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P H O T O G R A P H Y S R O L E I N T O U R IS M
Som e Unexp lored e la tionships
Richard M Chalten
D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t h ro p o l o g y
Te m p l e U n i ve rs i t y
Ph i lade lph ia , USA
A B S T R A C T
C h a l f e n , R i c h a r d M . , P h o t o g r a p h y ' s R o le i n T o u r i s m : S o m e
U n e x p l o r e d R e l a t i o n s h i p s ,
A n n a l s o f T o u r i sm R e s e a r c h
O c t o b e r / D e -
c e m b e r 1 9 7 9, V I ( 4 ): 4 3 5 -4 4 7 . W h i l e p h o t o g r a p h y i s o n e o f t h e m o s t
c o m m o n a t t r i b u t e s o f t o u r i s t b e h a v i o r , i ts r o l e i n to u r i s m h a s n e v e r b e e n
s t u d i e d . T o u r i st p h o t o g r a p h y i s u n d e r s t o o d a s b o th p h o t o g r a p h s m a d e b y
t o u r i s t s a n d p h o t o g r a p h s m a d e a v a i l a b l e t o t o u r i s t s b y m e m b e r s o f t h e
h o s t c o m m u n i t y . T h i s p a p e r d r a w s a t t e n t i o n t o t h r e e u n e x a m i n e d t o p i c s :
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c e r t a i n t o u r i s t t y p e s a n d p a t t e r n s o f
p h o t o g r a p h i c b e h a v i o r a n d / o r c o n t e n t o f p h o t o g r a p h s ; t h e c u l t u r a l l y
v a r i a b l e s t a n d a r d s o f a p p r o p r i a t e s u b j e c t m a t t e r a n d c a m e r a u s e i n
d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d ; a n d t h e v a r i e t y o f r e s p o n s e s e x h i b i t e d b y h o s t
c o m m u n i t i e s to b e i n g p h o t o g r a p h e d . E x a m p l e s a r e g i v e n o f h o s t
s e n s i t i v i ti e s a n d c a m e r a r e l a t e d d i s t u r b a n c e s . A t r e n d i s n o t i c e d i n w h i c h
h o s t c o m m u n i t i e s s p e c i f y w h i c h i m a g e s a r e a p p r o p r i a t e a n d i n a p p r o p r i a t e
f o r t o u r i s t p h o t o g r a p h y . K e y w o r d s : pho togra phy travel tour is t behavior
interact ion im age sensi t iv i ty auth entic i ty cul ture .
Richard Chelfan
i s an Assis tan t P ro fessor o f An th ropo logy a t Temple Un ivers i ty . P ro fessor C ha l fen rece ived h i s
Ph.D. f rom the Annen berg Schoo l a t the Un iver s i ty o f Pennsylvan ia . H is p r imary research in te rests i nc lude the
study o f cu l tu re and communica t ion , v i sua l an th ro po logy, and the socio logy o f non-pro fess iona l pho tograp hy
and f i lmmaking .
A N N A L S O F T O U R I S M R E S E A R C H O c t / D e c 7 9 4 3 5
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RICHARD M CHALFEN
THE STUDY OF TOURIST PHOTOGRAPHY
For purposes of this investigation, a tou ris t is characterized as one who
ventu res away from home, alone or in a group, to see or do something that is unusual
relative to the daily round of life. Following Davydd Greenwood, tourism is unders tood
as basica lly a form of recreation expressed either through travel or through
tempora ry change of resi denc e (1972:80). Away -from -hom e is mea nt to be taken
literally. One can fulfill the role of tourist in one 's own country, s tate, city, or even
neighborhood. To see or do something includes witnessing a particular event,
place, person or group of people as well as exp eri enc ing a particular envi ronm ent or
activity. Accordingly, people can not be tourists while at h ome . This restriction
excludes vicarious tourism: reading travelogues, novels,
National Geographic
or
viewing slides, films or television shows about other parts of the world.
Additionally, the perspective of social interaction is used for the study of types of
tourist-host relationships. Here Sutton's work is useful because he emphasizes
enc ount ers and i nterac tions in which
one or more visitors, or outsiders interact with one or more hosts, or
insiders, in a network of supplementary goals and sets of expectations.
Touring means the juxtaposition, at each of a series of different locations,
of visitors who are on the move to enjoy themse lves and see the world ,
and hosts who are relatively stationary and who have the function of
catering to those visitors' needs and wishes (1967:220).
This perspective ass umes additional significance when att ention is given to special
qualities of interaction in which cameras are involved.
It is also necessary to mention briefly the kinds of photography under
consideration. Tourist photography includes two broad categories of photograhic
images: (1) photographs ta ken
by
tourists an d (2) photographs
produced for
tourists by
members of a host community.
Given these orientations, study of tourist photography begs consideration of
several related phen omen a: (a) types of tourists as related to types of photographs, (b)
the co ntent and composition of photographs
per se
and (c) responses by members of
the host community.
Relationship of Tourists and Photograph Collections
Sociological treatments of tourism have suggested a segmentation of the
tou ris t collective into sub-categories. For instance, separation of tourists and
travellers is suggest ed by John Forster. It is one thing as traveller, to tour a country
on a bicycle, or a Greyhound bus, campin g or staying at hotels. It is another as a tourist
to travel in at least minimum luxury and enjoy the facilities and opportunities of a
resort (1964:221).
Readers are re minde d that it is just as likely that tourists a nd travelle rs both carry
cameras with them. In another instance, four types of tourists are suggested by Erik
Cohen: organi zed mass tourist, individual mass tourist, explore r, and
dri fte r (1972). Cohen asserts it is highly likely that each role establi shes different
kinds of social relationships with host communiti es. The most elaborat e classification
system has been developed by anthropologist Valene Smith. She offers a scheme of
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PHOTOGRAPHY' ROLE IN TOURISM
s e v e n t o u r i s t t y p e s : ( 1) e x p l o r e r , ( 2) e l i t e , ( 3) o f f - b e a t , ( 4 ) u n u s u a l , ( 5 ) i n c i p i e n t m a s s ,
( 6) m a s s , a n d ( 7 ) c h a r t e r . A g a i n , e a c h t y p e o f t o u r i s t i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a p a r t i c u l a r
s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e h o s t c o m m u n i t y , v a r y i n g i n d e g r e e o f a d a p t a t i o n t o l o c a l
n o r m s . F o r in s t a n c e , at o n e e x tr e m e , t h e e x p l o r e r i s s a i d t o f u l ly a c c e p t lo c a l n o r m s
w h e r e a s t h e m a s s to u r i s t e x p e c ts W e s t e r n a m e n i t i es a n d t h e c h a r t e r t o u r i s t
d e m a n d s W e s t e r n a m e n i t i e s ( 1 9 7 7 : 9 ) .
H y p o t h e t i c a l l y , e ac h t o u r i s t t y p e m a y b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t a k i n g d i f f e r en t k i n d s o f
p h o t o g r a p h s w h i c h, i n t u r n , i l l u s t r a t e a l t e r n a t i v e h o s t - t o u r i st r e l a t i o n s h i p s . O n e
e x a m p l e o f a p o t e n t i a l c o r re l a t io n b e t w e e n t o u r i s t t y p e a n d p h o t o g r a p h s i s h i n t e d a t
w h e n N e l s o n G r a b u r n d i s c u s s e s t h e t o u r i s m o f t h e t i m i d - - t o u r i s t s w h o tr a v e l
s u r r o u n d e d b y th e c o m f o r t s o f t h e i r ow n c u l t u r e a n d l i f e st y l e . T h o u g h u n d o u b t e d l y
e n c h a n t e d b y t h e v i e w o f G o d ' s h a n d i w o r k t h r o u g h t h e p a n e o f t h e a i r c o n d i t i o n e d b u s
o r t h e p o r t ho l e , t h e y w o r s h i p p l u m b i n g t h a t w o r k s a n d s a f e w a t e r a n d f o od .
T h e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e u n f a m i l i a r i s l i k e l y t o b e p u r e l y v i s u a l a n d , f i l t e r e d t h r o u g h
s u n g l a s s e s a n d a c a m e r a v i e w f i n d e r ( 1 9 7 7: 3 1 ).
I n th i s c o n t e x t, m u c h d e p e n d s o n w h a t t y p e o f t o u r i s t e x p e c ts f r o m h i s / h e r
e x p e r i e n c e . T h e n o t i on o f e x p e c t a t i o n i s s u g g e s t e d w h e n S m i t h d e s c r i b e s t h e n a t u r e o f
t o u r i s m i n K o t z e b u e , A l a s k a , a n d i n t e r e s t i n s e e i n g th e M i d n i g h t S u n . A f t e r t h e
d a n c e p e r f o r m a n c e f i n i s h e d a t 9 : 00 P . M . , t h e i n c r e a s e d n u m b e r o f t o u r i s t s s t r o l l e d t h e
b e a c h l i n e , at t h e v e r y h o u r w h e n h u n t e r s r e t u r n e d a n d b u t c h e r i n g c o m m e n c e d .
T o u r i s t ex p e c t a t i o n s w e r e s u d d e n l y m e t - t h e s e w e r e t h e t h i n g s t h e y c a m e t o s e e , a n d
t h e p i c t u r e s t h e y w a n t e d , o f E s k im o d o i n g ' E s k i m o t h i n g s ' ( 1 97 7 :5 9 ).
R e g a r d i n g t h e m o t i v a t io n s o f t o u r i s t p h o t o g r a p h e r s , i t i s u n c e r t a i n h o w m u c h t h e y
r e l y o n t h e i r c a m e r a s t o d o c u m e n t o r p r o v e t h a t t h e y h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d s o m e d e g r e e
o f a u t h e n t i c n a t i v e li f e. M a c C a n n e l l c o n c l u d e s t h a t T o u r i s t i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s
m o t i v a t e d b y i t s d e s i r e f o r a u t h e n t i c e x p e r i e n c e s ( 19 7 3: 59 7 ) a n d t h a t S i g h t s e e r s a r e
m o t i v a t e d b y a d e s i r e t o s e e l i f e a s i t i s r e a l l y l i v e d , e v e n t o g e t i n w i t h t h e n a t i v e s . . .
( 1 97 3 :5 9 2) . S i g ni f i c an t l y m a n y o f t h e b a c k r e g i o n e x a m p l e s M a c C a n n e l l o f fe r s o f
t h e s t a g e d a u t h e n t i c i t y a r e o n e s t h a t a l lo w a n d e v en p r e s c r i b e p h o t o g r a p h i c
r e c o r d i n g .
H o w e v e r , i t i s e q u a l l y u n c e r t a i n h o w s p ec i f ic e x a m p l e s o f s t a g e d n a t i v e
r e a l i t i e s s a t i sf y t o u r i s t s ' n e e d s . B o o r s t i n fe e l s t h a t t h e u n e n d i n g p r o d u c t i o n o f
p s e u d o - e v e n t s i s w e l l a p p r e c i a t e d :
A n d t h e to u r i s t d e m a n d s m o r e a n d m o r e p s e u d o - e v e n t s . T h e m o s t p o p u l a r
o f t h e s e m u s t b e e a s i l y p h o t o g r a p h e d ( p l e n t y o f d a y li g h t ) a n d
i n o f f e n s i v e - - s u i t a b l e f o r f a m i l y v i e w i n g . B y t h e m i r r o r - e f f e c t l a w o f
p s e u d o - e v e n t s , t h e y t e n d to b e c o m e b l a n d a n d u n s u r p r i s i n g r e p r o d u c t i o n s
o f w h a t t h e i m a g e - f l o o d e d t o u r i s t k n ew w a s t h e r e a l l t h e t i m e . T h e
t o u r i s t ' s a p p e t i t e f o r s t r a n g e n e s s t h u s s e e m s b e s t s a t i s fi e d w h e n t h e
p i c t u r e s i n h i s o w n m i n d a r e v e r i f i e d i n s o m e f a r c o u n t r y ( 1 9 6 1 : 1 0 8 - 1 0 9 ) .
E d m u n d C a r p e n t e r a p p e a r s t o a g r e e w i t h B o o r s t i n ' s p o s i t i o n w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e
t o u r i s t ' s s e a r c h f o r p r e - d e t e r m i n e d i m a g e s :
O l d e r p e o p l e s t il l e x p e r i e n c e t h e n e e d t o tr a n s l a t e i m a g e s i n to o b s e r v e d
r e a l i ty . W h e n t h e y t r av e l , t h e y w a n t t o s e e t h e E i f fe l T o w e r o n G r a n d
C a n y o n e x a c t l y a s t h e y s a w t h e m f i r st o n p o s t e r s . A n A m e r i c a n
t o u r i s t . . d o e s m o r e t h a n s e e t h e E i f fe l T o w e r . H e p h o t o g r a p h s i t e x a c t l y as
4 8
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RICHARD M. CHALFEN
h e k n o w s i t f r o m p o s t e r s . B e t t e r s t i l l, h e h a s s o m e o n e p h o t o g r a p h h i m i n
f r o n t o f i t . B a c k h o m e , t h a t p h o t o g r a p h r e a f f i r m s h i s i d e n t i t y w i t h i n t h a t
s c e n e (1 9 7 2 :6 ) .
T h o u g h n o t r e f e r r i n g t o p h o t o g r a p h y , M a c C a n n e l l i s c r it i ca l o f t h e B o o r s t i n - C a r p e n t e r
p o s i t io n . H e s t a t e s t h a t N o n e o f t h e a c c o u n t s i n m y c o l le c t io n s u p p o r t B o o r s t i n ' s
c o n t e n t io n t h a t t o u r i s t s w a n t s u p e r f i c i al c o n t ri v e d e x p e r i e n c e s . R a t h e r , t o u r i s t s
d e m a n d a u t h e n t i c i t y , j u s t a s B o o r s t in d o e s ( 1 97 3 :6 0 0 ).
G i v e n a l a ck o f s y s t e m a t i c r e s e a r c h t o d a t e , g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g m o t i v a t i o n s
o f al l k i n d s o f t o u r i s t s , t r a v e l e r s a n d s i g h t s e e r s a r e f o r t h e m o s t p a r t u n f o u n d e d . I t m a y
b e t h a t d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f t o u r i s t s , s u g g e s t e d b y F o r s t e r , C o h e n a n d S m i t h , h a v e
d i f f e r e n t s e t s o f m o t i v a ti o n s , e x p e c t a t i o n s a n d t h r e s h o l d s o f s a t i sf a c t i o n a n d
f u l f i ll m e n t . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t i s l i k el y t h a t t h e y t e n d t o p h o t o g r a p h y a n d d o c u m e n t t h e i r
a u t h e n t i c e x p e r i e n c e s i n d i f f e r e n t w a y s . T h u s b o th M a c C a n n e l l ' s an d B o o r s t i n ' s
o b s e r v a t i o n s m a y b e c o r r ec t w h e n r e f e r r i n g t o d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f t o u r i s t s .
T h e T o u r is t P h o t o g r a p h e r ' s F r e e d o m t o S h o o t
A c k n o w l e d g i n g t h a t t o u r i s t s a r e f o n d o f d o i n g p h o t o g r a p h y r a i s e s m a n y r e l a t e d
q u e s t i o n s . F o r i n s t a n c e , o n e i s l e d to e x a m i n e t h e k i n d s o f f r e e d o m a n d r e s t r i c t io n s
t h a t r e g u l a t e w h a t can a n d c a n n o t b e p h o t o g r a p h e d v e r s u s w h a t i s o r i s n o t
p h o t o g r a p h e d . R e g a r d i n g t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l f r e e d o m o f c a m e r a u s e , e n t h u s i a s m f o r
t a k i n g p i c t u r e s a p p r o x i m a t e s , a t t i m e s , a p o li c y o f s h o o t - n o w - a n d - a n s w e r - q u e s t i o n s -
l a t e r . O n e o b s e r v e r w r i t e s :
L i ke m a n y o t h e r w r i t e r - p h o t o g r a p h e r s , I u s e d t o li v e b y t h r e e r u l e s w h e n I
w a s t r a v e l i n g w i t h m y c a m e r a : ( 1) A l w a y s c a r r y a f u l l y l o a d e d c a m e r a . ( 2)
T a k e p i c t u r e s o f e v e r y t h i n g p o s s i b l e . ( 3 ) N e v e r l e t a n y o n e o r a n y t h i n g
s t a n d in t h e w a y o f g e t t i n g a g o o d s h o t b e c a u s e i t i s e v e r y
p h o t o g r a p h e r ' s G o d - g i v e n ri g h t to p h o t o g r a p h e v e r y t h in g w h e n a n d
w h e r e h e o r s h e w i s h e s ( G e r s t e n 1 9 7 7 ) .
T h i s a c c o u n t s u g g e s t s a s t r a t e g y f o r s t u d y i n g t h e p a t t e r n e d q u a l i t i e s o f t o u r i s t
p h o t o g r a p h i c b e h a v i o r . F o r i n s ta n c e , o n e m i g h t b e g i n b y e x a m i n i n g k i n d s o f
r e s t r i c t i o n s p u t o n t o u r i s t s u s i n g t h e i r c a m e r a s . W h o i m p o s e d t h e s e r e s t r i c t i o n s ? W h y
d o t h e y e x i s t ? H o w i s s uc h i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t s p e c if i c r e s t r i c t e d s u b j e c t m a t t e r o r
v i e w s m a d e a v a il a b l e t o t o u r i s t s ? W h a t f o r m a l a n d / o r i n f o r m a l p u n i s h m e n t s e x i s t
f o r v i o la t i n g r e s tr i c t i o n s ? H o w s e r i o u s l y a r e t h e y e n f o r c e d a n d b y w h o m ?
P r e l i m i n a r y f i n d i n g s i n d i c a t e t h a t w h e n f o r m a l r e s t r i c t i o n s e x i s t, w r i t t e n
i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e m i s h a r d t o f in d . L i t e r a t u r e f ro m t r a v e l a g e n t s o r e m b a s s i e s ,
o r i n f o rm a t i o n f r o m t o u r g u i d e b o o k s i s r a r e . K o d a k p u b l i s h e s a s e r i e s o f p a m p h l e t s o n
p i c t u r e - t a k i n g i n 1 7 p o p u l a r t o u r i s t s i t e s , b u t t h e y a r e p r i m a r i l y p r e s c r i p ti v e - - c i t i n g
o n l y a p p r o p r i a t e v i e w s . P o p u l a r m a g a z i n e s d e v o t e d t o t h e a m a t e u r p h o t o g r a p h y
m a r k e t r e g u l a r l y o f f e r i n f o r m a t i o n f or to u r i s t s . A d v i c e c o l u m n s s u c h a s T r a v e l e r ' s
C a m e r a P o p u l a r P h o t o g r a p h y ) , T h e W e l l - T ra v e le d C a m e r a M o d e r n P h o t o g -
r a p h y ) a n d S h u t t e r T r i p p e r T r a v e l a n d C a m e r a ) d i s c u s s te c h n i c a l p r o b l e m s s u c h a s
c h o i ce o f l e n s , a v o i d i n g x - r a y d a m a g e t o f i l m s a t a i r p o r t s , o r g a n i z i n g a s l i d e s h o w a n d
t h e l i k e . H o w e v e r , s o c ia l p r o b l e m s r e l a t e d t o r e s t r i c t e d s u b j e c t m a t t e r i n t o u r i s t s i t e s i s
s e l d o m m e n t i o n e d .
O n e n o t i c e a b l e e x c e p t i o n a p p e a r s i n t h e T r a v e l P h o t o g r a p h y e d i t i o n o f t h e
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T i m e - L i f e S e r i e s o n p h o t o g r a p h y ( 1 9 7 2: 8 4 - 87 ) . E n t i t l e d R u l e s a n d R e g u l a t i o n s i n
F o r e i g n L a n d s , t h i s a r t i c le l i s ts e i t h e r f o r b i d d e n o r p e r m i t r e q u i r e d o r ' n o
l i m i t o n c e r t a i n c a t e g o r i e s o f s u b j e c t m a t t e r s u c h a s (1 ) m i l i t a r y a n d b o r d e r a r e a s . 1 2)
a i r p o r t s , s e a p o r t s , r a i l r o a d s t a t i o n s , ( 3 ) v i e w s f r o m c o m m e r c i a l p l a n e s . ( 4 ) v i e w s f r o m
p r i v a t e p l a n e s , a n d ( 5 ) o t h e r r e s t r i c t e d s u b j e c t s :
T h e m o s t c o m m o n r e s t r i c t i o n s in v o l v e s u b j e c t m a t t e r . A s m i g h t b e
e x p e c t e d , a l m o s t e v e r y c o u n t r y ( i n c l u d in g t h e U n i t e d S t a t es ) p r o h i b i t s
i n d i s c r i m i n a t e p h o t o g r a p h i n g o f it s m i l i t a r y s it e s , a n d m a n y l i m i t t ak i n g
p i c t u r e s f r o m p r i v a t e p l a n e s . B u t s o m e c o u n t r i e s h a v e t a b o o s t h a t a r e n o t
s o p r e d i c t a b l e . T h e D o m i n i c a n R e p u b l i c , w h i c h i s s e n s i t i v e a b o u t p o v e r t y ,
p r o h i b i t s p h o t o g r a p h i n g s l u m s a n d b e g g a r s ; H a i t i , a t t h e o t h e r e n d o f th e
s a m e i s l a n d , s a y s n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e p o o r b u t f r o w n s o n t a k i n g p i c tu r e s o f
t h e N a t i o n al P a l a c e . S w i t z e r l a n d b a n s a l l p h o t o g r a p h s o f t h e i n t e r i o r s o f
i t s c e l e b r a t e d b a n k s . I c e l a n d f o r b i d s t a k i n g p i c t u r e s o f f o u r e n d a n g e r e d
s p e c i e s o f b i r d s ( s o t h e y w i ll n o t b e f r i g h t e n e d a w a y f r o m t h e i r m a t i n g a n d
n e s t i n g a r e a s ) . I n A r g e n t i n a a n d F r a n c e t h e t a b o o i n v o l v es c e m e t e r i e s
( e v i d e n t ly a m a t t e r o f r e s p e c t i n g t h e p r i v a c y o f t h e d e a d ) ; i n C h i n a ,
e n t r a n c e s t o t h e P e k i n g s u b w a y ( b e c a u s e t h e s u b w a y p l a t f o r m s a l so s e r v e
a s b o m b s h e l t e r s ) ( 1 9 7 2 : 8 4 ) .
I t a p p e a r s t h a t m o s t t o u r i s t p h o t o g r a p h y i s d o n e w i t h l i t t l e o r n o i n f o r m a t i o n o n
l o ca l r e st r i c t i o n s o r k n o w l e d g e o f l o c a ll y d e f i n e d n o r m s o f a p p r o p r i a t e c a m e r a u s e .
H o w e v e r w h e n o n l y u n w r i t t e n l o c a l s e n t i m e n t d e f i n e s a c c e p t e d c a m e r a u s e , s o c i a l
c o n f li e ts m a y d e v e l o p a f t e r a t o u r i s t h a s u n w i t t i n g l y p h o t o g r a p h e d s o m e f o r m o f
r e s t r i c t e d s u b j e c t m a t t e r . T h e n a i v e t o u r i s t - p h o t o g r a p h e r m a y e a s i ly g e t i n to d i f f i c ul t y
w h e n i n q u e s t o f a p e r s o n a l a u t h e n t i c v i e w . C o n s i d e r t h e e x a m p l e o f a h i gh s c h o o l
t e a c h e r , t o u r i n g K i e v , R u s s i a , w h o a l m o s t l a n d e d i n j a il a f t e r t a k i n g a p h o t o g r a p h o f
p e o p l e l i n e d u p i n f r o n t o f a s t o r e :
O f f i c i a l ly , w e w e r e n o t t o t a k e p i c t u r e s o f b r i d g e s o r a n y t h i n g t h a t m i g h t
b e o f m i l i t a r y o r s e c u r i ty i m p o r t a n c e . W e w e r e n o t t o t a k e p i c t u r e s f r om a n
a i r p l a n e , f o r e x a m p l e . . . W e d i d g e t a b u l le t i n fr o m t h e A m e r i c a n E m b a s s y
a d v i s i n g u s n o t to ta k e p i c t u r e s o f d e p r e s s e d a r e a s . O n e m e m b e r o f o u r
p a r t y , u n a w a r e o f t h is i n j un c t io n , s n a p p e d s o m e p e o p l e q u e u e d u p t o
m a k e s o m e p u r c h a s e s . A n i r a t e w o m a n h a u l e d h i m o f f t o t h e p o l i c e st a t io n
( R y d e r n . d . ) .
A l a n L i n n, w h i l e a f r e e - l a n c e p h o t o g r a p h e r t o u r i n g Y u g o s l a v i a i n 19 71 , w r o t e a n
a r t i c le e n t i t l e d , T a k i n g a P i c t u r e o f a G y p s y C a m p G o t M e L o ck e d U p . H e r e p o r t e d
t h a t I p h o t o g r a p h e d a sm a l l g r o u p o f S e r b i a n g y p s i e s b a r t e r i n g o v e r a c lu m p o f
s h e e p . T h e c l i c k o f t h e s h u t t e r w a s v e r y s a t i s f y i n g . T h e n I f e l t a f i r m h a n d o n m y
s h o u l d e r . S h o r t ly t h e r e a f t e r h e w a s a r r e s t e d b y t h e p o l ic e a s a n A m e r i c a n s p y . k i n n
c o m m e n t e d f u r t h e r :
1 k n e w M o s l e m s ( t h e r e a r e m a n y i n S o u t h e r n Y u g o s la v i a ) h a d a t h i n g
a b o u t p h o t o g r a p h s , b u t h a d n ' t t h e y h e a r d a b o u t t o u r i s m a n d f o r e i g n
e x c h a n g e ? E v i d e n t l y , t h e y h a d n ' t , b e c a u s e m y f i r st s i g h t t h r o u g h t h e
v i e w f i n d e r w a s o f a n o l d s h e p h e r d i n b a g g y p a n t a l o o n s m a k i n g a v e r y
o b s c e n e g e s t u r e a t t h e c a m e r a . T h e s e c o n d v i ew w a s o f a v e i le d w o m a n
l o o k i n g v e r y a n n o y e d . J u s t a s I w a s g e t t i n g t h e f o c u s , h e r g r o u n d g l a s s
i m a g e b r o k e h e r b e a d s a n d f l u n g t h e m , r a t t l i n g a g a i n s t m y l e n s ( 19 71 ).
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It is undoub tedly the case that instance s of similar violations have occurred with
varying degrees of negative sanctions and explicit punishments for tourist
photographers.
Native Sensitivities and Host Community Reactions
Image Sensitivity
...the many Eskimo passengers aboard airplanes that included tour
parties overheard the departing visitors brag about the pictu res I got
and interpr eting the remark s as ridicule, which cuts deep into native
ethos. In response. Eskimo women be gan to refuse would-be tourist
photographers, then erected barricades to shield their work from tourist
eyes...(Smith 1977:59).
It is clear that not all people in the world feel the same way about either being
photographed or seeing themselves in photographs. Tourists may assume that every
person they see or every place and thing they encounter are ope n gam e. People who
avoid outsiders' cameras may do so for different reasons. In one report from
Guatemala:
In remote areas, people will often flee if a tourist's camera is aimed at
them. Mothers will hide their children behind billowing skirts or cover
their heads with shawls and chivy them out of sight like hens herding
chickens from a hawk. Often men will make the sign of the cross and shout
impr eca tion s as they scurry out of si ght (Neal, 1975).
Another instance of a camera related disturbance in Turkey:
...I found that a camera can be a blasphemous assault against the
sensibilitie s of a culture. In Turkey, for example , signs clearly spell out the
ban on photographing women (a Moslem proscription against graven
images). ut how can one pass t hese exotic phantoms, bodies fully clothed
and heads covered, without sneaking at least one shot? .... I waited at what
I thought was a respectful distanc e to snap a brilliantly clad women in a
purdah, but it turned out the distance was still not great enough. The
lady-in-focus heard the click and beg an to shriek. Soon people from all
directions converged on the scene, clamoring in Turkish. The indignant
woman pointed at me. As I rapidly retreated through a narrow
passagewa y I felt like a rustler being pursue d by a posse. Luckily I finally
lost the thump ing feet behin d me. It was a truly great shot, but I paid for
it in panic and a near heart attack. In the future, I decided I'd be more
deferential (Gersten 1977).
From Peru:
Every culture varies in the degre e to which it is camera shy. In Peru, th e
Indian women run away when you aim the camera at them... No one knows
what the tourist with the camera will do with one's image. May be when he
gets back home, he will laugh at it, use it for darts, or as a stimulus for
bizarre sexual expe rime nts (Milgram 1977:54).
And from Indochina:
Once while i was taking pictures of a Chinese shopkeeper and his wife in
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PHOTOGRAPHY S ROLE IN TOURISM
Djakarta, their daughter suddenl y stepped in to be photographed between
them. Instantl y the mother flew out of the picture. "No No " she
protested. "If you photograph three people together, one of them will
die " (Mydans 1972:15-16).
Insight into these examples is gained by incorporat ing the perspectives of social
interaction and visual communication . Central to any kind of interaction is a notion of
exchange. Con sidering the relationship of tourist photographers and native subjects,
social psychologist Stanley Mil gram s uggests the following:
The photographing act is best seen as an exchange when we photograph
other people...A photographer t kes a picture...A tourist travels to a
foreign country, sees a peasa nt in the field, and takes his picture. I find it
hard to unders tand wherein the photographer derives the right to keep for
his own purposes the image of the pe asa nt' s face. "G ive it back, " the
peasant might cry, "it's my face not yours" (1977:52).
An account of attemptin g to create more of an exchange is furnishe d by a tourist
who created an "experiment" to "make friends and bring about personal
encounters."
On previous trips abroad, armed with our movie and slide cameras, we
often found that people tur ned away--or worse, ran away--from us. That
didn't happen during our recent journey to Peru, when we added a
Polaroid camera to our equipment and gave prints to our subjects on the
spot...So willing were some would-be subjects that they offered to pay us
to take picture of them .... no longer simply "tour ist a" customers, we had
become the producers of a very marketable product (Bastian 1974).
In some cases, money-for-photographs becomes important. For instance in a
report from Marrakesh, Morroco:
We move along. A man sits with pale doves wander ing among little vases
of pale plastic flowers. "T hey are holy bird s," he says. I give him a coin
and shoot. A little boy comes along with a trained monkey not much
smal ler tha n he is. He makes it do a back flip. I shoot and give him a coin.
Ten men in white are beating drums and jumping up and down while
twirling the tassels of their skull caps. I shoot and hand out coins.
I photograph a man kissing his cobra and letting it crawl over his eyes.
Then I find a medicine man sitting among little boxes of herbs and take
more pictures just as the urchins descend on me again. One holds his hand
over the lens and says I can't shoot until l pay him (Kornfield 1977).
However, the assumption that all people want to either see or have pictures of
themselve s should be questioned. The relationship of people appearing in pictures and
people looking at pictures must be treated as problematic.
We cannot assume that all people want to see themse lves in pictures. We
have to lear n what they like to see. In some cultu re pictu res of people who
have died turn the audience away. In a north India village wives are in
purdah to protect themselves from outsiders. A husband would become
very angry if you showed pictures of his wife to men outside the family.
Even though village girls are permitted to dance outside the home on
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R I C H A R D M . C H A L F E N
f e s t i v a l o c c a s i o n s , v i l l a g e e l d e r s w o u l d n o t l i k e p i c t u r e s o f t h e i r d a u g h t e r s
d a n c i n g s h o w n i n t h e p u b l i c . N i c e g i r l s d o n o t d a n c e i n p u b l i c ( C o l l i e r
1967:15) .
I m a g e A c c o m m o d a t i o n
I t w o u l d s e e m f r u i t f u l t o e x a m i n e a r r a n g e m e n t s d e v e l o p e d b y h o s t c o m m u n i t i e s to
a c c o m m o d a t e i n c r e a s e d d e m a n d s f o r p h o t o g r a p h i c i m a g e s . E x p l o r a t i o n i s n e e d e d o f
a l t er n a t iv e p a t t e r n s o f i m a g e a c c o m m o d a t i o n o r i m a g e a d a p t a t i o n t h a t h a v e
s e e m i n g l y s a t i s f ie d b o th h o s t s a n d c a m e r a - u s i n g g u e s t s . T h e f i r st tw o p o t e n t i a l t y p e s
o f r e s t r i c t io n r e p r e s e n t t h e u n l i k e ly e x t r e m e s o f e i t h e r c o m p l e t e r e s t r i c t io n o r c o m p l e t e
c a m e r a f r e e d o m . A h o s t c o m m u n i t y ca n s a y , i n e i t h e r f o r m a l o r i n f o r m a l m a n n e r ,
A b s o l u t e l y N o P h o t o g r a p h y A l l o w e d o r P h o t o g r a p h A n y t h i n g . I t a p p e a r s t h a t
n e i t h e r e x t r e m e o c c u r s in s i g n if i c a n t f r e q u e n c y . H o w e v e r , a r a r e i n s t a n c e o f e x t r e m e
r e s t r ic t i o n c o m e s f r o m S t a p h u r s t , t h e N e t h e r l a n d s . J u l e s F a r b e r r e p o r t e d t h a t a
t o u r i s t c l i c k i n g in t h i s v i l l a g e i s a s k i n g f o r t r o u b l e . I n S t a p h u r s t , p i c t u r e - t a k i n g i s
a g a i n s t t h e l a w , a n d a s i g n i n f r o n t o f t h e C i t y H a l l m a k e s t h i s c l e a r i n f o u r
l a n g u a g e s - - D u t c h , G e r m a n , E n g l i s h a n d F r e n c h ( 19 6 6) . I n o t h e r i n s t a n c e s , a c o u n t r y
m a y r e q u i r e p u r c h a s e o f c a m e r a p e r m i t s , l i c e n s e s o r o t h e r f o r m s o f p e r m i s s i o n . I n
1 9 60 , it w a s r e p o r t e d t h a t E t h i o p i a w a s f o l l o w i n g t h i s p a t t e r n , l u r i n g t o u r i s t s t o u s e
t h e w o n d e r l a n d r o u t e t o A f r i c a . Y e t o n c e t h e r e , t h e t o u r i s t s m a k e d i n n e r - t a b l e
c o n v e r s a t io n o f th e w a y p o l i c e o f f ic e r s d i s c o u r a g e t a k i n g p i c t u r e s o f t h e
w o n d e r l a n d . . . T h e r e i s no l a w a g a i n s t p i c t u r e - t a k i n g . I t is j u s t t h a t t h e E t h i o p i a n s f e e l
t h a t f o r e i g n e r s t a k e p i c t u r e s o f u s s o t h e y c a n g iv e f r i e n d s a l a u g h b a c k h o m e ( W a l z
1960:6) .
I t a p p e a r s t h a t m o s t t o u l; i st c o m m u n i t i e s o r s i t e s a t l e a s t i m p l i c i t ly e n c o u r a g e
s o m e f o r m o f p h o t o g r a p h y . I n m o s t i n s t a n c e s , f o r t h e t o u r i s t w i t h o u t a c a m e r a , o r w i t h
a b r o k e n c a m e r a , l o ca l e n t r e p r e n e u r s w i ll p r o v i d e a n d s e l l a v a r i e t y o f p r o f e s s i o n a l l y
p r o d u c e d p i c t u r e s . C o m m o n e x a m p l e s a r e p o s t c a r d s an d t r a v e l b r o c h u r e s . T h e y
p r o v i d e o u t s i d e r s w i t h p r e f e r r e d v i e w s o f t h e h o s t s e t t i n g . I n o n e i n t e r e s t i n g e x a m p l e
i n v o l v in g b r o c h u r e s :
E g y p t , f o r i n s ta n c e , h a s p r o d u c e d a c r o p o f s t o r ie s a b o u t t o u r i s t s a r r e s t e d
f o r p h o t o g r a p h i n g C a i r o b r i d g e s w h i c h a r e o n a ll t h e t o u r i s t p o s t c a r d s .
A g a i n , t h e y a r e s e n s i t i v e a b o u t p o s s i b l e a t t a c k s o n t h e A s w a n D a m . . .
T o u r i s t s w o u l d b e a s k e d t o l e a v e t h e i r c a m e r a s b e h i n d t h e m i n t h e i r h o t e l s
w h e n v i s i t i n g t h i s a t t r a c ti o n , d e s p i t e t h e f a c t th a t t h e l o b b i e s w e r e f i l l e d
w i t h b r o c h u r e s b u r s t i n g w i t h p i c t u r e s o f t h e d a m ( T u r n e r a n d A s h ,
1976:241) .
O t h e r e x a m p l e s o f n a t i v e a p p r o v e d i m a g e r y m a y i n c l u d e s e t s o f 3 5 m m s l i d e s ,
v i e w - m a s t e r s l i d es , s e ts o f w h i t e - b o a r d e d c o l or p h o t o g r a p h s , 8 r a m o r S u p e r - S t o r e
f i l m s , a n d e v e n p h o t o g r a p h s p r i n t e d o n p l a t e s , c u p s , d i n n e r p l a c e m a t s , T - s h i r t s a n d
t h e l i k e. M o r e o v e r , h o s t c o m m u n i t i e s m a y h e l p th e t o u r i s t c a p t u r e p r e f e r r e d v i e w s
w i t h o r ig i n a l p h o t o g r a p h y . F o r i n s t a n c e , i n F r a n c e r o a d s i g n s i n d i c a t e lo c a t i o n s o f l a
b e l l e v u e o r u n v u e u n i q u e w h i c h s p e c i f y a p la c e t o s t o p y o u r c a r , a n d i n s t r u c ti o n s
i n t h r e e l a n g a u g e s t o e n s u r e p r o p e r e x p o s u r e . S i m i l a r e x a m p l e s a r e a l s o f o u n d a t
e x p l i ci t l y p i c t u r e s q u e c a n y o n s i n th e S o u t h w e s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s .
C a r l M y d a n s m e n t i o n s a n o t h e r w a y o f a s s i s t i n g t o u r i s t p h o t o g r a p h e r s . W r i t i n g a n
a d v i c e ar t i c l e f o r t h e T i m e - L i f e s e r i e s o n p h o t o g r a p h y , h e r e l a t e s a n e x a m p l e o f l i t e r al
A N N A L S O F T O U R I S M R E S E A R C H O c t / D e c 7 9 44
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i m a g e s u b s t i t u t io n i n w h i c h p r e f e r r e d v i e w s r e p l a c e d i n a p p r o p r i a t e o n e s :
. . . o n e f o r e i g n e r w h o w a s r e c e n t l y a l l o w e d t o t r a v e l t o N o r t h K o r e a t e l l s
t h e f o l l o w i n g s t o r y : A c c o m p a n i e d b y a g u i d e , h e t o o k s o m e p i c t u r e s o f a
s l u m i n P y o n g - y a n g a n d l e f t t h e e x p o s e d f i l m c a r t r i d g e i n h is r o o m . A f t e r
h e r e t u r n e d h o m e a n d h a d t h e f i l m d e v e l o p e d , h e f o u n d t h a t h i s e x p o s e d
r o ll h a d b e e n r e p l a c e d w i t h a n o t h e r . T h i s o n e s h o w e d n o t h i n g b u t
m o n u m e n t s ( 1 9 7 2 : 1 6 ) .
O t h e r s t r a t e g i e s o f a c c o m m o d a t i o n i n v ol v e c a p i t al i z i n g o n t o u r i s t s ' d e s i r e f o r
p h o t o g r a p h s o f n a t i v e l i fe o r e n v i r o n m e n t . I n d i g e n o u s c a m e r a m e n m a y b e a v a i l a b l e to
p h o t o g r a p h t o u r i s t s a s t h e y v i s it p a r t i c u l a r s i t e s. T h e s e i m a g e v e n d o r s h a v e
d e t e r m i n e d p r e f e r r e d v i e w s a n d p r o c e e d t o m a k e a l i vi n g b y s a t is f y i n g t o u r i s t s ' d e s i r e
f o r p h o t o g r a p h i c s o u v e n i r s . O n e e x a m p l e i s t h e p h o t o g r a p h e r a t L a n d s E n d i n
C o r n w a l l , E n g l a n d , w h o w i l l t a k e y o u r p i c t u r e s t a n d i n g n e x t t o a s i g n t h a t p o i n t s w e s t
t o y o u r h o m e t o w n , a n d r e a d s C h i c a g o 4 72 3 m i l e s ( p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e ) .
I n o t h e r i n s t a n c e s , m e m b e r s o f t h e h o s t c o m m u n i t y m a y s e e k f i n a nc i a l r e w a r d s
f o r b e i n g i n t h e p i c t u r e . F o r i n s t a n c e , X i m e n a B u n s t e r w r i t e s i n Children Who Work
L i f e i n t h e S i e r r a i s h a r d a n d t h e e c o n o m i c o p t i o n s f o r w o m e n v e r y f e w .
T h e t o u r i s t t r a d e o f f e rs p o o r w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n t h e p o s s i b i l i ty o f c a s h i n g
i n o n a n a t i v e im a g e . A t t i r e d i n I n d i a n d r e s s t h e y p o s e f o r t o u r i s t s a g a i n s t
t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f a n c ie n t t e m p l e s , r u i n s a n d b e a u t i f u l l a n d s c a p e s .
I n o n e i n t e r v i e w , a g i r l n a m e d R o s i l a s a y s :
I e a r n a b o u t 1 0 s o l e s e a c h d a y h e l p i n g t o u r i s t s . I s h o w th e m t h e r u i n s o f
P u c a P u c a r a a n d I s i t o r s t a n d s t i l l w i t h m y L l a m a w h o ' s c a l l e d M a r t i n a s o
t h e y c a n t a k e p h o t o s o f t h e t w o o f us . S o m e t i m e s t h e y p a y m e , s o m e t i m e s
t h e y d o n ' t ( B u n s t e r n . d . ) .
A n o t h e r p a t t e r n o f r e s p o n s e a p p e a r s t o a c h i e v e t h e b e s t o f b o t h c i r c u m s t a n c e s - -
t h a t i s , t o e n c o u r a g e u s e o f t o u r i s t s' c a m e r a s b u t o n t e r m s e x p l i ci t l y d i c t a t e d b y t h e
h o s t c o m m u n i t y . T h e h o s t c o m m u n i t y a t t e m p t s t o r e g a i n a s e n s e o f p r i v a t e l if e o ut o f
c a m e r a r a n g e w h i l e i t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y p r o v i d e s v i s i to r s w i th a p p r o p r i a t e , e x p e c t e d a n d
a u t h e n t i c s c e n e s o f l o ca l e n v i r o n m e n t , o f l o ca l i n d i g e n o u s a r c h i t e c t u r e o r o f lo c a l
n a t i v e b e h a v i o r . A n e x a m p l e o f s u c h f a b r i c a t i o n c o m e s f r o m A f r i ca :
T h e t h o u g h t l e s s c u r i o s i ty o f s om e t o u r i s t s i n A f r ic a , w h e r e t r a v e l e r s o f t e n
i n s i s t o n p h o t o g r a p h i n g t h e m o s t p r i m i t i v e a p p e a r i n g p e o p l e - - n o t n e c e s -
s a r i ly th e m o s t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s u b j e c t s - - h a s f o rc e d a t l e a s t o n e g o v e r n -
m e n t t h e r e t o c o n s id e r d e s p e r a t e m e a s u r e s . A n a d v i s o r to t h e t o u r i s t
i n d u s t r y h a s p r o p o s e d a r t if i c a l v i l l a g e s c o m p l e t e w i th c o lo r fu l b u t
a c c e p t a b l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d v i l l a g e r s t o p o s e f o r p i c t u r e s. I t m a y b e
f a k e , h e s a y s , b u t i t ' s a l ot l e s s a g g r a v a t i o n o n b o t h s i d e s ( E d i t o r s o f
T im e -L i fe 1 9 7 2 :1 7 9 ) .
V a l e n e S m i t h d i s c u s s e s m o d e l c u l t u r e s a s o n e s t r a t e g y o f a d a p t a t i o n t o t h e
d i s r u p t i v e ef f e c ts o f i n c r e a s e d t o u r i sm . M o d e l s a p p e a r t o m e e t t h e e t h n i c e x p e c t a -
t i o n s o f t o u r i s t s , a s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e l i f e s t y l e t h e y h o p e d t o s e e , t h a t a l s o a c c o r d s
t o t h e m t h e f r e e d o m t o w a n d e r a n d t o p h o t o g r a p h a t w i l l ( 1 97 7 :7 0 ). F o r i n s t a n c e ,
w h e n M a x S t a n t o n d e s c r i b e s t h e P o l y n e s i a n C u l t u r a l C e n t e r , h e r e m a r k s T h e v i s i to r
c a n b r i e f l y p a r t i c i p a t e i n a s i m p l e d a n c e i n t h e S a m o a n v i l l a g e , l o ok o v e r t h e s h o u l d e r
o f a p e r s o n m a k i n g Tapa i n t h e T o n g a a r e a , a n d i s e n c o u r a g e d t o t a k e p i c t u r e s o f
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Polynesian s in Polynesian sett ings (1977:196).
Examples in the United States i nclude a mocked-up display chocolate factory built
for tourists in Hershey, Pennsyl vania and aut hen tic restorations of Amish Farms,
Amish Villages and old Covered bridges in Lancaster County, Penns ylvan ia (Mac-
Cannell 1976:167). In these cases, photogra phers are kept away from the real t hin g
and offered artifacts of fabric ated authent icity for photographic consumpt ion.
Other examples are derived from tourists' need to find, witness and photograph
local color. Davydd Greenwood describes local color as not hin g less than a
commoditized version of local culture... (1974:2). Fabricated behavior organized for
the camera such as staged voodoo ceremonies, re-e nactme nts of great battles, and
typical dances performed by Native American s and gypsies are cited. Daniel
Boorstin notes that sigh tsee ing items can not be the real ritual or the real festival;
that was neve r originally plan ned for the tourists. Like the hula dances now staged for
photographer- tourists in Hawaii (courtesy of the East man Kodak Company), the widely
appearing tourist attractions are apt to be those specially made for tourist consump-
tion (1961:108).
Host communiti es seem to be taking a more active role in determ ining the content
of the tourist's photographs. In these examples of fabricated scenery and image
substitution, natives seek stronger regulation of the host-tourist relationship by not
elimin ating the tourist' s interest and revenu es (by restricting camera use) while
simultaneously establishing a sense of relative privacy.
CONCLUSIONS
The foregoing observations have been presented to illustrate three relationships
of tourism and photography. However, readers might be led to two premature and
unfounded conclusions. It is not implied that all tourists use cameras without any
sense of social or personal regard for their subject matter. The point is that tourists
and/ or hosts may be exercising conflicting ethnocentric judgemen ts when determining
appropriate camera use.
Secondly, it is incorrect to claim that incre ased num bers of camer a-using tourists
will function as the primary change agent in an accelerated process of culture
modification, adaptation, acculturation and the like. The observation that many
societies are under going increased touristic visitation is primarily significant. The fact
that most visitors carry and use cameras is important with respect to how natives/
hosts feel about bei ng looked at with or without still and motion picture cameras. In
this sense, the use of cameras must be considered as a contributing agent to
behavioral modification and social change.
Several trends appear to indicate stronger indigenous control over what gets
looked at and/ or s ubseq uentl y photographed. Tourists may find an increas ed freedom
to photograph but on the native's terms. MacCannell has drawn attention to the
creation of a series of special spaces desig ned to accommodate tourists and to
support their beliefs in the authenticit y of their ex perien ces (1973:589). This can be
interpreted in two ways: (1) as the creation of staged back regions that keep tourists
away from the re al back regions that must remain private and inaccessible to all
outsiders; or (2) as the production of phon ey folk cultu re as suggest ed by John
Forster (1964:226-227). In either or both in stances, fabricated p resent ations of native
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culture are dev eloped for tourist consumption. Just as some art historians have studied
the deliberate transformation of indigenous art into hybrid forms that satisfy values,
motives, perceptions and aesthetics of Western art markets, one may now be seeing
manipulation and re-creation of native life for the sake of tourists' photographic
recreation. [] []
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Submi t ted November 16 , 1978
Revis ion subm i t ted Fe bruary 28 , 1979
Accepted Apr i l 11 , 1979
Refereed anonymously
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