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MediterraneanArchaeologyandArchaeometry,Vol.9,No.2,pp.7185Copyright2009MAA
PrintedinGreece.Allrightsreserved.
PILLARSOFPOWER:SILVERANDSTEELOFTHEOTTOMANEMPIRE
N.Nerantzis
UniversityofSheffieldDepartmentofArchaeologyandPrehistoryNorthgateHouseWestStreetS14ETU.K.
Received:7/4/2008Accepted:17/2/2009
Correspondingauthor:[email protected]
ABSTRACTTheOttomanEmpirewas forged overdisintegratingByzantium,
stretching across
AnatoliaandtheBalkansandruledforalmostfivecenturies.Onecrucialparameterthatallowedforitsquickexpansionhasbeenacombinationofeconomicwealthandsuperiorityofarmedforces.TheOttomanssucceededinbothsectorsbypromotinginnovativetechnologyinthefieldofsilverandsteelproductionforsupplyingtheirmonetarysystem
andweapons industry.Richmines and smeltingworkshops provided
increasedoutputinmetals,allowingforquickexpansionandeconomicgrowth.Someofthemajorcentresforsilverandsteelproductionarebeingdiscussedinthispaperinconjunctionwithanalyticaldatafromsmeltingresidues.
KEYWORDS:mining,smelting,corve,samakov,foundry,slag,speiss
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N.NERANTZIS72
1.INTRODUCTIONIntheearly14thcenturytheOttoman
state was a small principality on thefrontiers of the Islamic
world, whichgradually conquered and absorbedformerByzantine
territories inAnatoliaand the Balkans. Its rapid
politicalgrowthwassuchthatinthe16thcenturyit formed a mature
imperial structurewith its
traditionsofstatecraft,administration,financialpolicies,landsystemsand
military organisation fully developed (Inalcik 1973; Faroqhi 1999).
Ottomanadministrationbasedonbureaucratic traditionswas
implementedwiththe application of registration, and accounting
systems aimed at increasingtheTreasuryrevenue.
Acrucialpointinneareasternpolitical theorywas toprotect
thepeasantryfrom illegal taxationas all revenuederived from among
those same
taxpayers,therey.Itwasthesemeasuresthatdictatedtaxandpopulationsurveysforthe
better enforcement of laws, whichusually did not abolish older
customsand institutionsof conquered territory,hoping to avoid
social unrests
(Inalcik1973;Pamuk2000).Accumulatingrevenueinthestandardsofthemukataasystemwas
crucial for the runningofOttoman administration and the army,while
available technologies revolvedaround implementing an
infrastructurefor the acquisition of wealth (Issawi1980). Such
conditions favoured an increase in production and
consumptionsystemsandcausedaboomingofmetallurgicalindustriesassociatedwiththewidespread
use of hydraulic power inthe smelting furnaces. Silver for
themintingofcoinsandironsteelfortoolsandweaponrywerehighlyvaluedandsystematically
extracted from former
Byzantineminingdistricts (Inalcik andQuataert1994).
ThetransitionfromByzantinetoOttoman administration in Thrace
andeastern Macedonia has been the outcomeofgradualchangeof
themid14thcentury,predating the final
collapseofcentralpoweratConstantinople foralmostonehundredyears
(Vakalopoulos1996).PeasantcommunitiesinruralSerres, the plains
around Drama andPhilippoiandthegrazingfieldsofPangaeon and Lekani
became part of anintegrated economic model fuelled
bytaxedagrariansurplusesthatwerepaidas revenue tonewly imposed
localauthorities.Other sectors suchasmining,salt works and trade
were under increasingstatecontrolsincerevenuewasextracted out of
any commodity orcraftingprofession.Inherentwithinthisnew regime of
administration was anurgetocontrolthemeansofproductionand encourage
innovation that wouldcontributetoincreasesinproduction.
The current paper is an attempt toapproach issues ofmining and
extraction ofmetals from their ores,mainlysilver and iron,
duringOttoman timesbased on literary and archaeologicalevidence.A
review of the relevant literature provides valuable informationon
labour organization,
administrativestructureandlogisticsintheminesandsmeltingworkshops
across the empire(figure 1).Within such
documentswefindawealthofinformationconcerningtheactualproductionsitesandtheoutput
in extracted metals which
whenseeninconjunctiontosurveys,archaeologicalandanalyticaldatacouldleadtocoherent
conclusions on technology,economy and social orientations towards
resource perception strategies.Chemical andmineralogical data
have
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PILLARSOFPOWER:SILVERANDSTEELOFTHEOTTOMANEMPIRE
73
been acquired frommetallurgical residues of Ottoman date
deriving fromextensive slag heaps atMakrychori
inMacedoniaandarepresentedhereinan
attempt to integratehistorical
informationwithsolidevidenceonthetechnologyofironandsilverproduction.
Figure1Silverandsteelproductionsitesmentionedinthetext
2.1HISTORICALDOCUMENTATION
Contemporary documents, such asfiscal records and cadastral
registersrepresentausefulsourceofinformationconcerning agricultural
produce, craftwork and trade of finished productsacross several
regions of the
Empire.TheTahrirdefteriwereofficialcadastralregisterscompiledformostoftheterritoriesunderOttomanruleandthereareseveral
of them recording
transactionsrelatingtometals.TapuTahrirdefteri3compiledin14641465includesregistersfor
Serres, Sidirokastro, Zihne, Dramaand Nevrokopi among others,
whileTapuTahrirdefteri7compiled in1478includes subsections for
Thessalonikiand eastern Macedonia (Lowry 1986,
24). Travelers accounts also
providevaluableinformationandbasicdescriptions of the technical
processes beingfollowedinvariouscrafts.
Further informationcouldbegainedfrom fiscal documents recording
thesources of revenue,whichwas fundamental for theOttoman
stateeconomicpolicy. Laonikos Chalcocondyles, aByzantine historian
of the Palaeologanperiod, informsus that the total imperial revenue
from European Ottomanprovincesreached900.000statersinmid15th
century (Laonici Chalcocondylae historiarum demonstrations I,
1922). Thesame author describes various
taxessuchastheharacandtaxationforherding and transporting of
agrarian produce. Inadditionwe find references to
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N.NERANTZIS74
duties for hiring pack animals (horsesand camels) reaching
300.000 staters,ferrydutiesaround200.000 statersandduties for rice
transporting about200.000 staters (Zografopoulos2002).
Itisinterestingtonotethatduringthe16thcentury thedutypaid for the
transportationofmetals reached100.000 staterswhich is significantly
lower than agricultural produce and animal hiring,whichmight
suggest reduced costs
fortheshippingofvaluablematerialssuchasmineralsormetalsforreasonsofefficiencyinproduction.
2.2MINEADMINISTRATIONANDDIVISIONOFLABOUR
Mineadministratorsof
theOttomanstatedidnotmakeanybasicchangesinthe productionmethods or
technologyin themines,which came under
theircontrol.Theirpolicyonmineswassimplyatranslationofthepreviousregulations
in which the original German(Saxon) terminology was
preserved(InalcikandQuataert1994,59)butJewish communities played an
importantrole infinancingandcoordinatingsuchundertakings (Rozen
1993). Tax registersfromtheregionsbeingstudiedrefertominers either
as kureci or simply asbeing taxexemptpersons,muafs (Faroqhi 1999).
The organization ofmineralexploitationfromthe16thtothe18thcentury
had a uniform character inmostplaces of the Pontus region
forwhichmostrecordsexistandthatwasalsothecase formostmining regions
inGreeceand theBalkans.The
internalorganizationoftheChaldianmetallurgistsclassdid not show
considerable changes inany of themining colonies outside
theregionofChaldia.GeorgiosTh.Kandilaptis,a scholar
fromChanes,providesdetailed informationconcerning thedi
visionof
labour,wages,workingmethodsandnamesoftheGeneralDirectorsofminingregions(Kandilaptis1929).
InchargeofallmineswastheRoyalCommissioner forMines
(MadenEmin)assisted by a number of Greek chiefsmelters ( or
)whocoordinatedmining activity and ore transportation toGumushane
where the local commanderhadhis seat (Kandilaptis1929;Vakalopoulos
1973). The local commander, representative of the sultanhad the
right to strike silver
coins,collectedprovincialtaxesandsafeguardedsilver, copper and lead
exportation totheimperialtreasuryatConstantinople.With
thehelpofchiefsmelters they
investigatedthepossibilitiesforprospecting, initiating new shafts
and appointingworkers.
The basic pertinence of the chiefsmelters, apart from directing
miningoperations, was the coordination ofprospecting
fornewmineralveins andtheexpansionofactivitiestonewareas.According
toOttoman legislation eachoneof themhad the right,after
receivingpermissionfromthestate,toundertake exploration.Whenever a
new deposit was discovered the Royal Commissioner forMines
(MadenEmin)wascalledupon todeclare the site as stateproperty and
name it after the closestvillage,streamormountainname.Permission
for exploitation was given tothe chiefsmelterwhile the
initiationofworkings started with a ceremonywhich often included a
sacrifice. Accordingtotraditionatrampledmassofclaywas
leftonacrackofrock foronenight uponwhich itwas believed
theminedemonwould leave the
footprintoftheanimalwhichhadtobesacrificedthenextday(Kandilaptis1929).
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PILLARSOFPOWER:SILVERANDSTEELOFTHEOTTOMANEMPIRE
75
Thelabourforceconsistedofspecialized units such asminers:
(madentsides),workerswhocrushedtheoreintothinpowder:(tsaoultsides),
orewashers: (galtsides), smelters: or (parastates or fournaroi)
andthose responsible for providing
timberforfuelandforthetimberingofmininggalleries:
(baltatzides)(Vakalopoulos1973,109).TheregionofChaldiawas rich in
timber andwas amajorsourceofsupplyforsmeltingactivities. Its
inhabitants formed a largeunitof lumberjacksand those involvedwith
charcoal preparation and bothgroups shared the samebenefitsof
taxexemptions as the metalworkers. Ingeneral terms local
authorities complemented specific regulations that protected most
workers associated withminingandmetallurgicalactivitiesandexempted
them frompaying taxes andleviesmainly theharac.Theywere tiedto the
work and were not allowed topursue a different profession, dug
outvarious ore types under harsh conditionswhilst
facinghighmortality rateswithin collapsing galleries
(Chatzikyriakidis1999).
Miningwasundertakenbyfollowingthemineralveinsandlightingwasprovidedwithtorchesandlamps.Breakingoftheorewasconductedbyhandpick,hammersand
fuse leversandoccasionallybytheuseofgunpowderorfiresetting. The
heating of exposed
orewithbonfiresfollowedbyimmediatecoolingwithwaterwascommonpracticewhenall
othermethods failed.The extractedorewascarriedinsacksandhandwagons
andwas handed over to those responsible for sorting and
crushing.Washing and enrichment was the responsibility of a
different group the
galtsides. Flooding of the gallerieswascommon and wooden ladders
wereusedtoreachdeeperlevels.Kandilaptis(1929)mentions thatwater
from insidethe floodedmineswas somehowchannelled
throughandpumpedout to
thesurfacewhereitwasusedforthewashingofcrushedore.
3.1CENTERSOFSILVERANDIRONPRODUCTIONINMACEDONIA,GREECE
Chalkidikihasbeenundoubtedlythewealthiest andmost
profitablemineralregion in Ottoman Rumelia and thusindustrial
activity has been meticulously recorded in state documents ofthe
time. The regions twelve villages,later known asMademochoria,were
ahass (Ottoman administrative division)since the timeof their
conquestandasmentionedintheTahrirdefteriforThessaloniki, they
belonged to the sultan(Dimitriadis
1986).Theobligationsandrightsoftheminersareclearlyspecifiedin a
ferman of 14751476 including themain duty of providing the
ImperialTreasurywithacertainamountofsilvereach year and also a
substitute to
thesultanforthevarioustaxes(Dimitriadis1986,44).Miningand
smeltingactivitybegan to flourish in 1536 during thereign of sultan
Sleyman theMagnificentwhenagroupofHungarian Jews,experts in
metallurgy settled atSidrekapsi,
theoldByzantinemetallurgicalcentreofSiderokapsia.
Varioussources informus thatmoststate controlled enterprises
were actually undertaken and managed by private contractors (Rozen
1993; Inalcikand Quataert 1994). It was these
contractorsthatinvestedthecapitalneededforexploitationwhilstthestatecollaboratedthroughfindinglabour,protecting
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N.NERANTZIS76
theprofitsandsecuringmonopoly.Forthe caseofSidrekapsiRozen
(1993,37)informsusthatinordertoensureuninterruptedmining
therulersof theEmpire imposed the obligation to operatethemon the
JewsofThessaloniki, as acorve for all intents and purposes,whenever
theywereunable to find anindividual willing to risk his
capitalvoluntarily.Themine operator (sarraf)was awealthy
individual, recruitedbythestate,whowasresponsibleformining and
payment of the poll tax in awaythatoftenservedhisowninterests.Even
though the taxwas imposed percapitaor as aglobalpayment the
community often settled it through an
internalassessmentmethodbywhichthewealthy paid the poll tax formany
ofthe poor (Rozen 1993). Such
transactionsweremadepossiblebytheimposition of the corvewhich
automaticallyexempted them from all other taxes
tothegovernment,butinthelongrunimpoverished the wealthy and
underminedthecommunityssourceoffunds.
At the heyday of its output in themiddle of the 16th century
Sidrekapsiemployed as many as 6.000 miners,owned numerous
processing installations in the order of 500600 furnacesandbecame
the largestMacedonian industrial complex andmost productiveof the
Balkan centres (Vakalopoulos1996).According toofficial records
theminerswere obliged to send their annual output of around 220
okas (= 347kg)ofsilvertotheTreasuryatConstantinople. Based on
descriptions by theFrench traveller Piere Beln around1553 it is
suggested that cosmeltingofpyrite and roasted galena was
takingplace in one furnace from which theslag and speiss were
tapped out firstand then the precious metalsrich Pb
layerwasrecovered
(Photosetal1987).ArchaeometricresearchbyWagneretal(1986) confirmed
that such activitydescribed in the sourceshas been
showntobelongbetweenthe16thand18thcenturies by radiocarbon and
thermoluminescencedatingonslag.
Sidrekapsi attracted a stream
ofworkersfromfarandwide.Inadditionto theGreek labourers and Jewish
sarrafs, therewereworkersofanastonishing variety of races:
Bulgarians, Serbs,Turks,Albanians andGermans
(Vakalopoulos1973,153).Apparentlyminerswere also called safi,
allegedly
derivingfromthewordforSaxons,wheretheminingtechniquescamefrombutdirecthistorical
evidence for the presence ofGermans in Ottoman mines is
weak(Anhegger1943).
Increased industrial activity of
the18thcenturycalledforareorganisationofthe operating system and
laws for conductinthemineralregionsofChalkidiki.By 1705 a sultans
ferman granted theresidentswith therenewedrights toexploitingsilver
from theminesof the region.Allminingactivitieswereassignedto a
federation of twelve semiautonomous villages known as Mademochoria
responsible for providing thework force and administrative staff
forthe workings (Papaggelos 2003). Thesewere Galatista, Vavdos,
Plana, Stanos,Varvara, Liaringovi (Arnaia),Novoselo,Mahalas
(Stagira), Isvoro, Chorouda,Ravenikia (M.Panagia) and
Ierissos.Atthe same time, a stateownedmintwasestablished at Mahalas
the Mademochorianadministrativecentre.Followingthese changes
production increased toreach 30.000 ducats per month fromwhich
1/3waspaid to the Sultan. FourGreek leaders,
thevekilsandasecretaryundertook an administrative role and
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PILLARSOFPOWER:SILVERANDSTEELOFTHEOTTOMANEMPIRE
77
judicial power of the federation.
TheMadenEminand20soldiersrepresentedtheTurkish authorities,
virtually implementingandvalidatingdecisionsof
thevekils(Vakalopoulos1996).Astheoutputfrom mining gradually
declined theMademochorianscontinuedsending
theannualrevenueof220okas(=347kg)ofsilverbymeltingdownSpanishcoinage.
Furtherevidenceforpreciousmetalsextraction in Macedonia comes
fromLivadia southofNikisianionMt.Pangaeonwhere a smelting furnace
datedto around 1550s has been located(KoukouliChrysanhtaki 1990).
The excavation revealed a double furnace oftwo hearths reminiscent
of Buchardsfurnace,widespread in the16thcenturyfor lead smelting.
An illustration ofsuch an installation included in Tylecotes
History of Metallurgy (1976,
99)showsapairofblastfurnacesabout2mhighoperatedbya setof
fourbellows.Thearrangementofadoublefurnaceisdescribed by Georgius
Agricola in histreatiseDeReMetallica (1556) in reference to silver
refining methods.Through such a process lumps of impure native
silver are cosmeltedwithpowdered litharge in theassay furnaceand
the alloywhich settles at the
bottomiscarriedtothecupellationfurnace(Hoover and Hoover 1950,
400). Suchpractice would leave behind remainssimilar to those found
at Livadia andresidues such as litharge or speiss andcouldbe
thusargued
thatsilverextractionwastakingplaceonsiteinthemid16thcentury.
Centres of bloomery and cast ironproduction were established
atDemirhisar (Sidirokastro),MadenKarain Palaea Kavala and
EleutheroupolismentionedasPraviorPravista inOttoman sources.
According to a Turkish
fermanof1583andthedescriptionsofatraveller, Christoforo Vallier,
extensiveiron production is documented by theendof
the16thcenturyatPravista (Anhegger 1943;Murphey 1980).
Intensificationofproduction is evidencedwiththe establishmentof a
foundry in 1698wherespecialisedproductionofcannonballsand iron
forconstructionmaterialwastakingplace(Photos1987).Furthertheearliestevidence
for theproductionofcast ironcomes from thesiteofAvlisuggesting
theoperationofablast furnace in the 17th century. The
metallicprills in the slag found at Avliwhichwas analysed by Photos
(1987) werefound to be grey cast iron includinggraphite flakeswith
silica, phosphorusand manganese. Such findings areclearly
associatedwith certain steps
ofcastironproductionfromwhitetogreycast iron (Kostoglou and
Navasaitis2006).
Recent field surveys in easternMacedonia have shown that some of
theancient and Byzantine miningmetallurgical centres close to
highlandvillages yielded Ottoman surface pottery indicating
theuseof locations thatwere suitable for smelting inpastperiods
(Nerantzis 2006). There is no evidence to suggest uninterrupted
continuation under the new Ottoman administration rather a reuse
strategy ofsites that met all criteria for efficientiron smelting.
Demirhisar (Sidirokastro),FaiaPetraandAngistroweremostprobably the
reusedByzantineproduction sites inSerreswhile the large
slagheapsatMadenKaraandMadenChiflik in PalaeaKavala probably
resultedfrom attempts of resmelting ancientslag. The nature of the
evidence suggests an increase in output as production was funded by
the state, coordi
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N.NERANTZIS78
nated by master smelters and
undertakenbyspecialisedgroupsofsmelterswhoprovided revenue
(mukataa) to theSultan. At sites in Serres iron sandshave been
adiachronic source for rawmaterial, a traditionwhichwas
apparentlyreproduced through timeassimilar practices were common
until
theearly1930s.SmithsfromVrontouusedthesameironsandsinadditiontomarcasitefrom
ironpyritesasrawmaterialfor their products until 1913
(Samsaris1979). Chatzikyriakou writing in 1929described 8 surviving
foundries andwaterpoweredfacilitiesfortheproduction of iron nails
and other utensils atthevillageofVrontou(Samsaris1979).
3.2WORKSHOPSINANATOLIAANDTHEBALKANS
Although the 16th and 17th centurieswitnessedan increase
inminingactivityacross formerByzantine territories suchas
Chalkidiki, Eleutheroupolis and thePontic seaboard mainly Chalybia
andChaldia,bythe18thcenturyalackinreformingmining operations led to
a recessionofoutput.Variouscontemporaryand laterdocumentsdescribe
the lifeofmining communities and the ways bywhich labour was
organized (Felekis1907;Kandilaptis 1929). It is known forinstance
from official Ottoman recordsthat vezir Kprl Zade Hussein
attemptedareformationoftheoldminingsystem in themetals rich
Chaldian region at a timewhen exhaustion of
therichdepositsofGumushane(formerArgyroupolis)wasatastake(Vakalopoulos1973,
105). The privileges formerlygrantedtominersnolongerexistedanddue
to a lack of state interest inmetallurgy numerous mines became
privateproperty or were abandoned. Theseconditions caused
immigrations of the
highland village dwellers and minerswho left theirhomes in
search fornewworking opportunities. The waves
ofimmigrationstartedinthemiddleofthe18th century and were continued
wellwithin the 19th bywhich time technicalknowledge and oriental
metallurgicaltraditions were transmitted to centraland southern
Asia Minor, Thrace andMacedonia(Vakalopoulos1973).
Despite the exhaustionof somemajor deposits, the number of mines
atPontuslistedbyCuinetin1890isastonishingly large (Turquie dAsie I,
5658,68). In the sancak of Trebizond,whichcomprises
themodernTrebizond,Giresun and Ordu districts there were 21mines of
argentiferous lead, 34 coppermines,3ofcopperand
lead,2ofmanganese,10of ironand2of coal. In thesancak of Gumushane
there were 37minesof argentiferous lead and 6 coppermineswhile the
sancak of Samsunhad only 1mine of argentiferous
lead(BryerandWinfield1985,3).
TheminersofPontusandespeciallythosefromChaldianArgyroupoliswhospread
acrossAsiaMinor and beyondbecame admirable prospectors.
Thosewellknown miners searched for richdeposits beyond their
homelands andestablished new metallurgical
settlements(Bryer1983).Anexampleoftheiractivity is described in a
documentdated 15 February 1774, according towhich
twoGreekprospectors fromArgyroupolisandProusadiscoveredasilver
bearing deposit on BithynianOlympus at the site of Maden
Deresi(Vakalopoulos 1973, 107). A
continuationofthistraditionisnotedduringtheexchange of populations
in 1923whenprospectors from Pontus discoverednumerous metal bearing
deposits inMacedonia.
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PILLARSOFPOWER:SILVERANDSTEELOFTHEOTTOMANEMPIRE
79
Evlija Celebi, an Ottoman travellerwho has visited most of the
majortownsinthesouthernBalkans,providessome information on the
conditions ofmining in the 17th century.An important
tradingindustrial centre wasSkopjewhere thesilverand
leadminesprocuredabundantrawmaterialforthegrowing of local
industries. TheminesatKratovo,nearSkopjeprosperedfromthe14th to
themiddleof the17thcenturiesbutat the
timewhenEvlijavisitedthetownmostofthedepositshadbeenalready
exhausted (Dimitriadis 1973).According to the
travellersdescriptionamilitarycorpslocatedintheregionofSkopje
received each year theirwagesfrom themaden emin
(minedirector)ofKratovo who commanded silver andiron mines in other
regions as well(Dimitriadis1973).
3.3THETAURUSMINEINCAPPADOCIA(BUGAMADEN)
TheTaurusMine
(BugaMaden)hasbeenoneofthemanymetallurgicalsettlements
inAsiaMinorof the19th century. The prosperity of this
southernmostCappadocian settlement, foundedbymetallurgists
fromPontus has beenhighlighted by travellers such asH.H.Schweinitz
and H. Grothe and represents one of the numerous miningcommunities
in metal rich AnatolianregionssuchasAqDagMaden,DenekMaden, Ergani,
Keban and Bereketli(Chatzikyriakidis1999).
According to Gustave de Pauliny,GeneralDirector of the
TurkishMinesin1836allmineslackedmoderntechnological infrastructure
and smeltingtechniques were obsolete leading to
alossof1/3ofoverallproduction.Theorewas smelted in small furnaces
whiletheir cooling was bellows generated
sincetheuseofwater insuch instanceswasunfamiliar.
Ifreformsandupgrading had been conduced it is estimatedthat the
silver output would have increasedby 40%while lead and copperoutput
would have doubled (Chatzikyriakidis1999,76).Despitethenumerous
shortcomings metallurgical
operationswereamajorsourceofwealthforsettlementssuchasBugaMaden.
The wider region of Cappadocia
includingtheTaurusandAntitaurusrangehadrichmineswhichaccordingtotraditionwereworkedby
theancientPersiankingsand laterbyRomansand theByzantine Komnenoi of
Trebizond. This issupported by Choutouriadis testimonythat the
Genoese then the Arabs andlastly theChaldiansworked
theseminesastestifiedbydumpedslaginlargeheapsatGumusAlamandKaraGumus(Bryer1983).ThereforewhentheChaldianminerssettledintheregioninthe1820stheyfoundenoughevidencetopursueaneconomicstrategyforexploitation.
The firstchiefsmelter
(madentsibasis)wasChatziLeuterisApostologloufromKoronixa,
Argyroupolis who established mining installations and commenced
extracting argentiferous leadwhichwasrefinedtoproducesilverdespite
theobsoletemeansavailable.TheOttoman ferman which authorised
thefoundingof thesettlementandright toinitiate mining activity was
issued in1826. As chief inspector of the mineApostologlou
represented all metalworkerstotheTurkishauthoritiesuntilhis death
in 1868 (Kandilaptis 1929;Chatzikyriakidis 1999, 77). In the
firstyears of operation the miners constructed an extended road
networkreachinga radial extentof400kmandopened a large number of
galleries attheirownexpenditure.
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N.NERANTZIS80
After 1873 the status of legal prescription was raised by the
Ottomangovernment which proceeded to
auctionthemineandforthatreasoncalledfor European engineers to
evaluate itsoutput capacity.According to their reports themines
annual profit reached40.00050.000poundsdespite the
obsoletemethodsof exploitation.They
alsosuggestedthatitappearedimpossibletofindabidderthroughauctionunlesstheaffiliation
of the localminerswith theminewas terminated.The
firstattemptforconcessionwasmade in1887whenBugaMadenwas
commissioned to theKoroniou and Azarian Company
buttherapidreactionof the localsfor theirunfair treatment reached
the Sultan inIstanbul.
The resultingdecreeprescribed thatthecontractbetween
theCompanyandtheminersshouldconsidertherightsofexploitation to the
locals but due toproposed extortionate
compensations,theCompanyabdicatedfrom itsclaims(Chatzikyriakidis
1999). The
minersprivilegesremainedintactuntiltheoutbreakoftheBalkanWars,withonlyminorinterruptionswhenthegovernmentclaimed
the whole annual output in1905.
3.4SAMAKOVINEASTERNTHRACE
SamakovofeasternThrace
lieswestoftheBlackSeaatshortdistancenortheastofVizyeclosetothebanksofTholos
River. Itsmodern Turkish name isDemirky, literary meaning village
ofiron.AccordingtoSavvasLakidesinhisHistory of Vizye and Medeia
(1899) thesettlementwasfounded in
the15thcenturyandderiveditsnamefromthenumeroussamakoviai.e.foundriesforcastingandforgingironfromtherichnear
by iron sand deposits. Local traditionsrefer to Serbian
prospectorswho cameinsearchforminerals,inhabitedthevillage and
collected the iron bearingsandsofTholosRiveracrossmostofitslength.
In his book Lakides
providessomeofthelocaltermsusedfortheironindustrywhichformedthebasicsubsistence
for the locals up to the 19th century. Thus the mineral veins are
described as (vignes), the furnacesas (odzakia), while the
chargeconsisting of charcoal and iron
sandwasknownas(pohonia)whichwas approximately 80100 okas (=
c.130kg).Collectionofthesurfacesandswasachievedbychanneling the
riverwaterinto large reservoirs of 500 tons in capacity. Through
holes on the reservoirwalls the collected water rushed intowooden
channels. During this processthe heavier iron particles formed
sediments at the bottom of the
channelswhileexcesswaterwaspouredintothefields(Apostolidis1944).
ThesmeltersofSamakovenjoyedtaxexemptionsup to
theearly19thcenturywhen Turkish authorities levied theforge owners
with a quantity of castironperyear for thestate factoriesatafixed
price. The early furnaces of the17thand18th centurieswere
small,providing lowoutput in ironandwere situated at half an hours
distance fromthe villagewithin ravines of the
rivervalley.UnderChatziYusufpasha,whowas appointed commander in
1810,Samakovwitnessedan increase inproduction as threemajor state
foundrieswere established at its environs. MavrOdza Karhane was the
state grandfoundry for thecastingofcannonballswhile in the valley
to the east BuyukOdzak and DukyumHane
producedcastironinlargequantities.
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PILLARSOFPOWER:SILVERANDSTEELOFTHEOTTOMANEMPIRE
81
By 1830 the management of thefoundriespassedon
toTahirpasawhorefurbishedand improvedthefacilities.Hedirected four
samakovia for theproduction ofwrought ironwith two furnaces
ineach.Foroneyearsoperationeach samakov expended
roughly100.000200.000 okas (= 158.000316.000kg) of charcoal and
1.0002.000 kg
ofironoreandpaidthesmelters68grosiaperkgoforeintotalof80okas,and68grosiaperkgofcharcoal
intotalof100okas(Apostolidis1944).Basedonofficialdataitisestimatedthateachofthefourfoundriesproduced40.000okas(=63.000kg)
of iron. The cannon ball foundrysneeds in charcoal and iron ore
wasaround 700.000800.000
okas.Thedirectorhiredallworkerstobeengagedwithmining and smelting
operations andexcluded them from any
agriculturalwork.Recentarchaeologicalworkatthesiterevealedawealthofinformationonthe
furnacesand leatsystems forwatermanagementatthesmeltingworkshopsand
foundries (Danisman 2007). Theorganization of space with its
labourdivision associations, ensuring efficientproduction,
demonstrates how
crucialstepsanddecisionaffectedthesmeltingorforgingprocess.
4.ANALYTICALRESULTSONSLAGFROMMAKRYCHORI,KAVALA
CompositionaldataonslagfromOttoman smelting sites is a rare
occurrence as such technical residues aregenerally neglected during
survey andexcavation at sites of the recent past.Large slag
heapswhich resulted fromaccumulation through long periods
ofmetallurgical activity are often problematic as regards
chronology. TypicalOttoman pottery found among metal
lurgical debris is currently coming
tolightinareaswhereancientandByzantine smelting has been
confirmed(Chiotis et al 1996; Photos et al
1989;KoukouliChrysanthaki1990).Onesuchcase isMakrychori located at
the
foothillsofLekaniinKavala,whichshowsalonghistoryofmetalextractionthroughClassical,ByzantineandOttomantimesandhasalsoyieldedfindsbelongingto20thcenturyindustrialactivity.
Chemicalanalysisconductedonslagfrom eastern Macedonian sites of
thelate Byzantine and Ottoman periodsrevealed the potential for
discerningcertain smelting conditions (Nerantzis2007). The samples
from Makrychorianalysed by Xray Fluorescence couldbe characterised
as typically high temperatureproductsderiving fromprotoindustrial
smelting operations whichunavoidably fallwithinOttoman timesas
indicated by pottery sherds. Thesampled site produced highly
alkalineand siliceous slag with low FeO contents which have been
interpreted asbelonging to blast furnace operationsfor
theproductionofcast iron. It is interesting to note that similar
evidencecomes from Avli in Pangaeon wheregrey cast iron production
is confirmedbyslaganalysis(Photos1987).Thehighmelting points above
1300C observedthrough ternary plots for slag
fromMakrychoriarefurtherproof that thesearederivativesofan indirect
reductionprocess.As shown in figure 2 the specimens form clusters
away from thefayaliticregionandclose towherecristobalite is
predominant indicative forhightemperatureblastfurnaceresidues.
Researchers have argued that evensmall charcoal fired furnaces
fromwhichmoltenslag
isdrawnoffhavetooperateatahightemperatureinthe
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N.NERANTZIS82
Figure2TernaryplotofthesystemFeOCaOSiO2.SlagsamplesfromMakrychori(blackdots)
clusterinhightemperatureregions(highCaOSiO2)awayfromtypicalbloomeryslagcompositionswhichfallwithinthewstitefayaliteregionofthediagram.
blastzone(Bjorkenstam1985;Buchwald2005;Rehrenetal2007).
It has been shown by experimentsthat in small blast
furnaceshigher siliceous contentswere found in the ironformedabove
theblastzonewhile lowsilicon contents were observed in
theproducediron.Thereasonforextremelylow wstite contents in blast
furnaceoperations could be the silicon
reductionofslagwstite(Bjorkenstam1985).Thepresenceofalkalisisalsoimportantas
such compounds accelerate the
reductionofFeOandSiO2.Clayfromtherefractory furnacematerial clearly
contributes to the formation of iron. Both
characteristics of blast furnace slag
i.e.lowwstitecontentsandhighcontentsof alkalis have been found
inMakrychorislagandcouldbethereforecharacterised as such.
Appreciable silver contents (up to 57.32 ppm)
werenotedwithinPbrichslagwhile
thenumerousspeissfragmentsretrievedfromthefield
indicatesomesortofsilverrefining being undertaken on the
samesiteinadditiontoironproduction.
5.CONCLUSIONAn inherent centralisation of Otto
man administration and the far
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PILLARSOFPOWER:SILVERANDSTEELOFTHEOTTOMANEMPIRE
83
reaching taxing system modified production and consumption
strategiesacross the empire leaving producerspreoccupied with the
necessity to increaseyieldandhencemetaloutputatall costs (Nerantzis
2006). It should benoted that instead of seeing
devolvedcontrolweseemorecentralisationduringthe16thcenturywhenproductionoffoodstuffs,
tools, weapons and commoditiesmighthaveincreasedbutonlywith the
subjugation of the populous.At timeswhen taxation
intensifiedandagriculture or herdingwould not supplysufficient
income,metalproductionincreased but the reward to those
engagedintheactivitywasoftenminimal(Rozen1993;Murphey1980).
Basedonasynthesisofdocumentaryinformationandtheavailableanalyticaldata
onmetallurgical residues it couldbe concluded that although
metalworkers experienced control from central authorities theywere
at the sametime taxexempt persons with
certainvaluedspecialisedskills.Withregardtosocioeconomicorientationssuchhighlyspecialized
communities would havebeen involved in mining and metallurgy full
time for most of the yearsduration.Being secluded from
farmingorherding,theirbasicsubsistenceneedswere provided for
through exchangewith other groups or a
coordinatingcentralpowersuchasthestate.
Within this economic context basedon generating revenue for the
state,
mining communities adopted a resiliencystrategywhichpromoted
innovativetechnologyfromexperimentationtoadapt to the given
circumstances(Edmondson1989;PalmerandNeaverson 1998). Thus the
appearance of
theblastfurnaceinthewiderKavalaregionatPravista,AvliandMakrychoriwasanoutcome
of adaptation to minimisemetallurgical costs and increase
efficiency inproduction, at a time of constant demand for iron and
steel in theguns and weapons industry (Photos1987).The roleof iron
toolsandweaponsinthe1550swasimportantanddemandwasrelatedtoapressureformaking
superior properties and thus provideda stimulus to technological
innovation.Gun
foundingandammunitionproductionwouldhavebeenamatterofpriorityatsitesclosetothefrontierzoneto
facilitate immediate supply for theexpansion of theOttomans in the
central Balkans. Further the high
inflationthroughoutEuropecausedbytheinfluxofAmericansilver led to
redoubledeffortstomaximizetheoutputofpreciousmetals from the
Empires own naturalresources (Rozen 1993). The smeltingevidence
discussed testifies to highlyinnovative technology applied in
bothfields of iron and silver production inresponse to
sociopolitical factors andorientationtowardsincreasedoutputinthe
productive sector across the Ottomanrealm.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
IwouldliketoexpressmygratitudetoDrR.C.P.DoonanforsupervisingtheprojectandDrY.Bassiakosforhelpinthelaboratory.SpecialmeritshouldbegrantedtoProfJ.Stratisfortheconductofcompositionalanalysis.IalsothankDr.Tsourisforindispensablehelponfieldworkandsamplingslagdeposits.
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N.NERANTZIS84
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