comparison of performance in the three digital literacy domains 29
2.3 Implications for Macao’s stake-holders when mode of PISA assessment changes
from print to the digital 32
Chapter 3 Relationships between Digital Literacy Performance and ESCS for Macao
Schools 42
3.1 Plots of digital literacy performance with ESCS in the Macao sample 42
3.2 Relationships of school digital literacy performance with school ESCS 43
Chapter 4 The 15-year-olds’ Performance on the Released Digital Assessment Tasks 47
4.1 Digital problem-solving tasks 48
4.2 Digital mathematics tasks 60
Chapter 5 Three Quality Education Indicators for Improving Digital Problem-solving 72
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Ability of Grade Repeaters in Macao Schools
5.1 Assessment of Perseverance, Openness for problem solving, and ICT use at home
for school-related tasks 72
5.2 Correspondence analysis of “Perseverance – Give up easily” 73
5.3 Correspondence analysis of “Openness for problem solving – Easily link facts” 75
5.4 Correspondence analysis of “ICT use at home for school-related tasks – Internet
for schoolwork” 78
5.5 Implications for the grade repeaters in Macao schools 80
References 84
Appendices 85
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List of Tables
Table 1.1 Characteristics of schools in Macao’s PISA 2012 digital assessment
sample
Table 1.2 Number of 15-year-olds sampled and tested in Macao’s PISA 2012
digital assessment
Table 1.3 Proficiency level descriptions of the digital problem-solving scale
Table 1.4 Proficiency level descriptions of the digital mathematics scale
Table 1.5 Proficiency level descriptions of the digital reading scale
Table 2.1 Macao’s 15-year-olds’ digital literacy performance results
Table 2.2 Distribution of Macao 15-year-olds’ proficiency levels on the digital
literacy scales
Table 2.3 Problem-solving performance of 15-years-olds in PISA 2003 and
PISA 2012
Table 2.4 Mathematical literacy performance of 15-years-olds in PISA 2012
Table 2.5 Reading literacy performance of 15-years-olds in PISA 2012
Table 2.6 Distribution of mathematical literacy proficiency levels of Macao’s
15-year-olds in PISA 2012
Table 2.7 Distribution of reading literacy proficiency levels of Macao’s
15-year-olds in PISA 2012
Table 2.8 Distribution of digital problem-solving proficiency levels of
Macao’s 15-year-olds in PISA 2012
Table 3.1 Digital literacy performance and ESCS of participating schools
Table 4.1 Blueprint used in the design of digital problem-solving assessment
tasks
Table 4.2 PISA released digital problem solving task – CLIMATE CONTROL
(Q1)
Table 4.3 PISA released digital problem solving task – CLIMATE CONTROL
(Q2)
Table 4.4 PISA released digital problem solving task – TICKETS (Q1)
Table 4.5 PISA released digital problem solving task – TICKETS (Q2)
Table 4.6 PISA released digital problem solving task – TICKETS (Q3)
Table 4.7 PISA released digital problem solving task – ROBOT CLEANER
(Q1)
Table 4.8 PISA released digital problem solving task – ROBOT CLEANER
(Q2)
Table 4.9 PISA released digital problem solving task – ROBOT CLEANER
(Q3)
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Table 4.10 PISA released digital problem solving task – TRAFFIC (Q1)
Table 4.11 PISA released digital problem solving task – TRAFFIC (Q2)
Table 4.12 PISA released digital problem solving task – TRAFFIC (Q3)
Table 4.13 Blueprint used in the design of digital mathematics assessment tasks
Table 4.14 PISA released digital mathematics task – CD PROCUCTION (Q1)
Table 4.15 PISA released digital mathematics task – CD PROCUCTION (Q2)
Table 4.16 PISA released digital mathematics task – CD PROCUCTION (Q3)
Table 4.17 PISA released digital mathematics task – STAR POINTS (Q1)
Table 4.18 PISA released digital mathematics task – STAR POINTS (Q2)
Table 4.19 PISA released digital mathematics task – STAR POINTS (Q3)
Table 4.20 PISA released digital mathematics task – STAR POINTS (Q4)
Table 4.21 PISA released digital mathematics task – BODY MASS INDEX
(Q1)
Table 4.22 PISA released digital mathematics task – BODY MASS INDEX
(Q2)
Table 4.23 PISA released digital mathematics task – BODY MASS INDEX
(Q3)
Table 5.1 Correspondence analysis of Perseverance – Give up easily: Row &
column profiles
Table 5.2 Correspondence analysis of Openness for problem solving – Easily
link facts: Row & column profiles
Table 5.3 Correspondence analysis of ICT use at home for school-related
tasks – Internet for schoolwork: Row & column profiles
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List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Main features of the PISA 2012 digital problem-solving assessment
framework
Figure 1.2 An example of a released PISA 2012 digital problem-solving test
unit (MP3 PLAYER)
Figure 2.1 Percentage of 15-year-olds at different digital problem-solving
proficiency levels across grades in the Macao sample
Figure 2.2 Percentage of 15-year-olds at different grade levels across digital
problem-solving proficiency levels in the Macao sample
Figure 2.3 QQ Plot of print versus digital mathematics literacy in PISA 2012
Figure 2.4 Percentage of 15-year-olds for Macao and selected economies at
each proficiency level of mathematical literacy in PISA 2012
(Digital vs. Print)
Figure 2.5 QQ Plot of print versus digital reading literacy in PISA 2012
Figure 2.6 Percentage of 15-year-olds for Macao and selected economies at
each proficiency level of reading literacy in PISA 2012 (Digital vs.
Print)
Figure 3.1 Plots of digital literacy performance with ESCS
Figure 3.2 Plot of school digital problem-solving performance with school
ESCS
Figure 3.3 Plot of school digital mathematics performance with school ESCS
Figure 3.4 Plot of school digital reading performance with school ESCS
Figure 4.1 PISA released digital problem solving task – CLIMATE CONTROL
(Q1)
Figure 4.2 PISA released digital problem solving task – CLIMATE CONTROL
(Q2)
Figure 4.3 PISA released digital problem solving task – TICKETS (Q1)
Figure 4.4 PISA released digital problem solving task – TICKETS (Q2)
Figure 4.5 PISA released digital problem solving task – TICKETS (Q3)
Figure 4.6 PISA released digital problem solving task – ROBOT CLEANER
(Q1)
Figure 4.7 PISA released digital problem solving task – ROBOT CLEANER
(Q2)
Figure 4.8 PISA released digital problem solving task – ROBOT CLEANER
(Q3)
Figure 4.9 PISA released digital problem solving task – TRAFFIC (Q1)
Figure 4.10 PISA released digital problem solving task – TRAFFIC (Q2)
Figure 4.11 PISA released digital problem solving task – TRAFFIC (Q3)
Figure 4.12 PISA released digital mathematics task – CD PROCUCTION (Q1)
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Figure 4.13 PISA released digital mathematics task – CD PROCUCTION (Q2)
Figure 4.14 PISA released digital mathematics task – CD PROCUCTION (Q3)
Figure 4.15 PISA released digital mathematics task – STAR POINTS (Q1)
Figure 4.16 PISA released digital mathematics task – STAR POINTS (Q2)
Figure 4.17 PISA released digital mathematics task – STAR POINTS (Q3)
Figure 4.18 PISA released digital mathematics task – STAR POINTS (Q4)
Figure 4.19 PISA released digital mathematics task – BODY MASS INDEX
(Q1)
Figure 4.20 PISA released digital mathematics task – BODY MASS INDEX
(Q2)
Figure 4.21 PISA released digital mathematics task – BODY MASS INDEX
(Q3)
Figure 5.1 A bi-plot displaying various dispositions of perseverance amongst
students and how they relate to specific gender-proficiency level
student groupings on the two principal dimensions
Figure 5.2 A bi-plot displaying various dispositions of openness for
problem-solving amongst students and how they relate to specific
gender-proficiency level student groupings on the two principal
dimensions
Figure 5.3 A bi-plot displaying various dispositions of ICT use at home for
school-related tasks amongst students and how they relate to
specific gender-proficiency level student groupings on the two
principal dimensions
Figure 5.4 A bi-plot displaying various learning characteristics amongst
students and how they relate to the phenomenon of grade repetition
on the two principal dimensions
List of Appendices
Appendix 1 Coding guide of the example MP3 PLAYER test unit
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Executive Summary
Commissioned by DSEJ of Macao Government, University of Macau undertook the PISA 2012
Study during 2010-2013. There were two components of this study, i.e. assessment of print and
digital literacy of 15-year-old secondary students. The results of the print component were
released in December 2013, indicating that Macao’s basic education was largely very healthy
and promising. After a decade of PISA assessment since 2003, Macao emerges to become one
of the eight educational systems in the world which is both high in educational quality and
equity. Macao is also one of the eleven places in the world demonstrating growth in terms of
print mathematical, scientific and reading literacy.
The results of the digital component of PISA 2012 were released in April 2014. The main
purpose of this report is to complement the PISA 2012 Digital Assessment International Report,
entitled “PISA 2012 results: Creative problem solving – Student’s skills in tacking real-life
problems (Volume V)” (OECD, 2014). It is hoped that this report can serve as a good starting
point for any systematic enquiry that makes use of PISA 2012 digital assessment data in the
examination of quality and equity of basic education in Macao. The following is an executive
summary of this Macao PISA 2012 digital assessment report.
1. Approximately 85,000 students coming from 44 countries/economies were randomly
sampled to participate in the PISA 2012 digital assessment. Of these 44
countries/economies 28 were OECD member countries and 16 were partner
countries/economies. For Macao, a total of 3,147 15-year-old secondary students (1,570
males, 1,577 females) coming from 45 schools were tested. Each sampled student was
randomly assigned one of the 24 test forms containing clusters of problem-solving,
mathematics and/or reading test units delivered on computer-based platforms which
take approximately 40 minutes to complete.
2. From a comparative education perspective Macao’s 15-year-olds performed very well in
digital problem-solving and quite good in digital mathematics literacy. Performance on
digital reading is also very satisfactory. Generally speaking, Macao females outperform
males in digital reading, whereas it is the other way round for the males in digital
mathematics and problem-solving literacy. All standard deviations are low, showing that
student performance on the three digital literacy scales are quite homogeneous as
compared with the average of the OECD countries participating in the PISA 2012
digital assessment.
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3. Male and female students’ digital problem-solving and mathematics proficiency levels
are mainly concentrated at levels 3 and 4. For digital reading, the concentration is
mainly at level 2, 3 and 4. Percentages of students with proficiency below level 2 for the
three digital literacy scales remain at very low levels (<8%), showing that the number of
low-performing students who cannot function productively in society is small.
Unfortunately, the numbers of high-performing students with proficiency level 6 in
digital problem-solving and mathematics literacy respectively are not high compared
with the top-performing countries in PISA 2012 digital assessment. In the case of digital
reading the situation is also not that favorable as Macao has only 5.1% of its students
assessed at proficiency level 5 and 6.
4. In PISA 2012 Macao ranks fourth in digital problem-solving amongst the 44
participating economies. Though lacking behind Singapore, Korea and Japan Macao
adolescents’ digital problem-solving performance is comparable in level with that of
its other three Chinese-speaking counterparts, i.e. Hong Kong, Shanghai and Chinese
Taipei. After considering the sampling and measurement errors, Macao ranks 4th
to 6th
in PISA 2012 digital problem-solving assessment. In the last decade when the
assessment mode changes from print to digital, Macao’s 15-year-olds still maintain
their superiority in problem-solving ability, which is an important 21st century skills
needed inculcation in the school curriculum. Macao is one of the four ICT-developed
places in the world whose students are close to meet the goal to use basic
problem-solving tools to meet unknown everyday challenges.
5. In PISA 2012 Macao ranks fifth in digital mathematical literacy amongst the 32
participating economies. Though lacking behind Singapore and Shanghai, Macao
adolescents’ digital mathematical literacy performance is comparable to that of Korea,
Hong Kong, Japan, and Chinese Taipei. After considering the sampling and
measurement errors, Macao ranks 3rd
to 7th
in PISA 2012 digital mathematics
assessment. Comparing the results between print and digital assessment, Macao’s
15-year-olds not only have maintained but also increased their superiority in
mathematical literacy when the assessment mode changed from print to the digital.
Noteworthy is that there is a drop in the percentage of high-performing students when
the mode of PISA assessment is shifted from print to digital and concomitantly there is
a drop in the percentage of low-performing (i.e. below level 2) students.
6. In PISA 2012 Macao ranks eleventh in digital reading literacy amongst the 32
participating economies. Though lacking behind its Asian Pacific counterparts like
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Singapore, Korea, Japan, Hong Kong and Shanghai, and western counterparts like
Canada, Estonia and Australia, Macao adolescents’ digital reading performance is
comparable in level with that of Chinese Taipei, Ireland, United States and France.
After considering the sampling and measurement errors, Macao ranks 9th
to 13th
in
PISA 2012 digital reading assessment. Comparing the results between print and digital
assessment, Macao’s 15-year-olds not only have maintained but also greatly increased
their superiority in reading literacy when the assessment mode changed from print to
the digital. Noteworthy is that there is a drop in the percentage of high-performing
students (i.e. levels 5 and 6) when the mode of PISA assessment is shifted from print
to digital, and concomitantly there is a drop in the percentage of low-performing
students (i.e. < level 2).
7. Same as previous cycles of PISA assessment, the slope of the literacy-ESCS
relationship is gentle and the percentage of digital literacy performance variance
explained by economic, social and cultural status (ESCS) is the lowest of the
participating countries/economies. Therefore, Macao’s basic education system continues
to provide equitable schooling opportunities for the student body it served. In spite of
this favorable comment, it is noteworthy that there is some degree of educational
inequity observed in Macao’s basic education system. This is because although school
digital literacy performance basically is not related to school ESCS at the low end of the
ESCS continuum, however at the higher end the literacy performance of the schools are
very favorable (i.e. above the OECD average).
8. Correspondence analyses of the associations between categories of variables such as
gender of student, international grade studied, frequency of grade repetition in
primary/secondary school, perseverance, openness for problem-solving, ICT use at
home for school-related tasks, and digital problem-solving proficiency level have been
undertaken. The results suggest that teachers and schools should render assistance to the
grade repeaters, particularly those who have repeated two times or more, in accordance
with students’ zone of proximal development. Grade repeaters should be provided with
ample opportunities to use ICT for school-related tasks at home. Through proper
guidance and counselling by teachers, parents and peers, they are initiated and modeled
not to give up easily when confronted with problems. Furthermore, they should learn
the many sound pedagogical ways to links facts together and their minds become more
receptive for solving the problems assigned to them or encountered in daily life.
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Chapter 1
Conduct of Enquiry
Abstract
This chapter recapitulates the conduct of enquiry of the PISA 2012 digital assessment
undertaken in Macao from 21 April to 31 May 2012. It comprises five sections: (1) Introduction;
(2) Sample design; (3) Digital problem-solving assessment framework; (4) An example of a set
of digital problem-solving assessment tasks; (5) Description of proficiency levels of the digital
problem-solving, mathematics and reading scales.
1.1 Introduction
Print and digital literacy assessments are the two principal components of PISA 2012 Main
Survey. Details of the conduct of enquiry and findings of the print assessment are documented
in the Macao-PISA 2012 Report (Cheung, Sit, Mak & Ieong, 2013). This report supplements
the earlier Macao-PISA 2012 Report, focusing entirely on the assessment results of digital
problem-solving, mathematics and reading literacy.
In PISA 2012, each participating economy of both print and digital assessment not only is able
to compare its digital mathematics and reading literacy performance results with that of the
OECD average, but also with its own print literacy performance results (see Chapter 2). In
addition, in this report, Macao’s strengths and weaknesses are revealed when its students’
performance on the released digital problem-solving and mathematics test items are compared
with that of some selected high-performing economies in PISA 2012 (see Chapter 4). As in the
previous Macao-PISA 2012 Report, statistics pertaining to Macao’s educational equity (see
Chapter 3) and some quality education indicator variables (i.e. perseverance, openness for
problem-solving, ICT use at home for school-related tasks) affecting Macao student digital
problem-solving literacy performance across gender are also presented in this report (see
Chapter 5).
Not all countries/economies participated in the PISA 2012 print assessment arranged their
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students to take the additional digital assessment. Approximately 85,000 students coming from
44 countries/economies were randomly sampled to participate in the PISA 2012 digital
assessment. Of these 44 countries/economies 28 were OECD member countries and 16 were
partner countries/economies.
1.2 Sample design
Table 1.1 presents characteristics of the schools and the 15-year-olds sampled and tested in the
PISA 2012 digital assessment, broken down by school type, study program, and language of
instruction.
Table 1.1
Characteristics of schools in Macao’s PISA 2012 digital assessment sample
Stratifying Variable Number of
schools
sampled
Number of
schools
tested
Number of
students
sampled
Number of
students
tested
School Type
Government 4 4 168 165
Private-In-Net 32 32 2338 2311
Private 9 9 683 671
Study Program
Grammar-International 40 40 3009 2970
Technical-Prevocational 5 5 180 177
Language of Instruction
Chinese 32 32 2073 2052
English 7 7 579 572
Portuguese 1 1 43 41
Chinese & English 4 4 417 406
Chinese & Portuguese 1 1 77 76
Total 45 45 3189 3147 Note 1: All sampled schools offered basic education courses to 15-year-olds. Two schools were excluded from the
designed school sample; one offered senior secondary vocational education only to a few students and the
other was a school offering special education at the secondary level.
Note 2: Sampled students were all 15-year-olds born in 1996.
Table 1.1 presents the number of students (males/females) sampled and tested in Macao’s PISA
2012 digital assessment. The response rate is very satisfactory (98.7%), showing that the
achieved sample is highly representative of the Macao’s 15-year-old student population.
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Table 1.2
Number of 15-year-olds sampled and tested in Macao’s PISA 2012 digital assessment
Number of 15-year-olds
Sampled 3,189
(1,590 Males, 1,599 Females)
Tested 3,147
(1570 Males, 1577 Females)
Response rate (%) 98.7
1.3 Digital problem-solving assessment framework
PISA 2012 defines problem-solving competence as “an individual’s capacity to engage in
cognitive processing to understand and resolve problem situations where a method of solution
is not immediately obvious. It includes the willingness to engage with such situations in order
to achieve one’s potential as a constructive and reflective citizen” (OECD, 2014, p.30).
The PISA 2012 digital problem-solving assessment framework comprises three core elements:
(1) Problem context; (2) Nature of problem situation, and (3) Problem-solving processes (see
Figure 1.1).
圖 1﹕PISA 2012問題解決能力評核框架
Figure 1.1
Main features of the PISA 2012 digital problem-solving assessment framework
Problem-
solving
processes
Problem context
Nature of problem
situation
Involves a technological device?
Relates to personal or social setting?
Interactive Static
Exploring &
understanding
Representing &
formulating
Planning &
executing
Monitoring &
reflecting
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The problem context of the digital assessment is embedded in student’s everyday life. As an
example, the problem scenario may involve a technological device or relate to the personal (e.g.
student or family) or social environment (e.g. community or society) of the student. Regarding
the nature of the problem situation, there are two kinds of tasks depending on whether the
information needed to solve the problem is disclosed at the outset. For interactive tasks, not all
information is disclosed, and some information has to be uncovered by exploring the problem
situation. For static tasks, all relevant information for solving the problem is disclosed at the
outset. Regarding the problem-solving processes, there are four pertinent cognitive processes
needed examination: (1) Exploring and understanding the information provided with the
problem; (2) Constructing graphical, tabular, symbolic or verbal representations of the problem
situation and formulating hypotheses about the relevant factors and relationships between them;
(3) Devising a plan by setting goals and sub-goals, and executing the sequential steps identified
in the plan; (4) Monitoring progress, reacting to feedback, and reflecting on the solution, the
information provided with the problem, or the strategy adopted (OECD, 2014, p.31).
Compared with the PISA 2003 problem-solving assessment framework, the main
characteristics of the PISA 2012 problem-solving assessment are that more attention are paid
on the usage of technological devices and the tasks are more interactive than static in nature, so
as to keep in pace with the advances and potentials of the development of the ICT in the 21st
century.
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1.4 An example of a test unit of digital problem-solving assessment tasks
Source: OECD (2014) and PISA released items website (http://erasq.acer.edu.au/)
Figure 1.2
An example of a released PISA 2012 digital problem-solving test unit (MP3 PLAYER)
The problem context of the above illustrative test unit MP3 PLAYER concerns with personal
usage of a technological device. The nature of the problem situation is that it entails
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manipulation of the MP3 menus in an interactive manner. The whole test unit comprises 4
assessment tasks. Question 1 entails the problem solving process exploring and understanding,
requesting examinee to explore the MP3 menus system to select the correct type of music and
set the volume of the music. The problem goal is to understand a menus system of a
technological device. Question 2 pertains to the planning and executing of the problem-solving
process. Examinee is required to set the MP3 player to the Rock music, as well as the volume
and bass of the piece of music. Specifically, student needs to plan how to control the menu
system sequentially so as to achieve a given outcome. The problem-solving process of question
3 is representing and formulating. Examinee needs to demonstrate that a correct mental
representation of the menu system has been formed. In this regard, he/she needs to analyze the
various scenarios of the MP3 menu system, analyze the data so as to arrive at hypotheses, judge
which representation is not functioning properly, and finally choose the menu that should be the
correct answer. Last, Question 4 loads on monitoring and reflecting, examinee is asked to
suggest a modification to the design of the MP3 menu system. Examinee has to base on their
practical experiences regarding the usage of the technological device in order to reflect and
propose new ways to change the operation of the MP3. The coding guide of this test unit is
shown in Appendix 1 of this report.
1.5 Description of the proficiency levels of the digital problem-solving,
mathematics and reading scale
Test items (assessment tasks) of the same test unit are organized under the same stimulus of the
whole test unit (see the illustrative example shown in the previous section), and there are
several kinds of item response formats (e.g. multiple-choice, short-answer/extended constructed
response) in the construction of the test items. In multiple-choice item response format,
students are required to select the best or most correct answer amongst several options, and in
the constructed response item response format students provide their answers as requested. In
PISA 2012 digital assessment, each student was randomly assigned one of the 24 test forms
containing clusters of problem-solving, mathematics and/or reading test units delivered on
computer-based platforms which take approximately 40 minutes to complete.
Table 1.4 to 1.6 present descriptions of the proficiency levels of the literacy scales for digital
problem-solving, mathematics and reading respectively (OECD, 2014). All PISA literacy
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proficiency scales have been calibrated on the sample responses sampled from the OECD
countries. The scales in PISA 2012 digital assessment were adjusted based on the responses to
the link items common to the previous PISA cycles of assessment, as well as that of the PISA
2012 print assessment. In the benchmarking assessments (i.e. PISA 2003 for mathematics,
PISA 2006 for science, PISA 2000 and PISA 2009 for reading) the mean scale score was
initially set at 500 and standard deviation at 100.
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Table 1.3
Proficiency level descriptions of the digital problem-solving scale
Level What students can typically do at each level?
6
Students can develop complete, coherent mental models of diverse problem
scenarios, enabling them to solve complex problems efficiently. They can
explore a scenario in a highly strategic manner to understand all information
pertaining to the problem. The information may be presented in different
formats, requiring interpretation and integration of related parts. When
confronted with very complex devices, such as home appliances that work in an
unusual or an unexpected manner, they quickly learn how to control the devices
to achieve a goal in an optimal way. Level 6 problem-solvers can set up several
hypotheses about a system and thoroughly test them. They can follow premise
through to a logical conclusion or recognize when there is not enough
information available to reach one. In order to reach a solution, these highly
proficient problem-solvers can create complex, flexible, multi-step plans that
they continually monitor during execution. Where necessary, they modify their
strategies, taking all constraints into account, both explicit and implicit.
5
Students can systematically explore a complex problem scenario to gain an
understanding of how relevant information is structured. When faced with
unfamiliar, moderately complex devices, such as vending machines or home
appliances, they respond quickly to feedback in order to control the device. In
order to reach a solution, Level 5 problem-solvers think ahead to find the best
strategies that addresses all the given constraints. They can immediately adjust
their plans or backtrack when they detect unexpected difficulties or when they
make mistakes that take them off course.
4
Students can explore a moderately complex problem scenario in a focused way.
They grasp the links amongst the components of the scenario that are required
to solve the problem. They can control moderately complex digital devices,
such as unfamiliar vending machines or home appliances, but they don’t always
do so efficiently. These students can plan a few steps ahead and monitor the
progress of their plans. They are usually able to adjust these plans or
reformulate a goal in light of feedback. They can systematically try out
different possibilities and check whether multiple conditions have been
satisfied. They can form a hypothesis about why a system is malfunctioning
and describe how to test it.
- 21 -
Note: There is an additional “below 1” level for those students who cannot attain at the lowest level (i.e. level 1)
in the digital problem-solving competence scale.
3
Students can handle information presented in several different formats. They
can explore a problem scenario and infer simple relationships among its
components. They can control simple digital devices, but have trouble with
more complex devices. Problem-solvers at level 3 can fully deal with one
condition, for example, by generating several solutions and checking to see
whether these satisfy the condition. When there are multiple conditions and
inter-related features, they can hold one variable constant to see the effect of
change on the other variables. They can devise and execute tests to confirm or
refute a given hypothesis. They understand the need to plan ahead and monitor
progress, and are able to try a different option if necessary.
2
Students can explore an unfamiliar problem scenario and understand a small
part of it. They try, but only partially succeed, to understand and control digital
devices with unfamiliar controls, such as home appliances and vending
machines. Level 2 problem-solvers can test a simple hypothesis that is given to
them and can solve a problem that has a single, specific constraint. They can
plan and carry out one step at a time to achieve a sub-goal, and have some
capacity to monitor overall progress towards a solution.
1
Students can explore a problem scenario only in a limited way, but tend to do so
only when they have encountered very similar situations before. Based on their
observations of familiar scenarios, these students are able only to partially
describe the behavior of a simple, everyday device. In general, students at level
1 can solve straightforward problems provided there is a simple condition to be
satisfied and there are only one or two steps to be performed to reach the goal.
Level 1 student tends not to be able to plan ahead or set sub-goals.
- 22 -
Table 1.4
Proficiency level descriptions of the digital mathematics scale
Level What students can typically do at each level?
6
Students can conceptualize, generalize, and utilize information based on
their investigations and modeling of complex problem situations, and can
use their knowledge in relatively non-standard contexts. They can link
different information sources and representations and flexibly translate
among them. Students at this level are capable of advanced mathematical
thinking and reasoning. These students can apply this insight and
understandings along with a mastery of symbolic and formal mathematical
operations and relationships to develop new approaches and strategies for
attacking novel situations. Student at this level can reflect on their actions,
and can formulate and precisely communicate their actions and reflections
regarding their findings, interpretations, arguments, and the
appropriateness of these to the original situation.
5
Students can develop and work with models for complex situations,
identifying constraints and specifying assumptions. They can select,
compare, and evaluate appropriate problem solving strategies for dealing
with complex problems related to these models. Students at this level can
work strategically using broad, well-developed thinking and reasoning
skills, appropriate linked representations, symbolic and formal
characterizations, and insight pertaining to these situations. They begin to
reflect on their work and can formulate and communicate their
interpretations and reasoning.
4
Students can work effectively with explicit models for complex concrete
situations that may involve constraints or call for making assumptions.
They can select and integrate different representations, including
symbolic, linking them directly to aspects of real-world situations.
Students at this level can utilize their limited range of skills and can
reason with some insight, in straightforward contexts. They can construct
and communicate explanations and arguments based on their
interpretations, arguments, and actions.
3
Students can execute clearly described procedures, including those that
require sequential decisions. Their interpretations are sufficiently sound to
be a base for building a simple model or for selecting and applying simple
problem solving strategies. Students at this level can interpret and use
representations based on different information sources and reason directly
from them. They typically show some ability to handle percentages,
fractions and decimal numbers, and to work with proportional
relationships. Their solutions reflect that they have engaged in basic
interpretation and reasoning.
- 23 -
Note: There is an additional “below 1” level for those students who cannot attain at the lowest level (i.e.
level 1) in the digital mathematical literacy scale.
2
Students can interpret and recognize situations in contexts that require no
more than direct inference. They can extract relevant information from a
single source and make use of a single representational mode. Students at
this level can employ basic algorithms, formulae, procedures, or
conventions to solve problems involving whole numbers. They are
capable of making literal interpretations of the results.
1
Students can answer questions involving familiar contexts where all
relevant information is present and the questions are clearly defined.
They are able to identify information and to carry out routine procedures
according to direct instructions in explicit situations. They can perform
actions that are almost always obvious and follow immediately from the
given stimuli.
- 24 -
Table 1.5
Proficiency level descriptions of the digital reading scale
Note: There is an additional “below 2” level for those students who cannot attain at the lowest level (i.e.
level 2) in the digital reading literacy scale.
Level What students can typically do at each level?
Above
4
Tasks at this level typically require the reader to locate, analyze and
critically evaluate information, related to an unfamiliar context, in the
presence of ambiguity. They require the generation of criteria to evaluate
the text. Tasks may require navigation across multiple sites without
explicit direction, and detailed interrogation of texts in a variety of
formats.
4
Tasks at this level may require the reader to evaluate information from
several sources, navigating across several sites comprising texts in a
variety of formats, and generating criteria for evaluation in relation to a
familiar, personal or practical context. Other tasks at this level demand that
the reader construe complex information according to well-defined criteria
in a scientific or technical context.
3
Tasks at this level require that the reader integrate information, either by
navigating across several sites to find well-defined target information, or
by generating simple categories when the task is not explicitly stated.
Where evaluation is called for, only the information that is most directly
accessible or only part of the available information is required.
2
Tasks at this level typically require the reader to locate and interpret
information that is well-defined, usually relating to familiar contexts. They
may require navigation across a limited number of sites and the application
of web-based tools such as dropdown menus, where explicit directions are
provided or only low-level inference is called for. Tasks may require
integrating information presented in different formats, recognizing
examples that fit clearly defined categories.
- 25 -
Chapter 2
A Profile of Digital Literacy Performance for
15-year-olds in Macao
Abstract
This chapter recapitulates the key results, particularly those pertaining to Macao, reported in
the PISA 2012 Study International Report (OECD, 2013, 2014). It details the profiles of student
performance in digital problem-solving, mathematics and reading literacy broken down by
gender. It presents the relationships between Macao student performance in print and digital
assessment on mathematics and reading so as to allow the readers to have a glimpse of the
differences between the two modes of assessment (i.e. print vs. digital) in PISA 2012. From an
international comparison perspective, this chapter highlights a number of countries/economies
that may serve as exemplary models for Macao’s educational improvement and curriculum
reform.
2.1 Macao 15-year-olds’ digital literacy performance
Table 2.1 presents Macao 15-year-olds’ performance results in the three domains of digital
assessment, i.e. problem-solving, mathematics and reading literacy, broken down by gender.
Table 2.1
Macao’s 15-year-olds’ digital literacy performance results
Descriptive
Statistics
Digital Literacy
Problem-solving Mathematics Reading
Total = 3147
Mean 540.5 542.9 515.3
SD 79.2 82.9 70.5
Males = 1570
Mean 545.6 549.1 506.3
SD 80.8 86.6 73.1
Females = 1577
Mean 535.1 536.4 524.7
SD 77.1 78.2 66.3 Note: In all the PISA literacy scales, the items have been calibrated against the participating OECD
countries, with mean score set at 500 and standard deviation at 100.
As seen in Table 2.1, from a comparative education perspective Macao’s 15-year-olds
- 26 -
performed very well in digital problem-solving and quite good in digital mathematics literacy
(mean = 540.5 and 542.9 respectively). Performance on digital reading is also very satisfactory
(mean = 515.3). Generally speaking, Macao females outperform males in digital reading (524.7
vs. 506.3), whereas it is the other way round for the males in digital mathematics (536.4 vs.
549.1) and problem-solving (535.1 vs. 545.6) literacy. All standard deviations (SD) are low
(ranges from 66.3 to 86.6), showing that student performance on the three digital literacy scales
are quite homogeneous as compared with the average of the OECD countries participating in
the PISA 2012 digital assessment.
Each sampled student in the PISA 2012 digital assessment is assigned to the highest proficiency
level for which she/he would be expected to answer correctly the majority of the assessment
items. From the PISA perspective, students classified as “Below level 2” in the digital literacy
assessment are unable to demonstrate competency in situations required by the easiest digital
literacy items, and therefore they are regarded as at a disadvantage for full participation in the
knowledge society in the information age. Table 2.2 presents the frequency distribution of
Macao’s 15-year-old student proficiency levels of the digital problem-solving, mathematics and
reading literacy scales, broken down by gender.
- 27 -
Table 2.2
Distribution of Macao 15-year-olds’ proficiency levels on the digital literacy scales
Note: After considering the sampling and measurement errors, Macao ranks 6-8 in print and 3-7 in digital
mathematics literacy in PISA 2012.
2.2.2 A comparison between print versus digital reading literacy performance of 15-years-olds
in PISA 2012
Macao ranks eleventh in digital reading literacy amongst the 32 participating economies in
PISA 2012 digital assessment. Though lacking behind its Asian Pacific counterparts like
Singapore, Korea, Japan, Hong Kong and Shanghai, and western counterparts like Canada,
Estonia and Australia, Macao adolescents’ digital reading performance is comparable in level
(mean= 515.3) with that of Chinese Taipei, Ireland, United States and France (see Table 2.5).
Noteworthy is that in the print assessment of PISA 2012 when reading literacy was one minor
domain of assessment, Macao ranked 18th
amongst the 65 participating countries/economies.
After considering the sampling and measurement errors, Macao ranks 12th
to 22nd
in print
reading and 9th
to 13th
in digital reading of the PISA 2012 international assessment. Therefore,
the finding is that Macao’s 15-year-olds not only have maintained but also greatly increased
their superiority in reading literacy when the assessment mode changed from print to the
digital.
- 32 -
Table 2.5
Reading literacy performance of 15-years-olds in PISA 2012
Rank Print score Rank Digital score
1. Shanghai-China 569.6 1. Singapore 567.0
2. Hong Kong-China 544.6 2. Korea 555.2
3. Singapore 542.2 3. Hong Kong-China 549.8
4. Japan 538.1 4. Japan 544.8
5. Korea 535.8 5. Canada 532.3
6. Finland 524.0 6. Shanghai-China 531.3
7. Ireland 523.2 7. Estonia 522.8
8. Chinese Taipei 523.1 8. Australia 520.6
9. Canada 523.1 9. Ireland 520.2
10. Poland 518.2 10. Chinese Taipei 519.5
11. Estonia 516.3 11. Macao-China 515.3
12. Liechtenstein 515.5 12. United States 511.2
13. New Zealand 512.2 13. France 510.9
14. Australia 511.8 OECD Average 496.9
15. Netherlands 511.2
16. Belgium 509.1
17. Switzerland 509.0
18. Macao-China 508.9
19. Vietnam 508.2
20. Germany 507.7
21. France 505.5
22. Norway 503.9
OECD Average 496.5
(65 participating economies) (32 participating economies) Note: After considering the sampling and measurement errors, Macao ranks 12-22 in print and 9-13 in digital
reading literacy in PISA 2012.
2.3 Implications for Macao’s stake-holders when mode of PISA assessment
changes from print to the digital
Due to the full-fledged implementation of digital assessment of pertinent literacies in PISA
2015 and beyond, there are three implications of the findings for the various stakeholders of
Macao’s basic education to take note of.
First, the digital mathematical literacy performance of the high-performing (i.e. >level 4)
students is less well than their counterparts on print mathematical literacy performance (see
Figure 2.3). The reverse is true for those students with proficiency levels below 4. There is a
drop in the percentage of high-performing students from 24.4% to 22.2% when the mode of
- 33 -
PISA assessment is shifted from print to digital. Concomitantly, there is a drop in the
percentage of low-performing (i.e. below level 2) students from 10.8% to 7.6% (see Table
2.6). It is reckoned that the three high-performing countries, i.e. Singapore, Korea and Japan
also suffer and benefit from this shift in mode of PISA assessment (see Figure 2.4).
Figure 2.3
QQ Plot of print versus digital mathematical literacy in PISA 2012
- 34 -
Table 2.6 Distribution of mathematical literacy proficiency levels of
Macao’s 15-year-olds in PISA 2012
Proficiency Level % of Students
Digital Print
Total 3,147 5,335
6 5.6 7.6
5 16.6 16.8
4 28.5 24.4
3 26.4 24.0
2 15.3 16.4
1 5.9 7.6
Below 1 1.7 3.2
Males 1,570 2,731
6 7.3 8.2
5 18.7 17.9
4 28.1 23.5
3 24.3 23.4
2 13.9 15.5
1 5.9 7.8
Below 1 1.8 3.7
Females 1,577 2,604
6 3.8 6.9
5 14.4 15.6
4 29.0 25.5
3 28.6 24.6
2 16.8 17.5
1 5.9 7.3
Below 1 1.5 2.7
- 35 -
Figure 2.4
Percentage of 15-year-olds for Macao and selected economies at each proficiency level of
mathematical literacy in PISA 2012 (Digital vs. Print)
- 36 -
Second, the digital reading literacy performance of the medium to high performing students
(i.e.>level 3) performed less well than their counterparts on print reading literacy performance
(see Figure 2.5). The reverse is true for those students with proficiency levels below 3. There
is a drop in the percentage of high-performing students (i.e. levels 5 and 6) from 7.0% to 5.1%
when the mode of PISA assessment is shifted from print to digital. Concomitantly, there is a
drop in the percentage of low-performing students (i.e. < level 2) from 11.4% to 7.0% (see
Table 2.7). It is reckoned that the three high-performing economies, i.e. Singapore, Korea,
Japan and Hong Kong their high-performing students do not suffer from this shift in mode of
PISA assessment (see Figure 2.6).
Figure 2.5
QQ Plot of print versus digital reading literacy in PISA 2012
- 37 -
Table 2.7
Distribution of reading literacy proficiency levels of Macao’s 15-year-olds in PISA 2012
Proficiency Level % of Students
Digital Print
Total 3,147 5,335
6 0.2 0.6
5 4.9 6.4
4 25.3 24.0
3 39.8 34.3
2 22.8 23.3
1a 6.1 9.0
1b 0.8 2.1
Below 1b 0.1 0.3
Males 1,570 2,731
6 0.2 0.3
5 4.3 4.4
4 22.5 19.6
3 38.1 33.0
2 25.5 26.2
1a 8.1 12.5
1b 1.2 3.4
Below 1b 0.1 0.6
Females 1,577 2,604
6 0.2 0.8
5 5.6 8.6
4 28.3 28.7
3 41.5 35.6
2 20.0 20.2
1a 3.9 5.3
1b 0.5 0.8
Below 1b 0.0 0.0
- 38 -
Figure 2.6
Percentage of 15-year-olds for Macao and selected economies at each proficiency level of
reading literacy in PISA 2012 (Digital vs. Print)
- 39 -
Third, In PISA 2012, there are altogether 6 proficiency levels in the digital problem-solving
scale. Students who cannot reach the lowest level (i.e. level 1) are regarded as disadvantaged,
and they run the risks of being unable to function productively in the life-long learning society
in the 21st Century. Only a low level of 1.6% of the students is thus seriously at risk. Students
performing below level 2 are regarded as low-performers, about 7.6% of Macao’s
15-year-olds performed at this low level. Students who can reach the top two levels (i.e. level
5 and 6) are crowned as high-performers. They are cherished as valuable talents who are
much needed in nowadays knowledge society. In Macao, close to 17% of the adolescents are
high performers in digital problem-solving (see Table 2.8). Compared with our other three
Chinese-speaking counterparts (i.e. Shanghai, Hong Kong and Chinese Taipei), Macao’s
advantage is to have a slightly lower percentage of students with low digital problem-solving
ability, though its disadvantage is to have a slightly lower percentage of students with high
digital problem-solving ability (see Figure 2.7). According to the PISA International Digital
Problem-solving Report (OECD, 2014), Macao is one of the four ICT-developed places in the
world whose students are close to meet the goal to use basic problem-solving tools to meet
unknown everyday challenges. Problem-based learning in Macao schools should therefore be
quite promising.
- 40 -
Table 2.8
Distribution of digital problem-solving proficiency levels of Macao’s 15-year-olds
in PISA 2012
Proficiency Level % of students
Total = 3,147
6 2.8
5 13.8
4 28.9
3 29.5
2 17.5
1 6.0
Below 1 1.6
Males =1,570
6 3.5
5 15.6
4 29.2
3 27.9
2 16.7
1 5.6
Below 1 1.5
Females = 1,577
6 2.0
5 12.0
4 28.6
3 31.1
2 18.4
1 6.4
Below 1 1.6
- 41 -
Figure 2.7
Percentage of 15-year-olds for Macao and selected economies at each proficiency level of
Assessment of Mathematical, Scientific and Reading Literacy Performance of
15-year-old Students from an International Comparison Perspective. Macao:
Educational Testing and Assessment Research Centre, University of Macau.
OECD (2013). PISA 2012 Results: What Students Know and Can Do: Student
Performance in Mathematics, Reading and Science (Volume 1), OECD
Publishing.
OECD (2014). PISA 2012 Results: Creative Problem Solving: Students’ Skills in
Tackling Real Life Problems (Volume V), OECD Publishing.
- 85 -
Appendix 1: Coding guide of the example MP3 PLAYER test unit
Question 1: MP3 PLAYER
The bottom row of the MP3 player shows the settings that you have chosen. Decide whether each of the following statements about the MP3 player is true or false. Select “True” or “False” for each statement to show your answer.
Statement True or False?
You need to use the middle button ( ) to change the type of music. True False
You have to set the volume before you can set the bass level. True False
Once you have increased the volume, you can only decrease it if you change the type of music you are listening to.
True False
MP3 PLAYER SCORING 1
QUESTION INTENT:
Description: Understand a menu system of a device
Nature of Problem Situation: Interactive
Problem Solving Process: Exploring and Understanding
Context: Technology, Personal
Full Credit
Code 1: All three correct: True, False, False in that order
No Credit
Code 0: Other responses
Code 9: Missing
- 86 -
Question 2: MP3 PLAYER
Set the MP3 player to Rock, Volume 4, Bass 2.
Do this using as few clicks as possible. There is no RESET button.
MP3 PLAYER SCORING 2
QUESTION INTENT:
Description: Control a system to achieve a given outcome
Nature of Problem Situation: Interactive
Problem Solving Process: Planning and executing
Context: Technology, Personal
Full Credit
Code 2: MP3 player is set in 13 clicks or less so that the bottom row reads: Rock, 4, 2
Partial Credit
Code 1: MP3 player is set in more than 13 clicks so that the bottom row reads: Rock, 4, 2
No Credit
Code 0: Other responses
Code 9: Missing
- 87 -
Question 3: MP3 PLAYER
Shown below are four pictures of the MP3 player’s screen. Three of the screens cannot happen if the MP3 player is working properly. The remaining screen shows the MP3 player when it is working properly.
Which screen shows the MP3 player working properly?
MP3 PLAYERSCORING 3
QUESTION INTENT:
Description: Demonstrate that a correct mental representation of a system has been formed
Nature of Problem Situation: Interactive
Problem Solving Process: Representing and formulating
Context: Technology, Personal
Full Credit
Code 1: B
No Credit
Code 0: Other responses
Code 9: Missing
- 88 -
Question 4: MP3 PLAYER
Describe how you could change the way the MP3 player works so that there is no need to have the bottom button ( ). You must still be able to change the type of music, and increase or decrease the volume and the bass level.
Description: Suggest a modification to the design of a menu system of a device
Nature of Problem Situation: Interactive
Problem Solving Process: Monitoring and reflecting
Context: Technology, Personal
Full Credit
Code 1: Gives an answer that describes how the MP3 player could still operate with only one arrow button Change the way the top button works so that once you reach the right side of the display, one more
click takes you back to the left of the display Using one arrow, each line cycles around e.g. Music-Volume-Bass-Music The right arrow could just take you back to the far left of the screen if you reach the rightmost
entry – for example, once you are on “bass”, pushing the right arrow button could take you back to “Music”
The volume is set at 3 by default. If you want to change it to two or one, it could be set up
so that when you click the middle button to set the volume, it defaults to one (the lowest
setting). Then you can use the right arrow to change it to whatever you want.
When you want to change a property and you move to the line it is on, it should default to the lowest setting for that property.
Use the one arrow to go all the way round (in a circle). [Minimal.]
No Credit
Code 0: Other responses It would work without that button. You could change it so it didn’t need that button. [No explanation.] The middle button could move you to the left. [Insufficient explanation.]